Filtration

Definition
Filtration is the process of water purification in which water is allowed to pass through a bed of
filtering media, usually sand and gravel. The purified water in form of filtrate is collected at the
bottom through an under drain system. The filter media are very efficient in retaining finer
colloidal particles including bacteria and viruses.
Mechanisms of filtration
Filtration is based on several simultaneously occurring phenomena:
sedimentation in the pore spaces of the filtration media
mechanical straining of undissolved suspended particles (screening effect);
charge exchange, flocculation and adsorption of colloidal matter (boundary layer processes);
bacteriological-biological processes within the filter.
Filters are divided into two principally different types: slow sand or biological filters (v=0.1-
0.3m3/m2/h = 2-7m3/m2/day) and rapid filtration (v = 5-15 m3/m2/h=120-360 m3/m2/day). In-
between types also exist. Depending on the filtration rate, different mechanisms are operative
within the filter.
Generally, a filter consists of a filter medium (inert medium e.g., quartz sand; or chemically
activated medium, e.g., burnt material); support bed (gravel) and under-drain system; and
influent and effluent pipes, wash and drain lines, control and monitoring appurtenances.
Slow Sand Filtration
Slow sand filtration is accomplished by passing raw water slowly and gravitationally through a medium
of fine sand. On the surface of the sand bed, a thin biological film develops after some time of ripening
(different from the rapid filter). This film consists of active microorganisms and is called
“Schmutzdecke,”or filter skin. It is responsible for the bacteriological purification effect. The slow sand
filter is therefore also called “surface filter” or “biological filter.”
Mechanisms of Slow Sand Filtration
The principle purification processes taking place during slow sand filtration are:
Sedimentation: The water body sitting on top of the filter bed acts as a settling reservoir. Settleable
particles sink to the sand surface.
Mechanical straining: The sand acts as a strainer. Particles too big to pass through the interstices
between the sand grains are retained.
Adsorption: The suspended particles and colloids that come in contact with the surface of the sand grains
by following the passage of the water are retained by:
adhesion to the biological layer (Schmutzdecke),
physical mass attraction (Van der Waals force), and
electrostatic and electrokinetic attractive forces (Coulomb forces).
On account of these forces, an agglomerate of opposite charged particles forms within the top layer of
sand. This process needs some time of ripening to fully develop.
Biochemical processes in the biological layer (Schmutzdecke):

partial oxidation and breakdown of organic substances forming water, CO2 and inorganic salts,
conversion of soluble iron and manganese compounds into insoluble hydroxides which attach
themselves to the grain surfaces,
killing of E. Coli and of pathogens.
Organic substances are deposited on the upper layer of sand, where they serve as breeding ground and
food for bacteria and other types of microorganisms (assimilation and dissimilation). These produce a
slimy, sticky, gelatinous film which consists of active bacteria, their wastes and dead cells and partly
assimilated organic materials. The dissimilation products are carried away by the water to greater depth.
Similar processes occur there. The bacterial activity gradually decreases with depth. Different types of
bacteria are normally found at various depths.
Algae can contribute to the breakdown of organic material and bacteria. They can improve the formation
of the biological layer (filter skin). In uncovered filters, growth of algae is driven by photosynthesis. The
presence of large amounts of algae in the supernatant reservoir of a filter generally impedes the
functioning of the filter. Dead cell material may clog the filter. Increased consumption of oxygen due to
the presence of dead cell material increases the possibility that anaerobic conditions will occur. There is
always a diurnal variation in the oxygen content due to growth and decay of the algae mass. When algae
growth is strong, the algae must be either removed regularly or the filter must be covered.
Query: Briefly explain why a slow sand filter is sometimes called a biofilter.
The conditions necessary for those biochemical processes are:

- sufficient ripening of the biological layers,

- uniform and slow flow of water through the filter, approx. 0.1 to 0.3 m/h,
- a depth of the filter bed of 1 m (0.5 m is needed solely for the biochemical process) of specific grain
sizes,
Design of a Slow Sand Filter
i) Determine the daily demand for treated water, Q (m3/d, m3/h, peak flows)
ii) Choose the filtration rate v (m3/m².h = m/h).
iii) Determine of the number of daily operating hours, a. Aside from shutting down the filter completely
(overnight), it is possible to operate it for a few hours a day (factor b), while the inlet valve is closed and
the outlet valve is open (mode of decreasing filtration rate).
iv) Parameters a and b are related to the total filtration area as follows:

b = 0 for continuous operation, b = 0.5 for 8 hours of daily uninterrupted operation,

b = 0.7 for 16 hours of daily uninterrupted operation.
v) The ratio of length to width should be in the range between 1 and 4.
vi) Determine the number of filters, n. There should be at least two filters, so as to have a reserve during
down time of one (due to cleaning or ripening period).
vii) The required area per filter is thus obtained by dividing the total area A by the number of (equal size)
filters, A/n. The filtration rate for each filter for parallel operation is given by:

filter aid
an agent consisting of solid particles (as of diatomite) that improves filtering efficiency (as by
increasing the permeability of the filter cake) and that is either added to the suspension to be
filtered or placed on the filter as a layer through which the liquid must pass
Inlet Zone
The inlet zone of the tank should be designed such that the entering raw water spreads out evenly over the
filter bed. Turbulence must be avoided in order not to stir up the biological layer. This can best be
achieved by admitting the water just above the filter bed at a velocity of 0.1 m/sec. To prevent scouring
near the inlet, a concrete plate may be placed on top of the filter bed
If no extra provisions are made, the inlet of the raw water can also serve as the drain for the supernatant
for the purpose of cleaning. Since for each cleaning of the filter, the top layer is scooped off, the surface
of the filter bed drops more each time. It is therefore more practical to have a vertically adjustable sill
along the inlet trough to control inflow and head over the filter. The width of the inlet should not be less
than. Sufficient aeration of the entering water can be obtained by means of uniformly spraying or trickling
of the water over cascades
Outlet Zone
The outlet zone is generally arranged so that a weir controls the effluent. It is common that the crest of the
weir is placed some 0.1 m above the level of the filter bed. The purpose of the weir is, among other
things, to prevent the filter from running dry. The filtration rate can be controlled by valve F (Fig. 9). The
effluent weir also serves the purpose of aerating the filtered water. In case of an enclosed weir chamber,
adequate ventilation must be provided for air to enter and for gases to escape.
Operation and Maintenance
A major advantage of slow sand filters is that operation and maintenance of a well-designed and
constructed filter is rather simple. Unskilled personnel can be easily trained.
Initial commissioning of a filter

i) First, with all outlet valves closed, the filter must be charged with filtered water, introduced from the
bottom (D) to drive out the air from the voids of the filter bed. This is continued until the whole bed is
covered sufficiently (0.1 m) to prevent its being scoured or disturbed by turbulence from the admission of
raw water through A.
ii) Backfilling valve D is closed, raw water is admitted through A, until the desired working level for the
supernatant is reached.
iii) Valve K is opened to release filtered water at a filtration rate of one-fourth of the design rate
(controlled by effluent regulating valve F).
iv) During the start-up period, while ripening of the biological layer proceeds and reaches its full effect,
the filtration rate is gradually increased by way of valve F until the desired rate v is attained. The cleaner
the raw water, the longer the ripening process will take.
v) From time to time, chemical and bacteriological analyses of raw water and effluent must be taken to
monitor the ripening process of the filter.
vi) When the filter is in full working condition (seen from analyses-from a few days to several weeks)
valve K may be closed and valve J opened to feed the clear well. Until then, the water is either run to
waste or returned to the raw water.
Normal operation

a) Normal throughflow: The filtration rate is controlled jointly by valves E and F. Initially, F is closed. It
is opened gradually as the filter head loss increases so as to maintain a constant rate of filtration. The
increase in bed resistance is due to a gradual accumulation of retained impurities in the interstices of the
filter bed.
b) Operation at decreasing throughflow: This mode of operation which is well suited for overnights,
reduces the required number of personnel and related costs. The raw water inlet is closed, and the outlet
remains open. Consequently, the head of the supernatant drops and the filtration rate decreases. The
effluent weir should be fixed at such a height as to prevent the supernatant from dropping below a certain
minimum depth (e.g., 0.2 m) above the filter skin (Schmutzdecke).
c) Temporary shutdown: Close both inlet and outlet valves (The necessary quick-closing valves must be
provided). It is preferable to continue filtration and divert the effluent to waste or other use since a
shutdown of the filter causes a deterioration of the quality of the biological agents (filter
skin, etc.).
FILTER MEDIA
We are impressed with limpid mountain torrents and clear springs. Though they are
happy dispensation of Nature, we are surprised at the earth’s skillful water purification
work over again. Water is essential to human’s life. We are convinced of essentials for
human’s prosperity from the history that ancient civilization has risen at valleys of great
rivers such as the Tigris-Euphrates, the Nile, the Yellow River, etc. It was not so old that
humans adopted filtering methods for tap water, but it was the first time to adopt slow
filtration in the early 19th century. After the advent of rapid filtration in the latter 19th
century, we have adopted the coagulation-settling-filtration as a typical pattern of water
treatment even now.In Japan, the diffusion of tap water exceeds 96% in 1998. Japan is
one of the most advanced countries in water purifying technology. However, even in
these days under the spread of tap water, they are not unpredictable to take
precautions against water pollutants such as Cryptosporidium, to take measures against
algae derived from temperature rise in the earth, and so on, in order to supply safe tap
water. Under the serious condition, the task of water filter media, being the central part
of water purification, must be important, the importance of quality and performance is
again realized. Even in these days that membrane treatment starts spreading as new
technology, the part of water filte.

Plate and Frame Filters

The plate and frame filter design is the standard in basic process depth filtration in applications
across various industries including pharmaceutical, chemical, cosmetic, food & beverage. Plate
and frame filter presses provide the lowest cost of filtration per unit of fluid processed.
ErtelAlsop offers specific filter designs, with unique features for flow rates ranging from large
volumes to pilot plant and laboratory scale filtration.
Our plate and frame filters are manufactured using our superior internally ported design offering
a number of benefits over external porting. Internal ports allow for a greater choice of filter
media in a broad range of material and thickness, including pads, paper and cloth. In an
internally ported filter press the filter media itself works as the gasket, eliminating concerns over
gasket-product compatibility. With no need to change gaskets, you save time, money and labor.
Plate and frame filters with internal ports are also inherently more sanitary since there can be no
cross-contamination of O-rings from batch to batch due to product holdup.

Larger cake accumulation results in longer filtration cycles and even more importantly, the
ability to achieve efficient washing of the cake to recover valuable product for further
processing. Product recovery via cake washing is one of the major economic benefits of using
plate and frame filter presses.

ErtelAlsop plate and frame filter units are designed to accommodate a wide range of
components. These include sludge inlet frames for cake accumulation, dividing heads for
multiple-step/one-pass filtration, sanitary fittings, special piping and gauges as well as pumps
and motors to meet a wide range of applications. For filtration/separation processes where a
sealed, vapor-tight environment is desired, our Vapor-Master enclosed plate and frame filter
press is the answer.

Applications

Typical filter press applications include:

 Pharmaceuticals and Biological Filtration

 Chemical Filtration
 Filtration of Distilled Spirits
 Filtration of Wine and fruit juices
 Clarification of Processed Fluids

Advantages
The primary advantages of plate and frame presses are the ability to quickly change the filter
cloths as well as the ability to use a wider range of materials for the filtration medium, including
paper, which is often used for fine filtration applications.

For example, in a process where immediate particle retention is important, filter paper may be
required as fine solids would either blind off the filter cloth or simply pass through it. Note that
filter cloths are still in place to support the filter paper. The filter cloths are reused, but the filter
paper is replaced after every filtration cycle.

Plate and frame presses are best suited for projects where filtration area is more important than
volume. This is why plates and frames have their greatest prominence in polishing applications
(as opposed to dewatering projects), where the feed solids concentration is often well below 1%
by weight.
Polishing applications are sized for a particular filtration area based on the process flow rate and
the known flux rate (volume per area per unit of time). To avoid dips in achievable filtration flow
as the press fills with solids, polishing applications usually include a redundant filter press that is
also sized to accept 100% of the desired process flow.

Disadvantages
One disadvantage of the plate and frame design is the potential for building uneven pressure
between frames, which can lead to plate damage. This issue stems from the fact that the frame is
being fed through a small opening in the corner, which can lead to blockage. This clogging
can cause one frame to become full while the next frame in-line remains empty.

Another disadvantage is the potential for leakage. The filter plates used in plate and frame
presses are non-gasketed, which allows them to wick liquid under pressure. This type of filter
press is usually mounted on a raised platform or positioned over a pit where any leaked liquids
can be collected more conveniently.
 JIWAJI UNIVERSITY GWALIOR
(M.P)
(SOS INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY)

Session-2019-20
TOPIC-FILTRATION

Submitted to :- Submitted by:-

Prof. S. K. SRIVASTAVA GAUTAM CHAUHAN
(H.O.D. & CO-ORDINATOR) ( M.Sc.3rd Sem.)