Blade element momentum theory is a theory that combines both blade element

theory and momentum theory. It is used to calculate the local forces on a propeller or wind-turbine
blade. Blade element theory is combined with momentum theory to alleviate some of the difficulties
in calculating the induced velocities at the rotor.
This article emphasizes application of BEM to ground-based wind turbines, but the principles apply
as well to propellers. Whereas the streamtube area is reduced by a propeller, it is expanded by a
wind turbine. For either application, a highly simplified but useful approximation is the Rankine–
Froude "momentum" or "actuator disk" model (1865,1889). This article explains the application of the
"Betz limit" to the efficiency of a ground-based wind turbine.
A development came in the form of Froude's blade element momentum theory (1878), later refined
by Glauert (1926). Betz (1921) provided an approximate correction to momentum "Rankine–Froude
actuator-disk" theory to account for the sudden rotation imparted to the flow by the actuator disk
(NACA TN 83, "The Theory of the Screw Propeller" and NACA TM 491, "Propeller Problems"). In
blade element momentum theory, angular momentum is included in the model, meaning that the
wake (the air after interaction with the rotor) has angular momentum. That is, the air begins to rotate
about the z-axis immediately upon interaction with the rotor (see diagram below). Angular
momentum must be taken into account since the rotor, which is the device that extracts the energy
from the wind, is rotating as a result of the interaction with the wind.

Contents

 1Rankine–Froude model
o 1.1Maximum Power
 2Blade element momentum theory
o 2.1Bernoulli for rotating wake
 2.1.1Pre-rotor
 2.1.2Post-rotor
o 2.2Blade forces
o 2.3Assumptions and possible drawbacks of BEM models
 3References

Rankine–Froude model[edit]
The "Betz limit," not yet taking advantage of Betz' contribution to account for rotational flow with
emphasis on propellers, applies the Rankine–Froude " actuator disk" theory to obtain the maximum
efficiency of a stationary wind turbine. The following analysis is restricted to axial motion of the air:
In our streamtube we have fluid flowing from left to right, and an actuator disk that represents the
rotor. We will assume that the rotor is infinitesimally thin.[1] From above, we can see that at the start
of the streamtube, fluid flow is normal to the actuator disk. The fluid interacts with the rotor, thus
transferring energy from the fluid to the rotor. The fluid then continues to flow downstream. Thus we
can break our system/streamtube into two sections: pre-acuator disk, and post-actuator disk. Before
interaction with the rotor, the total energy in the fluid is constant. Furthermore, after interacting with
the rotor, the total energy in the fluid is constant.
Bernoulli's equation describes the different forms of energy that are present in fluid flow where the
net energy is constant i.e. when a fluid is not transferring any energy to some other entity such as a
rotor. The energy consists of static pressure, gravitational potential energy, and kinetic energy.
Mathematically, we have the following expression:

where is the density of the fluid, is the velocity of the

fluid along a streamline, is the static pressure energy, is

the acceleration due to gravity, and is the height above the

ground. For the purposes of this analysis, we will assume that
gravitational potential energy is unchanging during fluid flow from
left to right such that we have the following:

Thus, if we have two points on a streamline, point 1 and point 2,

and at point 1 the velocity of the fluid along the streamline

is and the pressure at 1 is , and at point 2 the

velocity of the fluid along the streamline is and the

pressure at 2 is , and no energy has been extracted from
the fluid between points 1 and 2, then we have the following
expression:

Now let us return to our initial diagram. Consider pre-

actuator flow. Far upstream, the fluid velocity is ; the

fluid then expands as it approaches the rotor.[2] In
accordance with mass conservation, the mass flow rate

must be constant. The mass flow rate, , through a

surface of area is given by the following expression:

where is the density and is the velocity of

the fluid along a streamline. Thus, if mass flow rate is
constant, increases in area must result in decreases in
fluid velocity along a streamline. This means the kinetic
energy of the fluid is decreasing. If the flow is
expanding but not transferring energy, then Bernoulli
applies. Thus the reduction in kinetic energy is
countered by an increase in static pressure energy.
Why a streamtube expands as it approaches an object
is not explained in this document.
So we have the following situation pre-rotor: far
upstream, fluid pressure is the same as

atmospheric, ; just before interaction with the

rotor, fluid pressure has increased and so kinetic
energy has decreased. This can be described
mathematically using Bernoulli's equation:

where we have written the fluid velocity at the rotor

as , where is the axial induction factor.

The pressure of the fluid on the upstream side of

the actuator disk is . We are treating the rotor

as an actuator disk that is infinitely thin. Thus we
will assume no change in fluid velocity across the
actuator disk. Since energy has been extracted
from the fluid, the pressure must have decreased.
 Now consider post-rotor: immediately after
interacting with the rotor, the fluid velocity is

still , but the pressure has dropped to a

value ; far downstream, pressure of the fluid

has reached equilibrium with the atmosphere; this
has been accomplished in the natural and
dynamically slow process of decreasing the velocity
of flow in the stream tube in order to maintain

dynamic equilibrium ( i.e. far downstream.

Assuming no further energy transfer, we can apply
Bernoulli for downstream:

where

The velocity far downstream in the Wake

Thus we can obtain an expression for the
pressure difference between fore and aft of
the rotor:

If we have a pressure difference

across the area of the actuator disc,
there is a force acting on the actuator
disk, which can be determined

from :

where is the area of the

actuator disk. If the rotor is the
only thing absorbing energy from
the fluid, the rate of change in axial
momentum of the fluid is the force
that is acting on the rotor. The rate
of change of axial momentum can
be expressed as the difference
between the initial and final axial
velocities of the fluid, multiplied by
the mass flow rate:
Thus we can arrive at an
expression for the fluid velocity
far downstream:

This force is acting at the

rotor. The power taken
from the fluid is the force
acting on the fluid
multiplied by the velocity
of the fluid at the point of
power extraction:

Maximum
Power[edit]
Suppose we are
interested in finding
the maximum power
that can be extracted
from the fluid. The
power in the fluid is
given by the following
expression:

where is the
fluid density as

before, is
the fluid velocity,

and is the
area of an
imaginary surface
through which the
fluid is flowing.
The power
extracted from the
fluid by a rotor in
the scenario
described above
is some fraction of
this power
expression. We
will call the
fraction the power
co-efficient, .
Thus the power

extracted, is
given by the
following
expression:

Our question
is this: what is
the maximum
value

of using
the Betz
model?
Let us return
to our derived
expression for
the power
transferred
from the fluid
to the rotor (

). We
can see that
the power
extracted is
dependent on
the axial
induction
factor. If we
differentiate

with
respect

to , we
get the
following
result:

If we have
maximise
d our
power
extraction
, we can
set the
above to
zero. This
allows us
to
determine
the value

of w
hich
yields
maximum
power
extraction
. This
value is

a .
Thus we
are able
to find

that .
In other
words,
the rotor
cannot
extract
more than
59 per
cent of
the power
in the
fluid.

Blade
eleme
nt
mome
ntum
theory
[edit]
Compare
d to the
Rankine–
Froude
model,
Blade
element
momentu
m theory
accounts
for the
angular
momentu
m of the
rotor.
Consider
the left
hand side
of the
figure
below.
We have
a
streamtub
e, in
which
there is
the fluid
and the
rotor. We
will
assume
that there
is no
interactio
n
between
the
contents
of the
streamtub
e and
everythin
g outside
of it. That
is, we are
dealing
with an
isolated
system. In
physics,
isolated
systems
must
obey
conservati
on laws.
An
example
of such is
the
conservati
on of
angular
momentu
m. Thus,
the
angular
momentu
m within
the
streamtub
e must be
conserve
d.
Conseque
ntly, if the
rotor
acquires
angular
momentu
m through
its
interactio
n with the
fluid,
somethin
g else
must
acquire
equal and
opposite
angular
momentu
m. As
already
mentione
d, the
system
consists
of just the
fluid and
the rotor,
the fluid
must
acquire
angular
momentu
m in the
wake. As
we
related
the
change in
axial
momentu
m with
some
induction
factor

, we
will relate
the
change in
angular
momentu
m of the
fluid with
the
tangential
induction
factor,

.
Consider
the
following
setup.[1]

We will
break the
rotor area
up into
annular
rings of
infinitesim
ally small
thickness.
We are
doing this
so that we
can
assume
that axial
induction
factors
and
tangential
induction
factors
are
constant
throughou
t the
annular
ring. An
assumptio
n of this
approach
is that
annular
rings are
independ
ent of one
another
i.e. there
is no
interactio
n
between
the fluids
of
neighbori
ng
annular
rings.
Bernoul
li for
rotating
wake[e
dit]
Let us
now go
back to
Bernoulli:

The
veloci
ty is
the
veloci
ty of
the
fluid
along
a
strea
mline.
The
strea
mline
may
not
neces
sarily
run
parall
el to a
partic
ular
co-
ordin
ate
axis,
such
as the
z-
axis.
Thus
the
veloci
ty
may
consi
st of
comp
onent
s in
the
axes
that
make
up
the
co-
ordin
ate
syste
m.
For
this
analy
sis,
we
will
use
cylind
rical
polar
co-
ordin
ates

.
Thus

.
NOT
E: We
will in
fact,
be
worki
ng in
cylind
rical
co-
ordin
ates
for all
aspec
ts
e.g.

Now
consi
der
the
setup
show
n
above
. As
befor
e, we
can
break
the
setup
into
two
comp
onent
s:
upstr
eam
and
down
strea
m.
Pre-
rotor[
edit]

w
h
er
e

i
s
th
e
v
el
o
ci
ty
of
th
e
fl
ui
d
al
o
n
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a
st
re
a
m
li
n
e
fa
r
u
p
st
re
a
m
,
a
n
d

i
s
th
e
v
el
o
ci
ty
of
th
e
fl
ui
d
ju
st
pr
io
r
to
th
e
ro
to
r.
W
rit
te
n
in
c
yl
in
dr
ic
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p
ol
ar
c
o-
or
di
n
at
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s,
w
e
h
a
v
e
th
e
fo
ll
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w
in
g
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x
pr
e
s
si
o
n:

w
h
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r
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a
n
d

a
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T
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w
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p
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t
h
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u
p
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m
.
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,
f
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t
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.
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o
s
t
-
r
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t
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r
[
e
d
i
t
]

w
h
e
r
e

i
s
t
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v
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l
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c
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t
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u
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t
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T
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a
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w
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a
s

.
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h
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d
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p
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t
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i
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b
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;
t
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s
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b
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a
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p
p
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;
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.
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e
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,

.
A
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g
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l
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m
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b
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r
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.
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f
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a
k
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s
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t
d
i
e
a
w
a
y
.
T
h
u
s

i
n
t
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e
d
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n
s
t
r
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a
m
s
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t
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.
T
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s
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e
r
n
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s
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p
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f
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:

I
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t
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,
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B
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.
(
1
)
(2
)
(3
)