Exercises:

Q1: Express the mass density of water in

a) SI units: kg/m3
b) cgs units: g/cm3
c) Imperial units: lb/ft3

Q2: Consider gas molecular structure, how would you expect the fluid
density to change 1) due to increase in temperature; 2) due to
increase in pressure

Q3: A hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity of liquids. For a

certain liquid a hydrometer reading indicates a specific gravity of 1.15.
What is the liquid’s density and specific weight. Express your answer in
SI units.
Exercises:
A1: Express the mass density of water in
a) SI units: 1000 kg/m3
b) cgs units: 1g/cm3
c) Imperial units: 62.43 lb/ft3

A2: With pressure being constant, density decreases with

increased temperature.
With temperature being constant, density increases with
increased pressure.

A3: density = 1.15 x 103 kg m-3

specific weight = 1.13 x 104 N m-3
Typical density for Newtonian fluids
Temperature Density
(oC) (kg/m3)
Water 4 1000
Water 20 998.2
Water 100 958.4
oil 38 889-950
Glycerol 20 1262
Mercury 20 13546
Air, 1atm 20 1.23
Air, 1atm 100 0.94
Hydrogen, 0 0.09
1atm
Compressibility

Compressibility is an important question on how easily the volume (and 
thus the density) of a fluid be changed when there is a change in pressure

Definition 1.3: A property that is commonly used to characterize compressibility is the bulk
dp
modulus, Ev , defined as Ev  , where dp is the differential change in pressure
dV / V
needed to create a differential change in volume, dV of a volume V .

Note: The bulk modulus of water is 2.2 Gpa. The low compressibility of non-gases, and
of water in particular, leads to their often being assumed as incompressible. The low
compressibility of water means that even in the deep oceans at 4 km depth, where
pressures are 40 MPa, there is only a 1.8% decrease in volume.
Surge control --- power station failure

Compressibility is an important question on how easily the volume (and 
thus the density) of a fluid be changed when there is a change in pressure
 
The occurrence of hydraulic surge:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surge_control


Surge control devices absorb andlimit this pressure increase and
prevent damage to the pipework.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GP0Y-H1iGW8

Inappropriate designs caused the break-down of one of the most powerful
power station in the world, Sayano–Shushenskaya power station accident.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_Sayano%E2%80%93Shushenskaya_power_station_acci
dent
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3cHMS_7oqvI
Viscosity
What?
 
 Viscosity is a fluid property relevant to fluids in motion.

In a flow of fluid, when the fluid elements move with different velocities, each element will
 feel some resistance due to fluid friction within the elements.













Viscosity measures the resistance  of a
 fluid to differences in velocity.

The less viscous the fluid is, the
greater
its ease of movement fluidity.

A fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal

fluid or inviscid fluid. In reality, all real fluids (except superfluid) have
some resistance to stress and therefore are viscous.
Why?
• Molecules are in motion and
continuously dislocating with
respect to other molecules

• Any layer in a moving fluid tries

to drag the adjacent layer to move
with an equal speed.

• Migration of molecules causes

forces of acceleration or
deceleration to drag the layers so
as to oppose the differences in
velocity between the layers, hence
produce the effect of viscosity.


 
The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to two factors:
  Intermolecular force of cohesion 

Molecular momentum exchange
For gases, molecular motion is
more significant than the
cohesive forces, thus
viscosity of gases increase
with increase in
temperature. Viscosity  is
independent of pressure.

For liquids, molecular motion
is less significant than the
forces of cohesion, thus
viscosity of liquids
decrease with increase in
temperature. Viscosity varies

slowly with pressure.
How?

The relationshipbetween the shear stress and the velocity field was given by Sir
Isaac Newton.

In a fluid, shear stresses are developed when the fluid is in motion,  in
particular, different parts of the fluid move relative to each other.
v

Fixed
t0 t 
No-slip Condition of Viscous Fluids
The relative velocity between the solid surface and the adjacent fluid
particles is zero whenever a viscous fluid flows over a solid surface. This
is known as no-slip condition.
In general, the velocity profile may not be linear.

Newton’s law of viscosity

 du
dy
du
dy  : shear stress, unit: N m-2 or Pa

 : Viscosity, unit: kg m-1 s-1, or Pa s

du : velocity gradient, or strain
-1
dy rate, unit: s
 Newton’s law of viscosity   u
 : dynamic viscosity y

It depends upon the fluid under study Kinematic viscosity
-2 -1 -1
Unit: N s m or kg m s 
10 poise (P)=1 kg m-1 s-1  
1P=100 centipoises (cp) Units: m 2 s -1

 Newtonian fluids

Increase viscosity •Fluids obeys Newton’s law of

viscosity and for which  has a
constant value are called
Newtonian fluids.
•The relationship between stress
and strain rate is linear for
Newtonian fluids
Ideal fluid du/dy
Typical viscosity of Newtonian Fluids
Temperature Viscosity
(oC) (kg m-1 s-1)
Water 20 1.005 x 10-3 Viscosity is solely a function
of the fluid at specified
Water 100 0.296 x 10-3 temperature and pressure.
oil 38 2.900 x 10-2 Generally,
Glycerol 20 6.200 x 10-1 • For liquids,  decreases
Mercury 20 1.552 x 10-3 with increasing
temperature, in dependent
Air, 1atm 20 1.815 x 10-5 of pressure, why?
Air, 1atm 100 2.185 x 10-5 • For gases,  increases
Hydrogen, 0 8.350 x 10-6 with increasing
1atm temperature, why?
Non-Newtonian fluid

For Non-Newtonian fluids,
 the relationship between stress and velocity
gradient is not linear.

Newtonian fluid is a special form of time independent
 fluid with constant
ratio between the shear stress and the shear rate.
Eg: water, gases, liquid hydrocarbons, organic liquids of low
molecular weight……
Time Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids

 1. Shear thinning or Psuedoplastic :
viscosity decreases with increasing
strain rate.
Eg: polymer solutions and polymer
melts, such as polystyrene and nylon;
paints
Shearing tends to cause the entangled
long-chain molecules to straighten out
and become aligned with the flow, thus
du / dy reducing the effective viscosity.
 
 2. Shear thickening or Dilatant:
viscosity increaseswith increasing
strain rate. (rare)

Eg: particular suspensions such as sand
filled with water or cornstarch
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f2XQ97XHjVw)

Microstructure rearranges under shear

so that the fluid provides more
resistance to flow.
du / dy


3. Yield Stress or Bingham
 Fluid: a finite stress needs to be applied before
the fluid will deform.

 Eg: toothpaste, ketchup, blood, printer inks, slurry, some paints……
Once the fluid flows, the viscosity of a Bingham plastic fluid can be
constant, or it can either increase or decrease with increasing rate

of strain.
Everyday fluids that are Non-Newtonian

Fluid Behaviour
Toothpaste Won’t start flowing until force applied is above a
certain level
Paint Thick in tin, thin on brush, thick on wall

Silly putty Will flow if stretched slowly, will bounce or

shatter if hit sharply
Printing inks Flow easily at high speeds, don’t flow at low
speeds
Molten polymers Thread forming properties

Cement Small impulses allow settlement

Exercise:
Q: An infinite plate is held 0.33 mm above another. The gap between
the two is filled with a liquid with specific gravity 0.88. The viscosity
of the liquid is 0.65 centipoises. The upper plate is moved toward
right at a velocity u=0.3m/s. Determine
a) the velocity gradient
b) the shear stress on the upper plate
c) the shear stress on the lower plate
d) The direction of each shear stress calculated in (b) and (c)
Exercise:

A:
a) 909 s-1
b) 0.59 N m-2 towards left
c) 0.59 N m-2 towards right
d) See above
Exercise:

A piston 200 mm in diameter and 1.2 m in length moves within a

concentric cylinder 200.2 mm in diameter. The annular region is
filled with oil of specific gravity 0.85 and kinematic viscosity 400
mm2 s-1. The piston is pushed by a motor and the piston moves at
120 mm s-1. What is the force acted by the motor on the piston in
order to balance the viscous force resisting the piston motion.
Oil

MOTOR
200 mm 200.2 mm

1.2 m
Exercise:

A: velocity gradient 1200 s-

1
Shear stress 408 N m-2
Force 307.5N
Surface tension
What?

Surface tension is the tendency of an interfaceof liquid to behave like a
stretched elastic membrane, usually denoted as 
 
Example of surface tensor in effect:

a) Water beading on a leaf b) Water striders stay atop the liquid

c) Surface tension experiments on Youtube (

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DkEhPltiqmo&feature=related)
Why?

The cohesive forces
 among the liquid molecules are responsible for this phenomenon of
surface tension.
Picture a fluid from a microscopic view:
In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled
equally in every direction by neighboring  liquid
molecules, resulting in a net force of zero.

The molecules at the surface do not have other
molecules on allsides of them and therefore are
pulled inwards.

This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid
surfaces to contract to the minimal area.

To counter this inward pull an increased lateral
forces act on those molecules.
 This gives the
membrane like behaviour.
Surface tension was proposed as a hypothetical
property of the surface ofa liquid that allows it to
resist an external force.
How?
 
The surface tensor  is the same at any points.

The surface tension can be viewed to be acting along a line in the surface and

 has the units of force per unit length of that line



Surface tension is constant at any given temperature for the surface
between two particular substances.
 Surface tension decreases with

increasing temperature.
Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length (N m-1), or of
energy per unit area (J m-2). The two are equivalent—but whenreferring
to energy per unit of area, people use the term surface energy.


Energy is required
 to increase surface area. Nature always minimise the
free energy.

This is why liquids will tend to form the shape which has  the smallest
surface area/volume ratio, i.e., near spherical droplets.
Contact angle and spreading

a,l Consider the forces acting at the contact line

S a,s l,s a,l cos

a,s 
l,s At equilibrium,
a,s l,s a,l cos
 
 Adhesive forces between liquid and solid cause a liquid drop to spread across the surface.

Cohesive forces within the liquid cause the drop to ball up and avoid contact with the surface. Wetting is the
ability of a liquid to maintain contact with a solid surface. The degree of wetting (wettability) is
determined by a force balance between adhesive and cohesive forces. The contact angle θ, is the angle
at which the liquid–vapor interface
 meets the solid–liquid interface. The contact angle provides an
inverse measure of wettability.

Wetting of different fluids.

Capillary rise
These adhesion and cohesion properties result in the phenomenon of capillarity by which a
liquid either rises or falls in a tube dipped into the
liquid depending upon whether the force
of adhesion is more than that of cohesion or not.

For pure water in Mercury causes

contact with air capillary depression
in a clean glass with an angle of
tube, the capillary contact of about
rise takes place 130o in a clean glass
with contact in contact with air.
angle θ = 0 o.

Capillary rise: h  4 cos gD

Since h varies inversely with
 D, an appreciable capillary rise or depression is observed in tubes
of small diameter only.
Appendix: velocity gradient
Gradient: What is it?

v v v
-x +x

v(x)
v
-x
v
v
+x
x0-x x0 x0+x x
v v
lim x dv
Gradient is defined as x 0， 


velocity gradient
x dx
v
• For sufficiently small x dv v
x

dx  x

v  v  dv x
x
dx