Sun-earth relationship

• The sun is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter with a diameter of 1.39 х106 km.
• The sun is about 1.5 х 108 km away from earth, so, because thermal radiation travels
with the speed of light in vacuum (about 300,000 km/s), after leaving the sun solar
energy reaches our planet in 8 min and 20 s.

Fig.13. Sun-earth relationship

• The sun has an effective blackbody temperature of 5760 K. The temperature in the
central region is much higher.
• The sun’s total energy output is 3.8 ×1020 MW, which is equal to 63 MW/m2 of the sun’s
surface.
• The earth receives only a tiny fraction of the total radiation emitted, equal to 1.7×1014
kW; however, even with this small fraction, it is estimated that 84 min of solar radiation
falling on earth is equal to the world energy demand for 1 year (about 900 EJ , 1EJ= 10
×1018 J).
• The earth makes its yearly revolution around the sun, it rotates every 24 h about its axis,
which is tilted at an angle of 23.45° to the plane of the elliptic, which contains the earth’s
orbital plane and the sun’s equator.

Fig.14. Earth axis of revolution

• The earth makes one rotation about its axis every 24 h and completes a revolution about
the sun in a period of approximately 365.25 days. This revolution is not circular but
follows an ellipse with the sun at one of the foci.
• The sun’s position in the sky changes from day to day and from hour to hour. It is
common knowledge that the sun is higher in the sky in the summer than in winter.

Fig.15. Annual motion of the earth about the sun

Fig. 16. Sun’s path in the sky
Fig 17. Sun’s path in the sky
Fig 18. Sun’s path in the sky
 What Causes the Seasons?
• Earth’s tilted axis causes the seasons. Throughout the year, different parts of Earth
receive the Sun’s most direct rays. So, when the North Pole tilts toward the Sun, it’s
summer in the Northern Hemisphere. And when the South Pole tilts toward the Sun, it’s
winter in the Northern Hemisphere.
What Causes the Seasons?
What Causes the Seasons? Contd.
What Causes the Seasons? Contd.
What Causes the Seasons? Contd.
What Causes the Seasons? Contd.
What Causes the Seasons? Contd.
What Causes the Seasons? Contd.
What Causes the Seasons? Contd.
What Causes the Seasons? Contd.
What Causes the Seasons? Contd.
What Causes the Seasons? Contd.
What Causes the Seasons? Contd.
SOLAR CONSTANT, ISC
• The amount of solar energy per unit time, at the mean distance of the earth from the sun,
received on a unit area of a surface normal to the sun (perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the radiation) outside the atmosphere is called the solar constant, ISC.
• When the sun is closest to the earth, on January 3, the solar heat on the outer edge of the
earth’s atmosphere is about 1424 W/m2; and when the sun is farthest away, on July 4, it is
about 1330 W/m2.
• The latest value of ISC is 1366.1 W/m2.

Fig. 20. Variation of extraterrestrial solar radiation with the time of year
SOLAR CONSTANT, ISC
• Throughout the year, the extraterrestrial radiation measured on the plane normal to the
radiation on the Nth day of the year, ION, varies between these limits, as indicated in
Fig.20., in the range of 3.3% and can be calculated by

  
I  I 1 0.033cos  360 N  
ON SC
(1)
  365  
Where,
ION = extraterrestrial radiation measured on the plane normal to the radiation on
the Nth day of the year (W/m2).
ISC = solar constant (W/m2).
Example 1
Determine the extraterrestrial normal radiation on a horizontal surface on February 10.
Solution : ION = 1366[1+0.033 cos(( 360*41)/365) = 1400.3 W/m2
SOLAR CONSTANT, ISC

Fig. 21. Spectral distribution of solar radiation intensity

Fig. 22. Spectral distribution of solar radiation intensity
Terrestrial Radiation
• The solar heat reaching the earth’s surface is reduced below ION because a large part of it is
scattered, reflected back out into space, and absorbed by the atmosphere.
• The solar heat that comes directly through the atmosphere is termed direct or beam radiation,
whereas a portion of the originally collimated rays becomes scattered or non-directional. Some
of this scattered radiation reaches the earth’s surface from the entire sky vault. This is called the
diffuse radiation.
• Air mass is defined as the length of the path traversed in reaching the sea level when the sun is
at its zenith (the vertical at the point of observation).

m  AB  1
BC cos (2)

Fig. 23. Air mass definition

Solar radiation measuring equipment
• Pyranometer
• Pyrheliometer

Fig. 24. Difference between Pyranometer and Pyrheliometer

Fig. 25. Pyranometer
Fig. 26. Pyrheliometer
Fig. 27. Pyrheliometer tracking the Sun
Fig. 28. Pyranometer with shading ring
Sunshine recorder

Fig. 29. Sunshine recorder

Fig. 30. Sunshine recorder cards
Fig. 31. Global horizontal Irradiance- annual average
Solar Angles
Declination Angle , δ

• As shown in Fig.32. it is the angle between the sun–earth centerline and the projection of this line on
the equatorial plane. The declination δ, in degrees for any day of the year (N) can be calculated
approximately by the equation

360 (2)
𝛿 = 23.45𝑠𝑖𝑛 284 + 𝑁
365

Fig.32. Definition of latitude, hour angle, and solar declination

• Fig.33. shows the declination during the equinoxes and the solstices. As can be seen, the declination
ranges from 0° at the spring equinox to +23.45° at the summer solstice, 0° at the fall equinox, and
- 23.45° at the winter solstice.

Fig.33. Yearly variation of solar declination

Fig. 34. Declination of the sun

Hour angle, h

• The hour angle, h, of a point on the earth’s surface is defined as the angle through which the earth
would turn to bring the meridian of the point directly under the sun. Fig. 32. shows the hour angle of
point P as the angle measured on the earth’s equatorial plane between the projection of OP and the
projection of the sun–earth center to center line. The hour angle at local solar noon is zero, with each
360/24 or 15° of longitude equivalent to 1 h, afternoon hours being designated as positive.

h = ± 0.25 (Number of minutes from local solar noon) (3)

• EXAMPLE 2

Calculate the declination angle on May 10.

Solution :
360
𝛿 = 23.45𝑠𝑖𝑛 284 + 𝑁 = 23.45 sin [360/365(284+130)] = 17.52°
365
Solar altitude angle, α

• The solar altitude angle is the angle between the sun’s rays and a horizontal plane as shown in
Fig. 35. It is related to the solar zenith angle, Φ, which is the angle between the sun’s rays and
the vertical. Therefore,

Φ + α = π/2 = 90° (4)

• The mathematical expression for the solar altitude angle is:

sin (α) = cos (Φ) = sin (L) sin (δ) + cos (L) cos (δ) cos (h) (5)

• where L = local latitude, defined as the angle between a line from the centre of the earth to the
site of interest and the equatorial plane. Values north of the equator are positive and those south
are negative.
 Fig. 35. Apparent daily path of the sun across the sky from sunrise to sunset.

Solar azimuth angle, z

• The solar azimuth angle, z, is the angle of the sun’s rays measured in the horizontal plane from due
south (true south) for the Northern Hemisphere or due north for the Southern Hemisphere; westward
is designated as positive. The mathematical expression for the solar azimuth angle is:

sin (z) = cos (δ) sin (h) / cos(α) (6)

EXAMPLE 3

Find the solar altitude and azimuth angles at 2 h after local noon on June 16 for a city located at 10°N
latitude.

Solution :

• The From Eq. ( 2), the declination on June 16 (N =167) is:

δ = 23.45 sin [ 360/365 * (284+167) = 23.35°

• From Eq. (3), the hour angle, 2 h after local solar noon is:

h = +0.25(120) = 30°

• From Eq. (5), the solar altitude angle is:

sin (α) = sin(10) sin(23.35) + cos(10) cos(23.35) cos(30) = 0.0688+0.783 = 0.85

α = 58.41°

• From Eq. (6), the solar azimuth angle is:

sin (z) = cos(23.35) sin(30) / cos(58.41) = 0.876

z = 61.2°
 Incidence angle, θ
• The solar incidence angle, θ, is the angle between the sun’s rays and the normal on a surface.
For a horizontal plane, the incidence angle, θ, and the zenith angle, Φ, are the same.

Fig. 36. Solar angles diagram

cos (θ) = sin(L) sin(δ ) cos(β) – cos(L) sin(δ) sin(β) cos(Zs) + cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h) cos(β)
+ sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) sin(β) cos(Zs)+ cos(δ) sin(h) sin(β) sin(Zs) (7)
Where β = surface tilt angle from the horizontal,
Zs = surface azimuth angle, the angle between the normal to the surface from true south,
westward is designated as positive.
• For certain cases Eq. (7) reduces to much simpler forms :

For horizontal surfaces, β = 0° and θ = Φ, and Eq. (7) reduces to Eq. (8).

sin (α) = cos(Φ) = sin (L) sin (δ) + cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)

• For vertical surfaces, β = 90° and Eq. (7) becomes:

cos (θ) = – cos(L) sin(δ) cos(Zs) + sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) cos(Zs)+ cos(δ) sin(h) sin(Zs) (8)

• For a south-facing tilted surface in the Northern Hemisphere, Zs = 0° and Eq. (7) reduces to

cos (θ) = sin(L) sin(δ ) cos(β) – cos(L) sin(δ) sin(β) + cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h) cos(β)

+ sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) sin(β)

which can be further reduced to:

cos (θ) = sin (L- β) sin(δ) + cos(L- β) cos(δ) cos(h) (9)

• For a north-facing tilted surface in the Southern Hemisphere, Zs = 180° and Eq. (7) reduces to:

cos (θ) = sin (L+ β) sin(δ) + cos(L+ β) cos(δ) cos(h) (10)

EXAMPLE 4

• A surface tilted 45° from horizontal and pointed 10° west of due south is located at 35° N latitude.
Calculate the incident angle at 2 h after local noon on June 16.

• From Example 3 we have δ = 23.35° and an hour angle = 30° The solar incidence angle θ is
calculated from Eq. (7):

cos(θ) = sin(35) sin(23.35 ) cos(45) – cos(35) sin(23.35) sin(45) cos(10) + cos(35) cos(23.35) cos(30)
cos(45) + sin(35) cos(23.35) cos(30) sin(45) cos(10)+ cos(23.35) sin(30) sin(45) sin(10)

= 0.769

Therefore,

θ = 39.72°
Sun path diagrams

Fig. 37. Sun path diagram for 35°N latitude

Sun path diagrams

Fig. 38. Sun path diagram for 38°N latitude

Sun path diagrams

Fig. 39. Solar Window

 SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY
• The fundamental process used for heat conversion in solar thermal systems is “Green
House Effect”.
• Most of the energy we receive from the sun comes in the form of light, a shortwave
radiation, not all of which is visible to human eye.
• When this radiation strikes a solid or liquid, it is absorbed and transformed into heat
energy, the material becomes warm and stores the heat , conducts it to surrounding
materials or reradiate it to the other materials of lower temperature. The reradiation is a
long wave radiation.
• Wien’s Displacement law: states that the spectral radiance of black-body radiation per
unit wavelength, peaks at the wavelength λmax given by:

λmax * T = constant = 2898 μm.K (11)

Example 5
Find the maximum wavelength of radiation emitted black body at the temperature of 60°C,
when a solar radiation fall on the surface of black body ( Tsun = 5800K) .
Solution : λmax * 333 (K) = 2898 μm.K
λmax = 8.7 μm ( Which is within the spectrum of invisible IR light)
• The glass cover which is relatively transparent for visible light is absorbent for IR
light emitted by the black body when it evacuates its thermal energy.

• The IR light absorbed by the glass is re-emitted in all directions, half of it is

emitted to the outside and lost, the other half re-emitted towards the black plate
which absorbs it again. More and more heat is accumulated in this way in the
black plate, whose temperature thus increases.

• With rising temperature, the wavelength of the IR emission become shorter. At

500°C the bulk of the radiation would be emitted at 4μm, at which wavelength,
the glass is partially transparent for IR light.

• It follows that an efficient green house effect is possible only below 500°C.
 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS

• Solar energy collectors

• Solar cooking
• Solar distillation
• Solar furnace
 Solar Energy Collectors
(a) Non concentrating type solar collector (CR =1)
(b) Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector (CR>1)
• Concentration Ratio (CR) is the aperture area of the collector (Aa) divided by the
surface area of the receiver (Ar).
CR = Aa/ Ar

Fig. 40. Concentration ratio

Non concentrating type solar collector
• Flat plate collector (PFC)
• Evacuated tube collector (ETC)

Fig. 41. Flat plate collector (PFC)

Flat plate collector
• Most solar collectors used are flat plate collectors, which are generally designed to
heat a fluid (water, antifreeze or air) to temperatures not exceeding 80°C.

• Water is heated as it flows through tubes thermally coupled to a dark-coloured metal

absorber plate.

• The absorber plate is typically covered with a selective coating that absorbs solar
energy while inhibiting heat loss from radiation.

• A glazed liquid flat plate collector is covered with glass or translucent plastic to
achieve higher temperatures. The glazing is usually held in place by an aluminium
casing, which also contains the absorber plate and insulation on the reverse side of
the absorber.

• Common applications for flat plate collectors include residential and commercial
water heating, pool heating, residential space heating and industrial process heat.

• Efficiency varies with collector design and application temperature, but typical
overall efficiency for a liquid flat plate collector is (40-50)% in their normal
operating range.
Evacuated Tube Collector (ETC)

Fig. 42. Evacuated tube collector (ETC)

Fig. 43. Evacuated tube collector (ETC) with heat pipes
Fig. 44. Working principle of heat pipe
Fig. 45. Evacuated tube collector (ETC) without heat pipe
Fig. 46. Evacuated tube collector (ETC) thermosiphon system
Fig. 47. Evacuated tube collector (ETC) glass tube
Evacuated Tube Collector (ETC)

• ETCs can achieve temperatures above 200°C.

• ETCs are typically designed with parallel rows of twin glass tubes, with each inner
glass tube containing a metal heat pipe attached to an absorber fin.

• The air between the two glass tubes is removed (or evacuated) to form a vacuum,
which reduces conductive and convective heat loss.

• Common applications include residential and commercial water heating, space

heating and cooling and industrial process heat. Overall operating efficiencies of (30-
45)% are typical.

• In general, ETCs will outperform FPCs in cold climates, because the efficiency of
ETCs does not fall off as quickly when the outside air temperatures drop.

• The ETCs used in India for domestic use are mostly without heat pipe and achieve
temperature below 100°C.
Air Collectors or Solar Air Heaters

• Solar air heaters are similar to FPCs used in water heating except the working fluid is
the air and absorber plate arrangement is different.

• Fins are attached to the plate to increase the contact surface.

Fig. 48. Solar air heater

Solar Water Heater (SWH)

Fig. 49. Schematic diagram of a thermosiphon solar water heater

 Solar Water Heater (SWH) contd.
• Thermosiphon systems, shown schematically in Fig. 49., heat potable water or
transfer fluid and use natural convection to transport it from the collector to storage.

• The thermosiphoning effect occurs because the density of water drops with the
increase of the temperature. Therefore, by the action of solar radiation absorbed, the
water in the collector is heated and thus expands, becoming less dense, and rises
through the collector into the top of the storage tank. There it is replaced by the
cooler water that has sunk to the bottom of the tank, from which it flows down the
collector.

• Circulation continues as long as the sun is shining. Since the driving force is only a
small density difference, larger than normal pipe sizes must be used to minimize pipe
friction.

• Connecting lines must also be well insulated to prevent heat loss and sloped to
prevent formation of air pockets, which would stop circulation.
 Solar Water Heater (SWH) contd.
• The advantages of thermosiphon systems are that they do not rely on pumps and
controllers, are more reliable, and have a longer life than forced circulation systems.

• Moreover, they do not require an electrical supply to operate and they naturally
modulate the circulation flow rate in phase with the radiation levels.

• The main disadvantage of thermosiphon systems is that because the storage tank
should be above the collector they are comparatively tall units, which makes them
not very attractive aesthetically.

The collector efficiency (η)

The collector efficiency, based on the gross collector aperture area, is given by:
m C T  T 

w p o i

AG a t (12)

Where, Gt = Global solar irradiance at the collector plane, W/m2

Ti = Fluid temperature at the collector inlet, °C
To = Fluid temperature at the collector outlet,
 Solar Water Heater (SWH) contd.
Ti = fluid temperature at the collector inlet, °C
To = fluid temperature at the collector outlet, °C
mw = fluid flow rate, kg/s
Ap = gross collector aperture area, m2
Cp = specific heat of water, kJ/kg.°C

Example 6

Calculate the instantaneous efficiency of solar water heater with inlet and outlet water
temperatures of 36.9°C and 45.1°C, respectively. The mass flow rate is 25.34 cc/s and
radiation intensity is 801.55 W/m2. The collector area is 2m2.
Solution :
η = (0.02534*4.187*(45.1-36.9))/(2*801.55) = 54.27 %
 Solar Dryer
• Generally, drying is a simple process of excess water (moisture) removal from a
natural or an industrial product to preserve it (foodstuff) or to reach a specified
moisture content.

• Drying is an energy-intensive process, especially when used for food products, as

these generally have a water content which is much higher (about 25–80%) than is
suitable for long preservation.

• Therefore the purpose of drying an agricultural product is to reduce its moisture

content to a level that prevents its deterioration.

• It is essential to reduce the moisture content of foodstuff down to a certain level so as

to slow down the action of enzymes, bacteria, yeasts and molds, this enables the food
to be stored and preserved for long time without spoilage.

• Generally, crops are very sensitive to the drying conditions.

• Drying must be performed in a way that does not seriously affect their color, flavor,
texture, or nutritional value.
• Thus the selection of drying conditions, especially temperature, is of major importance.

• Solar drying is another very important application of solar energy. Solar dryers use air
collectors to collect solar energy.

• In drying, two processes take place:

(1) Is a heat transfer to the product using energy from the heating source, and

(2) is a mass transfer of moisture from the interior of the product to its surface and from the
surface to the surrounding air, in the form of water vapor.

Typical Drying Curve

• In Fig. 50., the moisture content of a material is plotted versus the drying time.

• Once the material is warmed up, evaporation of the water on its surface begins. The
surface may be covered with a film of water that resembles a pool. Evaporation from this
pool takes place at a uniform rate and water from the inside of the material moves to the
surface by diffusion to replenish the pool as moisture is removed. The constant rate drying
period is between Points B and C.
• When the pool of moisture on the surface is depleted and water can no longer diffuse to
the surface to maintain the constant rate of removal, we enter the falling rate drying period.

Fig.50. Typical stages of drying

Solar Dryer contd.

Fig. 51. Schematic diagram of a distributed-type passive solar dryer.

Solar Dryer contd.

Fig. 52. Schematic diagram of a distributed-type active solar dryer.

Solar Dryer contd.

Fig. 53. Schematic diagram of a distributed-type passive solar dryer.

Solar Dryer contd.

Fig. 54. Schematic diagram of a forced-convection, transparent-roof solar barn.

Solar Dryer contd.

Fig. 55. Solar tunnel dryer.

Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector
• Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC)
• Solar Power Tower or Central Receiver
• Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR)
• Parabolic Dish

Fig. 56. Concentrating (focusing) type solar collectors

Table .1. Performance data of various Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technologies
Table. 2. Solar Energy Collectors
Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC)
• Parabolic trough collectors are made by bending a sheet of reflective material into a
parabolic shape.
• A black metal tube, covered with a glass tube to reduce heat losses, is placed along the focal
line of the receiver.
• When the parabola is pointed toward the sun, parallel rays incident on the reflector are
reflected onto the receiver tube. The concentrated radiation reaching the receiver tube heats
the fluid that circulates through it, transforming the solar radiation into useful heat.
• It suffices to use a single-axis tracking of the sun; therefore, long collector modules are
produced.
• PTCs can effectively produce heat at temperatures between 50 and 400 °C.

Fig. 57. Schematic of parabolic trough collector

Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC)

Fig. 58. Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC)

Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC)

Fig. 59. Schematic of parabolic trough power plant with thermal energy storage
Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC)

Fig. 60. An integrated solar combined cycle plant

Solar Power Tower or Central Receiver
• For extremely high inputs of radiant energy, a multiplicity of flat mirrors, or heliostats,
using altazimuth mounts can be used to reflect their incident direct solar radiation onto
a common target, as shown in Fig. 61. This is called the heliostat field or central
receiver collector.
• By using slightly concave mirror segments on the heliostats, large amounts of thermal
energy can be directed into the cavity of a steam generator to produce steam at high
temperature and pressure.
• Each heliostat at a central receiver facility has from 50 to 150 m2 of reflective surface,
with four mirrors installed on a common pillar for economy.

Fig. 61. Schematic of central receiver system.

Solar Power Tower or Central Receiver

Fig. 62. Details of a heliostat.

Solar Power Tower or Central Receiver

Fig. 63. Schematic of the Solar Two plant

Solar Power Tower or Central Receiver

Fig. 64. Schematic of the Solar Power Tower Plant

Solar Power Tower or Central Receiver

Fig. 65. Solar Power Tower or Central Receiver

Fig. 66. Solar Power Tower or Central Receiver
Fig. 67. Solar Power Tower or Central Receiver
Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR)
• In LFR plant, large absorbers can be constructed and the absorber does not have to move. The
greatest advantage of this type of system is that it uses flat or elastically curved reflectors,
which are cheaper than parabolic glass reflectors.
• Additionally, these are mounted close to the ground, thus minimizing structural requirements.
• One difficulty with the LFR technology is that avoidance of shading and blocking between
adjacent reflectors leads to increased spacing between reflectors.
• Blocking can be reduced by increasing the height of the absorber towers, but this increases
cost.

Fig. 68. Schematic diagram of a downward-facing receiver illuminated from an LFR field
Fig. 69. Schematic diagram showing interleaving of mirrors in a Compact linear Fresnel
Reflector (CLFR) with reduced shading between mirrors
Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR)

Fig. 70. Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR)

Fig. 71. Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR)
Fig. 72. Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR)
Parabolic Dish
• Parabolic dish reflector (PDR), shown schematically in Fig. 73. is a point-focus collector
that tracks the sun in two axes, concentrating solar energy onto a receiver located at the
focal point of the dish.
• The receiver absorbs the radiant solar energy, converting it into thermal energy in a
circulating fluid.
• The thermal energy can then be either converted into electricity using an engine–generator
coupled directly to the receiver or transported through pipes to a central power conversion
system.
• Parabolic dish systems can achieve temperatures in excess of 1500°C.

Fig. 73. Parabolic dish collector. (a) Schematic diagram. (b) Photo of a Eurodish collector
Parabolic Dish

Fig. 74. Two units of 10 kWel EnviroDish installed at the Platforma Solar De Almeria,
Spain.
Solar Cooker
• The principle of operation of box type cooker is illustrated in Fig. 75. The solar rays
penetrate through the glass covers and absorbed by a blackened metal tray kept inside the
box. The heat keep on getting accumulated because of green house effect.
• Two glass covers are provided to minimize the heat loss. The loss due to convection is
minimized by providing rubber strip all around between upper lid and the box.
• The temperature inside the cooker with single reflector is maintained from 70 to 110°C
above the ambient temperature. Maximum air temperature obtained inside the cooker box (
without load) is 140°C in winter and 160°C in summer.

Fig. 75. Principle of box type cooker

Solar Cooker

Fig. 76. Solar cooker with 4 reflectors

Solar Cooker

Fig. 77. Solar parabolic cooker

Solar Cooker

Fig. 78. Evacuated tube solar cooker

Solar Cooker

Fig. 79. Scheffler dish solar concentrator

Solar Cooker

Fig. 80. Scheffler dish solar concentrator community kitchen

Solar Still
• The sun’s rays pass though the glass roof and are absorbed by the blackened bottom of the
basin. As the water is heated, its vapor pressure is increased.
• The resultant water vapor is condensed on the underside of the roof and runs down into the
troughs, which conduct the distilled water to the reservoir.
• The still acts as a heat trap because the roof is transparent to the incoming sunlight but
opaque to the infrared radiation emitted by the hot water (greenhouse effect).

Fig. 81. Schematic of single basin solar still

Fig. 82. Common designs of solar stills.
(a) (b)
Fig. 83. a) Pyramid solar still b) Conical solar still.
Fig. 84. Inclined solar still.
Fig. 85. Double effect solar still.
Solar Still efficiency (η)
The hourly and overall efficiency of the solar still (η) calculated using the Equation (13)

η =  m×h fg (13)
 I ×A
T

Where m is the distillate collected, IT is the average solar radiation intensity, A is the basin area
and hfg is the latent heat of vaporization of water.

Example 7
Calculate an hourly efficiency and overall efficiency of a single slope basin type solar still.
(Still basin area = 0.5 m2)
Distillate output (12-1 pm) = 450 ml, Average solar radiation intensity = 1003.7 W/m2
Latent heat of vaporization of water at 71°C = 2330.5 kJ/kg

Distillate output (24 hours) = 2835 ml, Average solar radiation intensity = 695.4 W/m2 (8am to
6pm)
Latent heat of vaporization of water at 60.2°C = 2357.1 kJ/kg

Solution: ηhourly = (0.45*2330.5)/(1.0037*0.5*3600) *100 = 58.05%

ηoverall = (2.835*2357.1)/(0.6954*0.5*36000) *100 = 53.39%

Solar Furnace
• A solar furnace is an instrument to get high temperatures by concentrating solar radiations onto a
specimen.
• During the eighteenth century, solar furnaces capable of melting iron, copper, and other metals
were being constructed of polished iron, glass lenses, and mirrors. The furnaces were in use
throughout Europe and the Middle East.
• One of the first large-scale applications was the solar furnace built by the well-known French
chemist Lavoisier, who, around 1774, constructed powerful lenses to concentrate solar radiation .
This attained the remarkable temperature of 1750°C.

Fig. 86. Solar furnace used by Lavoisier in 1774

• The solar furnaces with high optical precision give temperatures of over 3000°C.
• The main advantage of solar furnace is that heating is carried without any contamination and
temperature is easily controlled by changing the position of the material in focus.
• The solar furnace is an excellent means for studying properties of ceramics at high
temperatures above the range ordinarily measured in the laboratory with flames and currents.

Fig. 86. Schematic of Solar Furnace

Fig. 86. Solar Furnace
Solar Thermal Energy Storage
• Thermal storage is one of the main parts of a solar heating, cooling, and power generating
system. Because for approximately half the year any location is in darkness, heat storage is
necessary if the solar system must operate continuously.
• Usually the design and selection of the thermal storage equipment is one of the most
neglected elements of solar energy systems.
• Solar Thermal Energy Storage systems may be broadly classified as
(a) Sensible heat storage
(b) Latent heat storage

Fig. 86. Different types of thermal storage of solar energy

Sensible heat storage

• Sensible heat storage involves a material that undergoes no change in phase over the
temperature domain encountered in the storage process.

• The basic equation for an energy storage unit operating over a finite temperature difference
is:

Qs = (mCp)s (T1-T2) (13)

where Qs is the total thermal energy capacity for a cycle operating between temperature limits
T1 and T2 with m kg of storage medium of specific heat Cp.

Latent heat storage (phase change energy storage)

• In this system, heat is stored in a material when it melts and extracted from the material
when it freezes.

• Materials that undergo a change of phase in a suitable temperature range may be useful for
energy storage.
Table. 3. Properties of different types of thermal storage of solar energy
Table. 4. Properties of different types of thermal storage of solar energy
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC
• Photovoltaic (PV) energy is a direct application of the photoelectric effect discovered
by Edmund Becquerel in 1839, whereby sunlight energy excites electrons present in
metals.
• PV modules are solid-state devices that convert sunlight, the most abundant energy
source on the planet, directly into electricity without an intervening heat engine or
rotating equipment.
• PV equipment has no moving parts and, as a result, requires minimal maintenance
and has a long life.
• PV systems can be built in virtually any size, ranging from milliwatt to megawatt, and
the systems are modular, i.e., more panels can be easily added to increase output.
• PV systems are highly reliable and require little maintenance. They can also be set up
as stand-alone systems.
Semiconductors

• To understand the photovoltaic effect, some basic theory about semiconductors and their use
as photovoltaic energy conversion devices needs to be given.

• Materials whose valence band is full and whose conduction band is empty have very high
band gaps and are called insulators because no current can be carried by electrons in the
filled band and the energy gap is so large that, under ordinary circumstances, a valence
electron cannot accept energy, since the empty states in the conduction band are inaccessible
to it. The band gap in these materials is greater than 3 eV.

• Materials that have relatively empty valence bands and may have some electrons in the
conduction band are called conductors. In this case, the valence and the conduction bands
overlap.

• The valence electrons are able to accept energy from an external field and move to an
unoccupied allowed state at slightly higher energy levels within the same band. Metals fall
in this category, and the valence electrons in a metal can be easily emitted outside the atomic
structure and become free to conduct electricity.
Fig. 87. Schematic diagrams of energy bands for typical materials. (a) Insulator. (b) Conductor
(metal). (c) Semiconductor.
• Materials with valence gaps partly filled have intermediate band gaps and are called
semiconductors.

• The band gap in these materials is smaller than 3 eV. They have the same band structure as
the insulators but their energy gap is much narrower.

• The two types of semiconductors are the pure ones, called intrinsic semiconductors, and
those doped with small amounts of impurities, called extrinsic semiconductors.

• In intrinsic semiconductors, the valence electrons can easily be excited by thermal or optical
means and jump the narrow energy gap into the conduction band, where the electrons have
no atomic bonding and therefore are able to move freely through the crystal.
p–n Junction

• Silicon (Si) belongs to group 4 of the periodic table of elements. In semiconductors, if the
material that is doped has more electrons in the valence gap than the semiconductor, the
doped material is called an n-type semiconductor.

• The n-type semiconductor is electronically neutral but has excess electrons, which are
available for conduction. This is obtained when Si atoms are replaced with periodic table
group 5 elements, such as arsenic (As) or antimony (Sb), and in so doing, form electrons
that can move around the crystal. If these excess electrons are removed, the atoms will be
left with positive charges.

Fig. 88. N and P doping of semiconductor

• In semiconductors, if the material that is doped has fewer electrons in the valence gap than
the semiconductor, the doped material is called a p-type semiconductor.

• The p-type semiconductor is electronically neutral but it has positive holes (missing
electrons) in its structure, which can accommodate excess electrons.

• This type of material is obtained when Si atoms are replaced with periodic table group 3
elements, such as gallium (Ga) or indium (In), and thereby form positive particles, called
holes, that can move around the crystal.
• When the p- and n-type semiconductors are joined together, i.e., form a junction, as shown
in Fig. 89. As can be seen, when the two materials are joined, the excess electrons from the
n-type jump to fill the holes in the p-type, and the holes from the p-type diffuse to the n-type
side, leaving the n-side of the junction positively charged and the p-side negatively charged.

• The negative charges of the p-side restrict the movements of additional electrons from the
n-side; however, the movement of additional electrons from the p-side is easier because of
the positive charges at the junction on the n-side. Therefore the p–n junction behaves like a
diode.

Fig. 89. Schematic diagram of a p–n junction.

• A schematic diagram of the energy bands of the n- and p-type semiconductors is shown in
Fig. 90. In the n-type semiconductor, because the doped impurity donates additional
electrons for the conduction of current, it is called the donor and its energy level is called the
donor level.
• The n-type energy band diagram is shown in Fig. 90(a)., and as can be seen, the donor level
is located within the forbidden band. In the p-type semiconductor, the doped impurity
accepts additional electrons; therefore, it is called the acceptor and its energy level is called
the acceptor level. Its energy band diagram is shown in Fig. 90(b)., and as can be seen, the
acceptor level is located in the forbidden band.

Fig. 90. Energy band diagrams of n- and p-type semiconductors. (a) n-type semiconductor.
(b) p-type semiconductor.
Photovoltaic effect

• When a photon enters a photovoltaic material, it can be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted

through. When this photon is absorbed by a valence electron of an atom, the energy of the
electron is increased by the amount of energy of the photon.

• If, now, the energy of the photon is greater than the band gap of the semiconductor, the
electron, which has excess energy, will jump into the conduction band, where it can move
freely. Therefore, when the photon is absorbed, an electron is knocked loose from the atom.

• The electron can be removed by an electric field across the front and back of the
photovoltaic material, and this is achieved with the help of a p–n junction.

• In the absence of a field, the electron recombines with the atom; whereas when there is a
field, it flows through, thus creating a current.

• If the photon energy is smaller than that of the band gap, the electron will not have sufficient
energy to jump into the conduction band, and the excess energy is converted into kinetic
energy of the electrons, which leads to increased temperature.
• The reason for the low efficiency of the photovoltaic cells is that irrespective of the intensity
of the photon energy relative to the band gap energy, only one electron can be freed.

• The operation of a photovoltaic cell is shown in Fig. 91. These solar cells contain a junction
of a p-type and an n-type semiconductor, i.e., a p–n junction. To some extent, electrons and
holes diffuse across the boundary of this junction, setting up an electric field across it.

• The free electrons are generated in the n-layer by the action of the photons. When photons
of sunlight strike the surface of a solar cell and are absorbed by the semiconductor, some of
them create pairs of electrons and holes.

• If these pairs are sufficiently near the p–n junction, its electric field causes the charges to
separate, electrons moving to the n-type side and holes to the p-type side. If the two sides of
the solar cell are now connected through a load, an electric current will flow as long as
sunlight strikes the cell.
Fig. 91. Photovoltaic effect.
• The thickness of the n-type layer in a typical crystalline silicon cell is about 0.5 μm, whereas
that of the p-type layer is about 0.25 mm.

• The energy contained in a photon, EP, is given by Eq. 13.

EP = hν (13)
where
h = Planck’s constant, = 6.625 х10-34 J s.
ν = frequency (s-1).

which can be written as

EP = hC/λ (14)

• Silicon has a band gap of 1.11 eV (1 eV = 1.6 х10-19 J); therefore, by using Eq. (14), it can
be found that photons with wavelength of 1.12 μm or less are useful in creating electron–
hole pairs and thus electricity. By checking this wavelength on the distribution shown in
Fig. 21., it can be seen that the majority of solar radiation can be used effectively in PVs.
PV cell characteristics

• Fig. 92. shows the I–V characteristic curve of a solar cell for a certain irradiance (Gt) at a
fixed cell temperature, TC.

• The current from a PV cell depends on the voltage applied and the amount of sunlight on the
cell. When the cell is short-circuited, the current is at maximum (short-circuit current, Isc),
and the voltage across the cell is 0. When the PV cell circuit is open, with the leads not
making a circuit, the voltage is at its maximum (open-circuit voltage, Voc), and the current is
0. In either case, at open circuit or short circuit, the power (current times voltage) is 0.
Between an open circuit and a short circuit, the power output is greater than 0. The typical
current voltage curve shown in Fig. 92. presents the range of combinations of current and
voltage.

• If the cell’s terminals are connected to a variable resistance, R, the operating point is
determined by the intersection of the I–V characteristic of the solar cell with the load I–V
characteristics.
Fig. 92. Representative current–voltage curve for photovoltaic cells.
• If the load resistance is small, the cell operates in the region AB of the curve, where the cell
behaves as a constant current source, almost equal to the short-circuit current.

• On the other hand, if the load resistance is large, the cell operates on the region DE of the
curve, where the cell behaves more as a constant voltage source, almost equal to the open-
circuit voltage.

• The power can be calculated by the product of the current and voltage. If this exercise is
performed and the results are plotted on a P–V graph, then Fig. 93. can be obtained.

• The maximum power passes from a maximum power point (point C on Fig. 92.), at which
point the load resistance is optimum, Ropt, and the power dissipated in the resistive load is
maximum and given by:

Pmax = Vmax x Imax (15)

• Point C on Fig. 92. is also called the maximum power point, which is the operating point
Pmax, Imax, Vmax at which the output power is maximized. Given Pmax, an additional
parameter, called the fill factor, FF, can be calculated such that:

Pmax = Isc Voc FF (16)

or
 
FF =  P  = I V
max max max
(17)
V I 
oc sc VI oc sc

• The fill factor is a measure of the real I–V characteristic. For good cells, its value is greater
than 0.7.

• The fill factor decreases as the cell temperature increases.

Fig. 93. Representative power–voltage curve for photovoltaic cells.

 Solar PV Efficiency

• Efficiency of solar PV is defined as the maximum electrical power output divided by the
incident light power.

• Efficiency is commonly reported for a PV cell temperature of 25°C and incident light at an
irradiance of 1000 W/m2 with a spectrum close to that of sunlight at solar noon.

• An improvement in cell efficiency is directly connected to a cost reduction in photovoltaic

systems.

• Another parameter of interest is the maximum efficiency, which is the ratio between the
maximum power and the incident light power, given by:
 
η =  P
max
max
 =
I V
max max
(18)
 P in
 AG t

where
A = cell area (m2).
Fig. 94. Changes in solar radiation have a direct linear and proportional effect on the current
and maximum power output of a PV module or array.
Fig. 95. For crystalline Si PV devices, increasing cell temperature results in a decrease in
voltage and power, and a small increase in current.
Fig. 96. Connecting similar PV devices in series increases voltage while current stays the
same
Fig. 97. Connecting similar PV devices in parallel increases current while voltage stays the
same
Fig.98. PV generator assembly
Fig.99. Series and parallel connection of solar cells
Fig.100. PV system components
Fig.101. Stand-alone PV systems operate autonomously and are
designed to meet specific electrical loads
Fig.102. Utility-interactive PV systems operate in parallel with
the electric utility grid and supplement site electrical loads
Fig.103. Different layers in the manufacturing of solar module
Fig.104. Standard Test Conditions (STC) is the universal rating condition for PV modules and
arrays
Fig.105. Array tilt angle affects seasonal performance
Fig.106. The proposed layout for the system should be verified by the installer to ensure that
the collectors are oriented properly and that shading will not be a significant issue
Fig.107. Multiple rows of rack-mounted PV arrays must be separated far enough apart to
prevent shading
Fig. 108. Historic PV cell efficiencies in laboratory testing
Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Energy Systems
• Solar systems, including solar thermal and PVs, offer environmental advantages over
electricity generation using conventional energy sources. The benefits arising from the
installation and operation of solar energy systems fall into two main categories:
environmental and socio-economical issues.

From an environmental viewpoint, the use of solar energy technologies has several positive
implications that include

• Reduction of the emission of the GHGs (mainly CO2 and NOx) and of toxic gas emissions
(SO2,particulates),

• Reclamation of degraded land,

• Reduced requirement for transmission lines within the electricity grid, and

• Improvement in the quality of water resources.

The socioeconomic benefits of solar technologies include:

• Increased regional and national energy independence,

• Creation of employment opportunities,

• Restructuring of energy markets due to penetration of a new technology and the growth of
new production activities,

• Diversification and security (stability) of energy supply,

• Acceleration of electrification of rural communities in isolated areas, and

• Saving foreign currency.

The disadvantages of solar technologies include:

• Cost

• Weather dependent

• Solar energy storage is expensive

• Uses a lot of space and Associated with pollution

Fig.109. Advantages and disadvantages of Solar Energy Systems
Fig.110. Advantages of Renewable Energy Systems
The advantages of different solar energy technologies:

1. Solar water heating system

• Saves the trees

• Reduces pollution

• Indoor air quality improvement

2. Solar Cooker

• Saves the trees and reduces the misery of women to collect firewood

• Indoor air quality improvement

3. Solar still

• Fresh drinking water from saline water

• Reduces the misery of women from long distance walk to fetch water

• Reduces the adverse health effect from saline or impure water.

The advantages of Solar PV technology :
1. Solar power is pollution free and causes no greenhouse gases to be emitted after installation
2. Reduced dependence on foreign oil and fossil fuels
3. Renewable clean power that’s available throughout the year, even cloudy days produce some
power
4. Virtually no maintenance as solar panels last over 30 years
5. Creates jobs by employing PV manufacturers, solar installers, etc. and in turn helps the
economy
6. Excess power can be sold back to the power company if grid intertied
7. Ability to live grid free if all power generated provides enough for the home / building
8. Can be installed virtually anywhere; in a field to on a building
9. Use batteries to store extra power for use at night
10. Efficiency is always improving so the same size solar that is available today will become
more efficient tomorrow
11. Aesthetics are improving making the solar more versatile compared to older models; i.e.
printing, flexible, solar shingles, etc.
12. Government subsidy , tax incentives, and rebate programs are available to help with initial
costs
The disadvantages of Solar PV technology :

1. High initial costs for material and installation and long ROI

2. Needs lots of space as efficiency is low.

3. No solar power at night so there is a need for a large battery bank

4. Devices that run on DC power directly are more expensive

5. Depending on geographical location the size of the solar panels vary for the same power
generation

6. Cloudy days do not produce much energy

7. Solar panels are not being massed produced due to lack of material and technology to lower
the cost enough to be more affordable

8. Solar powered cars do not have the same speeds and power as typical gas powered cars

9. Lower production in the winter months

The Environmental Impact of Solar Energy Systems
No artificial project can completely avoid some impact to the environment. The negative
environmental aspects of solar energy systems include:

• Pollution stemming from production, installation, maintenance, and demolition of the

systems,

• Noise during construction,

• Land displacement, and

• Visual intrusion.
Land use

• The land use implications for solar energy projects depend on their scale. Small rooftop
arrays are not a significant concern. Larger scale projects, however, can take up a lot of
available land.

• Depending upon topography, solar intensity and the type of solar technology, large systems
can span anywhere from 3.5 to 16.5 acres per megawatt of generation.

• Unlike wind power projects which can co-exist with agricultural land use, there is little
opportunity for a shared use model with large solar installations which can disrupt local
flora and fauna.

• As energy systems may impact land through materials exploration, extraction,

manufacturing and disposal, energy footprints can become incrementally high.

• Thus, some of the lands may be utilised for energy in such a way that returning to a pre-
disturbed state necessitates significant energy input or time, or both, whereas other uses are
so dramatic that incurred changes are irreversible.
Water Use

• Solar PV does not use water in electrical generation, whereas CSP projects do consume
water. The actual water usage depends on variables such as plant design, location and the
type of cooling system employed.

• Dry-cooling technology can cut water usage by 90% but can result in higher costs and lower
efficiencies.

• One potential point of concern is that some of the best places for solar energy happen to
have the driest climates and poorest water availability. Therefore, water supply is an
important consideration when it comes to solar projects.

Hazardous Materials

• Several hazardous materials are used during the PV cell manufacturing process. Chemicals
are used for the most part to clean and purify the semiconductor surface, including
substances such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrogen fluoride, 1,1,1-
trichloroethane, and acetone.
• Thin-film PV cells include toxic substances such as gallium arsenide, copper-indium-
gallium-diselenide, and cadmium-telluride. While improper handling or disposal could
result in serious environmental concerns, manufacturers are highly motivated to recycle
these highly valuable materials rather than to send them to the landfill.

Life Cycle Emissions

• Solar energy earns its stellar reputation as an energy source in that it does not generate
greenhouse gases during operations. Global warming emissions are created, though, at other
stages of the solar energy life cycle. These stages include resource extraction,
manufacturing, transportation, installation, maintenance, decommissioning and dismantling.

• Most estimates show that solar, over its complete lifecycle, produces a lot less carbon
dioxide equivalent than natural gas, and dramatically less than coal.

• So while solar power isn’t a perfect solution, it is much more environmentally friendly than
producing electricity from non-renewable sources, especially coal.
Recycling Solar Panels

• Currently the recycling of solar panels faces a big issue, specifically, there aren't enough
locations to recycle old solar panels, and there aren't enough non-operational solar panels to
make recycling them economically attractive. Recycling of solar panels is particularly
important because the materials used to make the panels are rare or precious metals, all of
them being composed of silver, tellurium, or indium.

• Due to the limitability of recycling the panels, those recoverable metals may be going to
waste which may result in resource scarcity issues in the future.
Energy payback ratio (EPR)
• Energy payback ratio (EPR) is the ratio of total energy produced during a system's normal
life span, divided by the energy required to build, maintain and fuel it.
• If a system has a low payback ratio, it means that much energy is required to maintain it and
this energy is likely to produce many environmental impacts. A high ratio indicates good
environmental performance.

Fig.111. Energy payback ratio (EPR) for conventional and renewable energy sources
Energy payback time (EPT)

• Energy payback time (EPT) is the time required for a generation technology to generate the
amount of energy that was required to build, fuel, maintain and decommission it.

Table 4. Energy payback time of energy generating technologies

Solar power safety rules to minimize your risk

• The first safety rule to keep in mind when working with photovoltaic panels or other PV
components is, always stop working in bad weather. PV panels can be blown around by the
wind or a storm which can result in you falling or damage to the PV system.

• Make sure your entire PV system is properly and safely earth grounded to prevent electrical
shock and injury.

• When working on roof tops, always insure that extreme safety precautions (including
harnesses, lifelines and safety nets) are taken to prevent slipping, falling and causing injury
or death.

• Never install a PV system near flammable gases or you could cause a fire or explosion.

• Never touch any electrical contacts or wiring without proper protection and safety gear.

• Always protect your wires or cables with flexible metal conduit when wiring through walls,
for wires exposed to sunlight, rain or anywhere outdoors. Failure to follow this photovoltaic
solar safety rule can result in electrical shock or short circuit.
Thermal storage safety for Concentrating Solar Power

• Combustible solids and oxidizable metals should be kept away form molten-salt tanks.

• Carbon dioxide and approved dry powder-type extinguishers should be used – no water or
volatile liquids.

• Adequate supply of dry sand should be available for slagging an diking to confine the
spread.

Solar water heater safety precautions

• Always keep the solar collector filled with water when exposed to sun. Inadequate water
inside the collector will form the steam and can be extremely harmful.

• Cover the solar collector with opaque material while installing.

• Do not touch the outlet water pipe with bare hands, it can be extremely hot and will cause
burns.