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1. Introduction to Combined Cycle Power Generation

1.1 Combined Cycle Fundamental Theory and Operation

This Book is an overview of the principles and theory of a combined cycle
power plant design and operation. The objective is to provide KAPCO plant personnel
with a basic understanding of the major components of the combined cycle power
plant and the role of each component in achieving optimum plant efficiency. In
addition, this Book will help the plant staff to develop an appreciation for the unique
characteristics of the combined cycle power plant.

1.1.1 Overview
There are many different types of power plants including thermal power plants
and hydel power plants. Thermal power plants burn fuel such as Gas, HSD, Furnace
Oil or nuclear fuel to produce heat energy that is converted to electrical energy
through a series of intermediate processes. Hydel power plants convert the potential
energy of water to electrical power as it flows from higher to lower elevations.

The "traditional" thermal power plant is the Rankine cycle plant, named after
the man who invented the cycle. A power plant cycle is a series of processes in which
a fluid, generally water/steam, is used to convert heat energy to mechanical energy.
The Rankine cycle in its simplest form consists of a boiler, a turbine, a condenser, and
a boiler feed pump. Early plants had thermal efficiencies of approximately 25% to
30%. Only 25% to 30% of the heat energy in the fuel burned in these plants was
converted to electrical energy. The rest was lost in various ways.

The Rankine cycle has been refined considerably over the years and made
more efficient by the addition of components like Economizer, Feedwater heaters,
Superheaters and Reheaters. The efficiency of the Rankine cycle has also been
improved by increasing the pressure and temperature of the cycle. The laws of
thermodynamics and considerations such as material limitations have prevented any
significant improvement since then. Power plants commonly use heat rate to measure
efficiency. Heat rates in KAPCO power plant on different fuels are shown in table 1.

Thus, heat rate shows the amount of heat in kJ/kwh that is required to produce
a kilowatt-hour of electrical energy. Thermal efficiency can be converted to heat rate
by using the conversion factor given below.

The heat rate of the KAPCO Generation Complex varies between 40% to 44%.
Thermal efficiency depending on fuel selection and ambient conditions.

Description GAS HSD BFO

Heat Rates 33126 kJ/M3 36250 kJ/Litter 41100 kJ/Kg
Conversion Factor 12600 kJ/kwh 12600 kJ/kwh 12188 kJ/kwh

Table 1: Data for different fuels of Heat Rates and Conversion Factor in KAPCO

1
Gas Turbines and Combined Cycle
The first practical gas turbine was developed in Europe in 1939 at the end of
World War I, and it was developed for aircraft. Shortly after the war, the industrial gas
turbines for power production and other industrial applications, such as driving
locomotives, were introduced. Gas turbines use another type of cycle called Brayton
cycle, also named after its inventor. Initial commercial and industrial gas turbines
were relatively inefficient, typically having thermal efficiency of 16% to 17%.

As the gas turbine industry matured, the design of gas turbines was improved.
Use of gas turbines in the power utility industry increased steadily from their
introduction in the late 1940’s. Gas turbines reached a peak of popularity in the early
1970’s. At that time, the growth in demand for electric power exceeded the ability of
the industry to meet electrical demand through addition of Rankine cycle plants alone.
Gas turbines were attractive because they could be built much more rapidly than
Rankine cycle plants.

PLANT EQUIPMENT NAME PLATE DATA.

GAS TURBINES (Units 1-2 & 3-4):
Sr # Description Unit No 1&2 Unit No 3&4
1 Model V-94.2 TG-50
2 Manufacturer M/S KW (Germany) M/s GIE (Italy)
3 Base Load rating at 30 °C 95 / 98 (GAS) 83 / 84 (GAS)
92 / 95 (HSD) 79 / 79 (HSD)
92 / 95 (FO)
4 Starting Device S.F.C Generator runs as motor 11KV – 1915 KW
initially
5- i Declutching Speed 2100 to 2300 RPM 1910 to 1980 RPM
-ii- Starting time upto 3000 RPM 4 Minutes 25 Minutes
6 Turbine Inlet Temperature 1050 °C 1050 °C
7 Turbine exhaust temperature at 507 to 550 °C 553 to 610 °C
full load
8 Maximum Mass flow through 426 Kg/sec 322 Kg/sec
turbine
9 Spining Reserve 7 MW 20 MW 2 MW, after 90 Sec
10 -i- Auto Loading gradient 11 MW/minute upto base load 6 MW
-ii- Onward 4 MW - -
11 Compressor Stages 16 Nos 20 Nos
12 Compression Ratio 9.11 12
13 No of Combustors 2 18
14 Lube Oil Grade TRESSO-46 TRESSO-32
15 Overall Efficiency 28.8% 27.4%
16 No of Stages 4 4

2
Gas Turbine Unit No (5 to 8)
Sr # Description Unit No 5 to 8
1 Model 9001 E
2 Manufacturer M/S ALSTHOM France
3 Base Load Rating at 30 °C 82 / 84 / 80 / 82 on GAS
MW 79 / 81 / 77 / 79 on HSD
79 / 81 / 77 / 79 on FO
4 Starting Device 6.6 KV Motor
5 -i- Declutching Speed 1800 RPM
-ii- Staring Time upto 3000 RPM 10 Minutes
6 Turbine Inlet Temperature GAS
1085°C on HSD
1029°C on FO
7 Turbine Exhaust Temperature at full Load 540 °C on GAS
528 °C on HSD
489 °C on FO
8 Maximum mass flow through turbine 406 Kg/Sec
9 Spinning Reserve 4 MW
10 Auto Loading Gradient 8 MW/Min
11 Compressor Stages 17 Nos
12 Compression Ratio 11.00
13 No. of Combustors 14
14 Lube Oil Grade DTE-724
15 Average Overall Efficiency 31.5%
16 No. of Stages 3

Gas Turbine Unit No (13 & 14)

Sr # Description Unit No 13 & 14
1 Model V-94.2
2 Manufacturer M/S SIEMENCE (Germany)
3 Base Load Rating at 30 °C 110 / 110 on Gas
106 / 106 on HSD
106 / 106 on FO
4 Starting Device S.F.C generator runs as Motor initially
5 (i) Declutching Speed 2100 to 2300 RPM
(ii) Starting time upto 3000 RPM 4 Minutes
6 Turbine Inlet Temperature 1050 °C
7 Turbine Exhaust Temperature at full load 530 °C to 550 °C
8 Maximum Mass flow through Turbine 406 Kg/Sec
9 Spining Reserve 21 Minutes
10 -i Auto Loading Gradiant 11 MW / Minute upto base load
(ii) Onward 4 MW/Minute 30 MW fast Gradiant
11 Comprassor stages 17 Nos
12 Compression Ratio 10
13 No. of Combustors 2
14 Lube Oil Grade Shell T-46

3
15 Average Overall Efficiency 32% on GAS
31% on HSD
30% on BFO
16 No. of stages 4

Steam Turbines
Sr.No Description Units 9 & 10 Units 11 & 12 Unit - 15
1. Make ABB, Germany RATEAU, France Siemens, Germany
2. Type: DK2056 VEGA209 110B 030-16, N30-2X5-B-9
3. Rated Power 112.2 MW 103.4 MW 148.6 MW
4. No. of Cylinder 2 1 2
1st Cylinder
5. No. of stages 16 Reaction Single Cylinder with 26 Reaction
12 HP & 5LP
stages.
nd
2 Cylinder
6. No. of stages 7+7 Reaction Reaction 8+8 Reaction
Double flow All single flow Double flow
7. HP Steam Inlet Press (Bar) 47.9 40 57
8. Temperature °C 495 510.8 528
9. LP Steam Inlet Press(Bar) 3.99 - 5.78
10. Temperature °C 190.6 - 221
11. Vacuum (Bar) 0.091 0.091 0.091

The oil crisis of the early 1970’s brought a sudden halt to the popularity of gas
turbines for three reasons. First, almost all utility gas turbines use either gas or oil for
fuel. The cost of these fuels went up dramatically while their availability went down.
Secondly, the oil crisis brought renewed attention to the need for efficiency (getting
more energy out of the fuel). Gas turbines of this period were significantly less
efficient than Rankine cycle plants. Typical gas turbine thermal efficiencies were 20%
to 25%. Finally, the emphasis on conserving energy reduced the rate of increase in
electrical power demand and thus the need for new power plants.

The gas turbine industry has seen resurgence in the last 15 to 20 years. Part of
this recovery has resulted from steady increases in gas turbine efficiency due to
material and design improvements. Another cause for growth in the gas turbine
industry has been the growing popularity of combined cycle plants. A combined cycle
plant consists of one or two gas turbines that drive generators and exhaust into a
special boiler called a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) that generates steam
for a Rankine cycle unit.

4
 GAS TURBINE MODEL FRAME 9001 E
SIMPLE - CYCLE, SINGLE - SHAFT, HEAVY - DUTY GAS TURBINE
GT 5-8

2 6 798 10 14 11 12 16 20 17 19 18 23 26 30 31 28 35 32 34

COMPRESSOR
1 INLET PLENUM ASSEMBLY
2 INLET CASING
3 MAGNETIC PICKUP ARRANGEMENT
4 THRUST BEARING
5 No 1 BEARING
6 VARIABLE INLET GUIDE VANE ARRANGEMENT
7 COMPRESSOR BLADING
8 COMPRESSOR ROTOR ASSEMBLY
9 FORWARD COMPRESSOR CASING
5 10 AFTER COMPRESSOR CASING
11 COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE CASING
4 12 INNER COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE CASING
13 TURBINE FORWARD SUPPORT
14 TURBINE BASE

3 COMBUSTION
15 COMBUSTION WRAPPER
16 FUEL NOZZLE ASSEMBLY
17 COMBUSTION LINER
18 TRANSITION PIECE
19 COMBUSTION CHAMBER ARRANGEMENT
20 SPARK PLUG
21 FLAME DETECTOR

TURBINE
22 TURBINE CASING & SHROUDS
23 FIRST STAGE NOZZLE
24 SECOND STAGE NOZZLE & DIAPHRAGM
25 TURBINE STAGE NOZZLE & DIAPHRAGM
26 TURBINE ROTOR ASSEMBLY

- FORWARD SHAFT
- FIRST STAGE TURBINE WHEEL & BUCKET ASSEMBLY
- SECOND STAGE TURBINE WHEEL & BUCKET ASSEMBLY
- THIRD STAGE TURBINE WHEEL & BUCKET ASSEMBLY
- SPACER WHEELS
- AFTER SHAFT

27 No 2 BEARING
28 No 3 BEARING
29 TURBINE AFTER SUPPORTS

EXHAUST
30 EXHAUST HOOD
1 13 21 27 15 24 25 22 29 33 31 EXHAUST DIFFUSER
32 LOAD COUPLING
33 TURBINE VANES
34 CONTROL & REGULATION THERMOCOUPLES
AIR INLET COMPRESSOR COMBUSTOR TURBINE EXHAUST 35 EXHAUST PLENUM ASSEMBLY

5
 System 1 System 2

Combustor body
Combustor basket

Compressor diffuser

Turbine transition piece

Inlet casing

Compressor body

Compressor diaphragm
Compressor disk

Compressor rotating blade

Injector

Spark plug

Intermediate shaft
System 5

stationary blades
stationary
Air from 6th Stage

Air from 12th Stage

To 2° stage

To 3° - 4° stage
Air from 15th tage

System 5 Disc Cavity air cooler

System 3
S
Cooling Air Systems
System 1 Rotor cooling air bled from axial
compressor delivery (compressor last
stage), cooled and filtered System 4
System 2 1st stage stationary blades cooling air, bled
from axial compressor delivery
(compressor last stage)
System 3 3rd and 4th stage stationary blades cooling
air, bled from axial compressor 12th stage
System 4 2nd stage stationary blades cooling air, bled
from axial compressor 15th stage
System 5 Turbine side bearing labyrinth pressurizing
air for sealing of bearing to protect oil
leakage
GT 3-4, Components & Cooling air systems
6
 One of the principal reasons for the popularity of the combined cycle power
plants is their high thermal efficiency. Combined cycle plants with thermal
efficiencies as high as 52% have been built. Combined cycle plants can achieve these
efficiencies because much of the heat from the gas turbine(s) is captured and used in
the Rankine cycle portion of the plant. Refer Figure 1-1 below. The heat from the
exhaust gases would normally be lost to the atmosphere in an open cycle gas turbine.

RANKINE CYCLE
Dearator
Top
Feed Water Storage Tank

LP Feedwater
Pump HP Feedwater
LP Drum
Pump HP LP Generator
Turbine Turbine

LP Evaporator

BRAYTON CYCLE Bottom

HP Economizer
Steam
HP Drum Condenser

HP Evaporator

Super heater Cooling

Generator Tower

Desuperheater
Flue Gases Inlet
Hand Isolation Valve

~480 °C

Gland Steam
Condenser Condensate Extraction
Pumps

Fig 1-1
Combined Cycle Gas Turbine, Compressor, HRSG & Steam Turbine

Another reason for the popularity of combined cycle plants is the relatively
short time required for their construction. Although it takes longer to build a
combined cycle plant than a simple gas turbine plant, a combined cycle plant can be
built in much less time than a Rankine cycle plant of comparable output.

One of the biggest obstacles to even greater acceptance of combined cycle

plants is the fact that the gas turbines used in combined cycle plants still burn oil and
gas. Natural gas is the most common fuel used by combined cycle gas turbine power
plants. At KAPCO three fuels are used in Gas Turbines: Gas, HSD and Furnace Oil.

7
The Gas Turbine (Brayton) Cycle
The first major component of the combined cycle power plant is the gas
turbine. In installations where the gas turbine exhausts directly to the atmosphere, it is
said to be operating in "open cycle" mode. When a gas turbine exhausts into a heat
recovery steam generator (HRSG) the resultant steam is used to operate a steam
turbine generator, the plant is referred to as a combined cycle power plant.

A common arrangement of a gas turbine driving an electric generator is shown

in. Figure 1-2. The basic gas turbine consists of a compressor, a combustion section,
and a turbine section. Air is drawn into the compressor, which raises the pressure, by a
factor, on Unit 1&2 the factor is 9.11, on Unit 3&4 the factor is 12, on Unit 5-8 the
factor is 11 and on Unit 13&14 the factor is 11. The temperature of air also increases
with compression, and may be as high as 350 °C at the compressor discharge.

Fuel

Air inlet Compressed Exhaust

air Combustion Hot gas
Section

Dilution air

Driving Compressor Turbine Generator

motor

Figure 1-2

In the combustion section, fuel is injected into the compressed air and is burnt
to convert the fuel’s chemical energy into heat energy. Burning the fuel results in a
high temperature and high pressure gases with considerable thermal energy. These hot
gases enter the turbine section where they expand, giving up their thermal energy to
the blades of rotating turbine. In the process of expanding and cooling through turbine
section, the thermal energy of gas is converted into mechanical energy that is used to
do work. A large portion of work from the turbine, about 60%, is used to drive the
compressor. The remainder of the turbine work is available to produce power by
driving a generator. The exhaust temperature from KAPCO gas turbines on different
units is typically in the ranges.

Unit No. Exhaust temperature

1&2 507 °C to 550 °C
3&4 553 °C to 610 °C
5–8 489 °C to 528 °C
13 & 14 530 °C to 550 °C

8
 The thermodynamic cycle of a gas turbine is referred to as the Brayton Cycle.
The four processes of the Brayton Cycle are represented on a temperature-enthalpy
(T-h) diagram shown in Figure 1-3. The T-h diagram is a convenient way to illustrate
and analyze the performance of power plant cycles including the gas turbine cycle.
Temperature (T) is represented on the vertical axis and enthalpy (h) on the horizontal
axis. Enthalpy is a property of substances that describes the availability of energy to
do work.

The T-h diagram is useful in analyzing thermodynamic cycles because it

reveals the amount of heat required to make a process occur in a cycle. If a process
can be represented as a curve on the T-h diagram, the area under the curve is the
amount of heat required to make that process occur.

Each process in the Brayton Cycle can be drawn on the T-h diagram in Figure
1-3. The first process is the compression of air in the compressor represented by the
line A-B. As the air is compressed, its temperature and pressure increases and there is
a corresponding increase in enthalpy. As work is done on the air, the air stores this
energy in the form of temperature and pressure. The power (energy) to perform this
work originates from the turbine, which is directly coupled to the gas turbine
compressor through a common shaft.

HEAT C
ADDED

HEAT Combustion
REJECTED Expansion
T (Turbine)

D
B
Compression

A
Heat Rejection
(Exhaust)

Fig. 1-3 Brayton Cycle T-h Diagram

The second process is the addition of heat to the cycle at a constant pressure by
burning of fuel represented by the line B-C. The temperature of the gas that results
from the combustion increases considerably from the temperature of the air at the
compressor outlet.

The third process is the expansion and cooling of the gas as it passes through
the turbine, is represented by the line C-D. Here, the energy of the hot pressurised gas
is used to perform work.

The final process in the Brayton cycle is the cooling of the hot gas that
exhausts to the atmosphere represented by line D-A. The exhausted gas mixes with
ambient air, thus decreasing in temperature.

9
 The amount of heat that is required to make the Brayton cycle work is
represented by the area under lines B-C. The area under the line D-A represents the
fraction of heat that is rejected. The area between these two lines represents the heat
that is converted to useful mechanical energy. The heat converted to useful
mechanical energy is 20% to 25% of the total heat required to make the process work.

1.1.2 The Steam-Water (Rankine) Cycle

The Rankine Cycle used in conventional steam power plants can be
represented on a T-h diagram. As with the Brayton Cycle, each line segment in the
diagram corresponds to a process in the cycle. A simple Rankine Cycle consists of
only four components; the boiler (often called a steam generator), a turbine, a
condenser, and a boiler feed pump. The simple Rankine Cycle is shown on the T-h
diagram in Figure 1-5. It must be noted that the illustration uses a boiler with a
superheater, thus the temperature of the steam entering the turbine is above saturation
temperature.

HEAT HEAT
Super heater ADDED REJECTED
3 4
4
Super
heater
Steam 5 T
Turbine Boiler 3

Steam
Boiler
Turbine

2
Boiler
2
Feedpump 1 5

Condenser
Condenser

1 h
Boiler
Feedpump
Fig. 1-5 Rankine Cycle T-h diagram

The first process in Rankine Cycle is the increase in pressure of condensate

from condenser by the boiler feed pump. Increase in pressure occurs with a slight
increase in enthalpy. Increase in energy which the boiler feed pump adds to cycle is
represented by Line 1-2.

The second Rankine Cycle process (Line 2-3) is the addition of heat
(represented by Q) to water entering the boiler. Within the boiler, the water is
transformed from a liquid to steam (a gas). The generation of steam is assumed to
occur at a constant pressure. Additional energy is added to steam as it passes through
the superheater (Line 3-4). Steam is then expanded and cooled as it passes through the
turbine as represented by Line 4-5. Here, the energy of steam is used to perform work.

The last process in the Rankine Cycle is the condensation of steam that
exhausts from the turbine, represented by line 5-1. During condensation, considerable
heat, called the heat of vaporization, is lost.

10
 The heat required making the Rankine Cycle work is determined by the area
under the lines between points 2 to 4; and the heat lost from the cycle is under the line
between points 5 and 1. The area between the lines represents the heat that is
converted to useful mechanical energy. The useful mechanical energy is only about
1/3rd of the heat required to make the cycle work.

The efficiency of conventional steam power plants is about 30% to 35%.

Actual steam power plants are considerably more complex than the simple cycle
shown in Figure 1-5 because components such as Economizer, LP & HP Feedwater
heaters, Air preheater are added to improve efficiency. Typically only 85% to 90% of
the heat energy input is absorbed in Boilers. This means that the boiler is only 85% to
90% efficient.

Additional auxiliary equipment, such as fans and soot blowers, uses part of the
power produced (usually around 5%).

1.1.3 Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)

The HRSG is basically a heat exchanger composed of a series of economizer,
evaporator and superheater sections. These sections are positioned from gas inlet to
gas outlet to maximize heat recovery from the gas turbine exhaust gases. The heat
recovered in the HRSG is used to supply steam to the steam turbine at the proper
temperature and pressure.

In the open cycle mode of operation, the temperature of the exhaust gases
leaving KAPCO gas turbines can be as high as following:

Unit No. Exhaust temperature Steam Flow rate

1&2 507 °C to 550 °C
3&4 553 °C to 610 °C
5–8 489 °C to 528 °C
13 & 14 530 °C to 550 °C 64 Kg/sec on Gas
57 Kg/sec on FO

High temperature gas represents a source of heat energy, some of which can be
recovered if the means to do so are available. By recovering some of this waste heat,
the output and the efficiency of a power plant is increased.

The function of a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is to recover the

waste heat available in these exhaust gases and transfer that waste heat to water and
steam. The heat is used to generate steam at high pressure and high temperature. The
steam is then used to generate additional power in a steam turbine driven generator.
The HRSG provides the critical link between the gas turbine and the Rankine cycle in
a combined cycle plant. The HRSG is a key component in combined cycle efficiency.

11
1.1.4 The Combined Cycle
Gas Turbine Rankine
Cycle Cycle
Combined cycle refers to a power
plant in which a gas turbine is integrated with
Heat
a Steam Turbine or Rankine cycle unit. The Rejected
Rankine cycle makes use of much of the heat T
in the gas turbine exhaust gases.
Thermodynamically, the combined cycle can
be represented by joining the high
temperature Brayton cycle with the moderate
pressure and temperature Rankine cycle. An
example of a combined cycle showing the
Brayton cycle (gas turbine) and the Rankine h
cycle (steam turbine) on a T-h diagram is Fig. 1-7 Combined Cycle T-h Diagram
shown in Figure 1-7. The area enclosed by the
Rankine cycle is within the area that represents the T heat rejected from the Brayton
cycle. Thus, the Rankine cycle area represents the heat energy that is converted to
useful mechanical energy that would other-wise be rejected to the atmosphere. A large
portion of the heat lost from the Brayton, cycle is used in the Rankine cycle. A much
greater fraction of the heat added to the cycle is actually converted to useful
mechanical energy in the combined cycle than either the Brayton cycle or the Rankine
cycle alone. The Rankine cycle parameters (pressure and temperature) are selected to
match the temperature of the available gas turbine exhaust gases. Usually, the pressure
and temperature used in the Rankine cycle portion of the combined cycle plant are
much lower than those used in conventional Rankine cycle plants. The lower pressure
and temperature are necessary because the gas turbine exhaust gas, while very hot, is
not nearly as hot as the flue gas entering the convection pass of a conventional fuel
fired boiler.
The challenge in joining the Brayton and Rankine cycles in a combined cycle
plant is the degree of integration needed to maximize efficiency at an economic cost.
The simple combined cycle can consist of a single gas turbine, HRSG, steam turbine,
condenser, and auxiliary systems. In addition, if the environmental regulations require,
an emissions reduction system can be directly integrated within the HRSG. A variety
of more complex configurations are possible.

1.1.5 Rankine Cycle Parameters and Efficiency

The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is influenced by the configuration of the
plant and the steam/water conditions in the cycle. In order to achieve the highest
overall combined cycle plant efficiency, the efficiency of both the Brayton cycle and
the Rankine cycle must be compromised.
For the Rankine Cycle, the higher the steam pressure and temperature, the
more efficient the cycle. Further more, the steam must be superheated far above its
saturation temperature to prevent condensation as it passes through the steam turbine.
As an example, in a cycle with initial conditions of 166 bar and 537°C, the steam is
heated 137°C above saturation and thus it is said to have 137°C of superheat. There
must be a source of heat that is hotter than 537°C in order to heat the steam to 537°C.

12
In a typical boiler, the fireball and hot flue gases (approaching 1093°C) provide that
high temperature.
The temperature of exhaust gas from a typical gas turbine is lower than the
flue gas in a conventional fired boiler, usually 482 °C to 583 °C. Since this
temperature is relatively low compared to the conventional fired boiler, the maximum
pressure that the HRSG can have and still provide adequate superheat is lower than
the fired boiler found in the conventional Rankine cycle. Typical initial steam
conditions for a combined cycle plant are 62 bar and 482 °C. Steam at this pressure
and temperature has about 186 °C of superheat. The relatively low pressure and
temperature make the Rankine cycle portion of the combined cycle plant less efficient
than the Rankine cycle in most conventional plants. None the less, the use of a
relatively inefficient Rankine cycle together with the gas turbine in a combined cycle,
makes the overall cycle efficiency higher than a conventional Rankine cycle alone.
Another critical parameter that affects the efficiency of the Rankine cycle is
the pressure in the condenser. In general, the lower the condenser pressure (the higher
the vacuum), the more efficient the Rankine cycle can be. The factors that determine
the condenser pressure for a given load on a Rankine cycle unit are the conditions of
the condenser (especially how clean the tubes are) and the temperature of the
circulating water. The lower the circulating water temperature, the lower the
condenser pressure and thus the more efficient the Rankine cycle. The design and
operating considerations for the condenser of a combined cycle plant are the same as
those for a conventional Rankine cycle plant.

1.1.6 Combined Cycle Parameters and Efficiency

The joining of the gas turbine and the Rankine cycle in the combined cycle
plant requires some compromises in component efficiency in order to assure the
maximum overall combined cycle plant efficiency. For example, if the efficiency of
the gas turbine was maximized without regard to the efficiency of the plant as a
whole, the Rankine cycle portion of the plant might be adversely affected.
Maximizing gas turbine efficiency could result in an overall reduction of the
combined cycle efficiency. Similarly, if the Rankine cycle portions were modified
without regard to the gas turbine, the gas turbine efficiency might decrease and lower
the overall plant efficiency.

Two principal issues must be considered in the combined cycle performance.

The first issue is the initial steam conditions in the Rankine cycle. The higher the
initial steam pressure and temperature, the more efficient the Rankine cycle. Gas
turbine exhaust temperature determines the upper limits on Rankine cycle initial
conditions; the higher that temperature, the higher the Rankine cycle pressure and
temperature can be. Higher gas turbine exhaust temperature also benefits the Rankine
cycle because the higher the temperature of the gas turbine exhaust the more thermal
energy (heat) is available to the HRSG.

High gas turbine exhaust temperature is desirable for high Rankine cycle
efficiency. The more efficient the gas turbine is, the lower its exhaust gas temperature.
Accordingly, some compromise is required between gas turbine efficiency and
Rankine cycle initial conditions.

13
 Gas turbine exhaust temperature is also a concern when the gas turbine is at
less than full load. When the gas turbine drives a generator that is synchronized to an
electrical distribution system, the turbine speed is constant regardless of the load. The
compressor operates at the same constant speed and thus provides the same amount of
air to the combustion section, regardless of the amount of fuel being burned. The
result is considerably lower firing temperatures and exhaust temperature at reduced
load. The reduced temperatures cause both the gas turbine and Rankine cycle
efficiencies to fall as the load is reduced.

In older gas turbine designs, there was no way to remedy this problem. In
newer gas turbine designs, air flow through the compressor can be controlled by
adjustable Inlet Guide Vanes (IGVs). Changing the angle of attack of the IGVs in
operation does the control. At reduced loads, the IGVs can be adjusted to produce a
lower airflow and maintain high exhaust temperatures at reduced load. The range of
load over which this method is effective is relatively small, typically from 70% to
100% of full load.

The second principal issue in combined cycle efficiency is the gas turbine
exhaust pressure. The pressure at the gas turbine exhaust is the same as the pressure at
the HRSG inlet. As exhaust pressure increases, the velocity of the exhaust gas through
the HRSG tube bundles also increases.

Heat transfer in the HRSG is principally convective. The effectiveness of

convective heat transfer is partially dependent on velocity. As the velocity of the
exhaust gases increases, the heat transfer increases also. Thus, HRSG efficiency
improves, as the gas turbine exhaust pressure increases. This is however, the opposite
of what is desirable for gas turbine efficiency.

Heat transfer can be increased without increasing gas turbine exhaust pressure
by adding more tubes in the HRSG, which increases the heat transfer surface area. The
increased cost of the additional heat transfer surface area may, however, outweigh the
increase in gas turbine efficiency.

For the simple cycle, increasing the pressure ratio increases gas turbine
efficiency while increasing firing temperature can decrease efficiency. However,
increasing the firing temperature increases the gas turbine output. For the combined
cycle, very high-pressure ratios result in little increase or even a decrease in combined
cycle efficiency. Increases in firing temperature always result in an increase in
combined cycle efficiency.

Designers of combined cycle plants must compromise the efficiency of the gas
turbine and the Rankine cycle, especially the HRSG, in order to optimize the
performance of the combined cycle. By design, the pressure ratio is limited somewhat
and the exhaust pressure is slightly higher than it would be with the gas turbine
operating in simple cycle. This optimization has resulted in combined cycle efficiency
as high as 52%. Future increases in gas turbine firing temperatures could produce
combined cycle efficiencies as high as 60%.

14
1.2 BENEFITS OF THE COMBINED CYCLE
The demand for combined cycle power plants has increased dramatically over
the last decade. The principal reason for this increase in popularity is probably the fact
that combined cycle plants offer the most efficient, proven technology for generating
steam and/or electric power commercially available today. There are other reasons for
the increase in popularity however, including availability of gas and oil fuel, moderate
capital cost, and short construction schedule as compared to conventional Rankine
cycle plants. This Section describes the benefits of combined cycle technology.

1.2.1 Operational Benefits

Many of the benefits of combined cycle technology are related directly to
operational benefits. Those benefits are described below.

Efficiency
Recent advances in gas turbine technology have increased efficiency while
maintaining high availability and reliability ratings. Manufacturers, such as General
Electric, have implemented design advancements in cooling and aerodynamics to
boost the efficiency of their simple cycle MS700 of gas turbine to over 35%. This is a
significant improvement compared to the GE frame 5 units of the 1970’s that had
thermal efficiencies up to 23%. Specially developed high strength alloys and
improved coatings have allowed firing temperatures to exceed 1260°C. These gas
turbines have simple cycle efficiencies comparable to conventional fossil-fired power
plants. Other efficiency improvements have come from enhancements in the following
areas:

 Inlet guide vane design

 Compressor blade design
 Tighter compressor and turbine clearances
 Improved turbine nozzles, buckets, and shrouds
 Improved combustion systems

Reliability
Early industrial gas turbines were relatively unreliable when compared to
steam turbines in Rankine cycle plants. Advanced gas turbine designs have resulted in
greater reliability and higher availability. Availability is a measure of reliability that is
essentially the ratio of the time the machine was available to produce power to the
time the unit should have been on-line. Since the early seventies, gas turbine
availability has increased from as low as 70%, to over 90%. Projected availability for
newer models can be as high as 95% with 3000 hours MTBF (Mean Time Between
Failures). This is better than the availability of many conventional Rankine cycle
plants. Improvements in reliability are mainly due to improved materials and
‘designed-in’ redundancy of critical accessory components; especially in the control
systems. Building redundancy into a design ensures that there is at least one back-up
component to perform a function so that the failure of a single component does not
result in a forced outage.

15
Flexibility
Beyond thermal efficiency and reliability gains, combined cycle plants can
offer considerable operating flexibility. In many combined cycle plants, the gas
turbine can be operated simple cycle or in the combined mode. This feature requires
the installation of a bypass stack and damper between the combustion turbine exhaust
and the HRSG. The damper can be positioned to direct the exhaust gas to either the
bypass stack or the HRSG. Use of a bypass damper allows the gas turbine to be placed
in operation while the steam turbine is shut down. Flexibility can be extended through
the addition of multiple gas turbines, HRSGs, and steam turbines. However, increased
flexibility comes at the cost of greater complexity.
Conventional steam power plants equipped with fired boilers often require
several hours, or days, to go from cold iron to base load operation. The majority of the
start-up process is spent preheating the boiler and steam turbine to prevent thermal
stress and fatigue to the equipment. Because conventional steam turbines operate at
high temperatures and pressures, they are constructed with heavier / thicker materials
designed to withstand the operating conditions. To include; the turbine shell and rotor,
the boiler drums, and the fire brick in the boiler furnace. These heavier / thicker
materials require a very slow and gradual heat up process to bring the plant to base
load operation.
Combined cycle powers plants, on the other hand, operate at lower
temperature and pressure and are therefore constructed with lighter materials. Gas
turbine portion of a combined cycle plant can be brought from cold iron to full load in
a matter of 10 to 20 minutes depending upon the particulars of the unit. Primary
limiting factor on gas turbine ramp rate is the heat up of HRSG. However, since
HRSG’s are made of lighter materials than conventional boilers, they can be brought
to full steaming conditions in an hour or less. This increased flexibility over
conventional steam turbine results in reduced costs in man-hours and downtime, and
increased revenue in being able to generate power in a short period of time.

High Degree of Control and Automation with Minimal Monitoring

Present day gas turbines incorporate a high degree of automation and control /
monitoring capabilities that make them quite simple to operate. Gas turbine control
systems are based on digital components and techniques that allow flexibility and high
reliability. Capabilities of the controls include automatic startup, synchronizing and
loading to rated load, complete monitoring and protection of the gas turbine from
unsafe operating conditions.
High control system reliability is achieved by redundant control sensors,
controllers, and final control elements (i.e. temperature and flow control valves etc.).
Continuous monitoring is provided on computer screens and the operators inter-face
with the gas turbine is through keyboards or other devices. The computer based
systems (Q4W CAMM) employ built-in diagnostics and troubleshooting routines that
analyze and correct operation and control problems. The use of redundant components
allows on-line replacement of boards and sensors that are physically accessible during
operation. All of these features contribute to the increase in automation and minimize
the need for operator interaction for normal turbine operation.

16
1.2.2 Environmental Aspects
Over the past decade, growing concern for the environment has led to stricter
standards regarding air emissions and industrial pollution. Emissions include sulphur
dioxide SO2, Nitrogen Oxides NOX (NO, NO2), and particulate. NOX emissions are a
product of every air-fed combustion process, including those in the gas turbines. NOX
emissions are suspected of contributing to several atmospheric processes that are
either known or thought to be degrading to the environment. Among those processes
are acid rain, forest and vegetation decline, and changes to the ozone layer.
Power plants are responsible for about one-third of the annual NOx emissions.
Utilities have been forced to add new equipment or modify existing equipment to
comply with recent regulations. These additions and modifications have proven to be
both expensive and time consuming.
Gas turbines and combined cycle plants have proven to operate with
significantly lower emissions of contaminants to the air than older Rankine cycle
steam power plants. Another environmental benefit of the combined cycle plant is
related to its high efficiency. By operating at more efficiently, less fuel is burnt for a
given electrical load resulting in fewer combustion by-products. If natural gas is fired,
sulphur dioxide and particulate emissions are negligible. Also, advances in combined
cycle technology have yielded modifications in the process which reduce emissions
even further. Several of these modifications are listed below:

Low Sulphur Furnace Oil (LSFO) :- After the privatisation of KAPCO Low
Sulphur Furnace Oil is being used at all Gas Turbines. It has reduced the SO2
discharge to air to the great extent.

Low NOx Burners :- Modifications in gas turbine combustors have resulted in lower
NOx emissions by adequately premixing the air and fuel upstream of the combustor
and providing more stable control of fuel and air in the combustion process. The low
NOx burners reduce the amount of excess air, control flame length, and reduce flame
temperatures, all of which reduce the formation of NOx.

Steam/Water Injection :- Injecting steam or water into a gas turbine’s combustor has
proven to significantly reduce NOx emissions. Steam inside the combustion zone has a
quenching effect, which suppresses NOx formation by as much as 70%. Steam/water
injection also increases power output, but reduces combined cycle efficiency slightly.

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) :- SCR is a process in which nitrogen oxides

are removed by the injection of aqueous ammonia (NH3) into the flue gas upstream of
a catalyst structure. The catalyst causes a chemical reaction that converts the nitrogen
oxides to elemental nitrogen and water vapour. The SCR unit, generally located
within the HRSG, offers a NOx removal efficiency of up to 90%.
In addition to reduced air emissions, combined cycle power plants generally
operate with less thermal pollution of cooling water sources, and reduced
consumption of water and natural resources. Also, the space required to build a
combined cycle plant is significantly less than for a conventional Rankine Cycle plant.
All of these environmental factors are considered by Public Utilities Commissions in
granting licenses to build new power plants. The less the environmental impact, the

17
more likely a license will be granted. Accordingly, the difficulty and risk of
completing the licensing process required for a combined cycle plant is less than that
for a comparable, conventional, Rankine Cycle plant.

2. GAS TURBINES
To understand the design, function, operation, and control of gas turbines it is
first essential to grasp the underlying principles. This chapter addresses the theory and
principles of gas turbine design and operation, as well as the construction,
classification, and characteristics of gas turbines.

2.1 Applicable Physics Concepts and Laws

To understand basic gas turbine engine theory, one must be familiar with the
physics of the gas turbine engine. The five physics concepts that apply to the operation
of a gas turbine engine are:

1. Bernoulli's Principle
2. Boyle's Law
3. Charles' Law
4. Newton's Law
5. Pascal's Law

Bernoulli's Principle
If an incompressible fluid flowing through a tube reaches a constriction, or
narrowing of the tube, the velocity of the fluid flowing through the constriction
increases and the pressure decreases. Figure 2-1 illustrates Bernoulli's Principle.
100 PSI 90 PSI 100 PSI

A B
POINT X
Fig 2-1 Bernolli’s Principle

As illustrated in Figure 2-1, Chamber A is under pressure and is connected by

a tube to Chamber B, which is also under pressure. Chamber A is under static pressure
of 100 PSI. The pressure at any point along the connecting tube (Point X) consists of a
velocity pressure of 10 PSI. Added is the unused static pressure of 90 PSI, which
obeys Pascal's Law and operates equally in all directions. As the fluid enters Chamber
B from the constricted space, it is slowed down. In doing so, its velocity head is
changed back to a pressure head. Therefore, the static pressure in Chamber B is equal
to that in Chamber A; although it was lower at intermediate Point X.
The illustration (Figure 2-1) disregards friction and is not encountered in
actual practice. Force or head is also required to overcome friction. But, unlike inertia

18
effect, this force cannot be recovered although the energy represented still exists
somewhere as heat. Therefore, in an actual system the pressure in Chamber B would
be less than in Chamber A. This is a result of the amount of pressure used in
overcoming friction along the way.
At all points in a system, the static pressure is always the original static
pressure less any velocity head at the point in question. It is also less the friction head
consumed in reaching that point. Both velocity head and friction represent energy that
came from the original static head. Energy cannot be destroyed. So, the sum of the
static head, velocity head, and friction at any point in the system must add up to the
original static head. This then, is Bernoulli's principle more simply stated; If a non-
compressible fluid flowing through a tube reaches a constriction, or narrowing of the
tube, the velocity of fluid flowing through the constriction increases, and the pressure
decreases. Bernoulli's principle governs the relationship of the static and dynamic
factors concerning non-compressible fluids. Pascal's law governs the behaviour of the
static factors when taken by themselves.

Boyle's Law
P1 P2
Compressibility is a characteristic of all
gases. The English scientist, Robert Boyle, was
among the first to study this characteristic,
referring to it as the springiness of air. Boyle
discovered that when the temperature of an
enclosed sample of gas was kept constant and the
pressure doubled, the volume was reduced to half V1
the former value. As the applied pressure was V2
decreased, the resulting volume increased. From
these observations he concluded that for a
constant temperature the product of the volume P1V1 = P2V2
Fig 2-2 Boyles Law
and pressure of an enclosed gas remains constant.
This became Boyle's law, which is normally stated; the volume of an enclosed dry gas
varies inversely with its pressure, provided the temperature remains constant.
Boyle's Law can be demonstrated by confining a quantity of gas in a cylinder,
which has a tightly fitted piston. By applying force to the piston, the gas in the
cylinder will compress to some specific volume. If the applied force is doubled, the
piston will compress the gas to one half its original volume (Figure 2-2). As the
applied pressure is decreased, the resulting volume is increased.
Changes in the pressure of a gas also affect the density. As the pressure
increases, its volume decreases; however, there is no change in the weight of the gas.
Therefore, the weight per unit volume (density) increases. So it follows that the
density of a gas varies directly as the pressure, if the temperature is constant.

19
Charles' Law
Jacques Charles, a French scientist, provided much of the foundation for the
modern kinetic theory of gases. He found that all gases expand and contract in direct
proportion to the change in the absolute temperature; provided the pressure is held
constant. Any change in the temperature of a gas causes a corresponding change in
volume. Therefore, if a given sample of gas were heated while confined within a given
volume, the pressure should increase. An example of Charles' Law is as follows:

If an aerosol can is placed in a fire and heated, it would eventually explode. This
results from expansion of gas in the can due to rise in its absolute temperature.

Newton's First Law

Newton's First Law states that a body at rest tends to remain at rest. A body in
motion tends to remain in motion. An example of Newton's First Law is as follows:

A parked automobile will remain motionless until some force causes it to

move (a body at rest remains at rest). The second portion of the law can be
demonstrated only in the theoretical sense. The same automobile placed in
motion would remain in motion if all air resistance were removed, if no
friction were in the bearings, and if the surface were perfectly level.

Newton's Second Law

Newton's Second Law states that an imbalance of force on a body tends to
produce acceleration in the direction of force. The acceleration, if any, is directly
proportional to the force and is inversely proportional to the mass of the body. An
example of Newton's Second Law is as follows:

When throwing a baseball, the force required to accelerate the ball at 10 m/sec2
would have to be doubled to accelerate the ball at 20m/sec2. However, if the mass of
ball were doubled, the original acceleration 10m/sec2 would be cut in half to 5m/sec2.
Force = Mass x Acceleration.

Newton's Third Law

Newton's Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction. An example of this is as follows:

The firing of rifle. The firing of the rifle causes the bullet to go in one
direction (the action) and the gun to recoil into your shoulder (the reaction).

20
2.2 Gas Turbine Engine Fundamentals
A gas turbine is an internal combustion engine. Like all internal combustion
engines, gas turbines compress air, take in fuel for combustion, and use the resultant
volume of hot gases to develop shaft horsepower. Referring to Figure 2-3, the three
primary sections of a gas turbine engine are:
Fuel
Nozzle
Fuel Combustor
Air
Inlet

Compressor Turbine

A B C D

Fig 2-3
Gas Turbine with Compressor, Combustor and Turbine

Compressor - Air is drawn into the air inlet by the compressor. Within the
compressor, the air in compressed and a corresponding temperature increase is
incurred. The hot, compressed air is discharged to the combustion section of the
engine.

Combustor - Fuel is admitted into the combustion section by fuel nozzles. The
fuel/air mixture is ignited and combustion occurs.

Turbine - The hot and rapidly expanding gases are directed aft through the turbine
rotor assembly. There, thermal and kinetic energy are converted into mechanical
energy. The gases are then expelled out the turbine exhaust.

2.2.1 Gas Turbine Cycle

A cycle is a process that begins with
certain conditions, progresses through a
B C
series of additional conditions, and returns to
Gas Turbine
the original conditions. Gas turbine engines Cycle
Pressure

operate on the Brayton Cycle. The Brayton

Cycle is one where combustion occurs at a
constant pressure. Gas turbine engines have
components designed to perform each
function of the cycle separately, yet
continuously. These functions are intake,
compression, combustion, expansion, and A D
exhaust. Figure 2-4 is a graphic illustration of Volume
the Brayton Cycle with respect to pressure Fig. 2-4 Brayton Cycle
and volume.

21
 The illustration of the Brayton Cycle in Figure 2-4 can be applied to the
operation of a gas turbine engine. At Point A, air enters the inlet at atmospheric
pressure and constant volume. As the air passes through the compressor, it increases
in pressure and decreases in volume; Line A-B. At Point B, combustion occurs at a
constant pressure while the increased temperature causes an increase in volume; Line
B-C. The hot gases enter the turbine and expand through it. As the gases pass through
the turbine rotor, the rotor turns kinetic and thermal energy into mechanical energy.
The expanding shape of the turbine passages causes further increase in volume and a
sharp decrease in pressure; Line C-D. The gases are released to the atmosphere with a
large drop in volume and at constant pressure; Line D-A. At this point the cycle is
complete. The Brayton Cycle is continuous in a gas turbine engine with each action
occurring at all times.

2.2.2 Gas Turbine Engine Theory

There are several pressure, volume, and velocity changes that occur within a
gas turbine during operation. The following discussion applies the Physics Laws that
pertain to the operation of a gas turbine engine and their relationship to the
Convergent/Divergent Process. Figure 2-3 demonstrates the application of these
principles to the operation of a gas turbine engine.
Air is drawn into the front of the compressor. The rotor is so constructed that
the area decreases through each successive stage. This tapered construction gives a
convergent area; designated as Area A on Figure 2-3. Each succeeding stage is
smaller, which increases pressure and decreases velocity (Bernoulli's Principle).
Between each rotating stage is a stationary stage or stator. The stator partially converts
high velocity to pressure and directs the air to the next stage of rotating blades.
Because of its high rotational speed, the rotor imparts velocity to the air. Each
pair of rotor and stator blades constitutes a pressure stage. During operation, there is a
pressure increase and a corresponding reduction in volume through each compressor
stage (Boyle's Law).
The process continues at each compressor stage until the air charge enters the
diffuser area at the compressor outlet (Area B). There is a short area in the diffuser
where no further changes take place. As the air charge approaches the end of the
diffuser, the opening flares (diverges) outward into the combustion section. At this
point, the air loses velocity and increases in volume and pressure. Thus, the velocity
energy has become pressure energy, while pressure through the diffuser has remained
constant, The reverse of Bernoulli's Principle and Boyle's Law has taken place.
The compressor continuously forces more air through the diffuser section at a
constant rate, thus a constant pressure is maintained. Once the air is in the combustor,
it is mixed (atomized) with fuel and combustion takes place at a constant pressure. As
a result of combustion, there is a large increase in the volume of the air (expansion)
and combustion gases (Charles' Law).
After combustion, the combustion gases travel rearward to Area C. This occurs
partially by velocity imparted by the compressor and partially because the gas is
escaping to a lower pressure area; i.e. the turbine exhaust. The end of Area C is the
turbine nozzle section. Here, a decrease in pressure and an increase in velocity occur.
The high velocity, high-temperature, low-pressure gases are directed through the inlet

22
nozzle to the first stage of the turbine rotor (Area D). The high velocity, high
temperature gases cause the rotor to rotate by transferring kinetic energy and thermal;
energy to the turbine blades. Area D is a divergent area. Between each rotating turbine
stage is a static stage or nozzle which directs the hot expanding gases to the next
successive stage.
A nozzle is a stator ring with a series of vanes. They act as small nozzles to
direct the combustion gases uniformly and at the proper angle to the turbine blades.
Due to the design of the nozzles, each succeeding stage imparts velocity to the gases
as they pass through the nozzle. Each nozzle converts heat and pressure energy into
velocity energy by controlling the expansion of the gas. Each small nozzle has a
convergent area.
Each stage of the turbine is larger than the preceding one. The pressure energy
drops are quite rapid; consequently, each stage must be larger to use the energy of a
lower pressure, lower temperature, and larger volume of gases. If more stages are
used, the rate of divergence will be less.
Area D must diverge rapidly in proportion to the rate in which Area A
converges into Area B. Atmospheric air is raised in pressure and velocity, and lowered
in volume, in Area A by the compressor. Each stage can only compress air about 1.2
times, so the rate is limited. However, in the turbine rotor (Area D), the gases give up
thermal and pressure energy and increase in volume through three stages. If this did
not happen rapidly, back pressure from Area D would cause Area C to become
choked. The gases in the combustor would back up into the compressor. There, they
would disrupt air flow and cause a condition known as surge, or compressor stall. This
condition can destroy an engine in a matter of seconds. Surge is further explained in
Section 2.3.2, pertaining to axial flow compressors.
The gases from the last turbine stage enter the exhaust duct where they are
expelled to the atmosphere. The leading portion of the exhaust duct is part of a
divergent area. Further divergence reduces the pressure and increases the volume of
the warm gases and aids in lowering the velocity. The exhaust gases enter the
atmosphere at or slightly above atmospheric pressure. This depends on the length and
size of the exhaust duct, or the placement of a heat recovery steam generator (boiler).

2.3 Gas Turbine Main Components

2.3.1 Air Inlet Equipment

The function of the air inlet is to deliver air, with minimal turbulence and
pressure variation to the gas turbine compressor. Gas turbines are sensitive to inlet air
quality because of the inherent design and the enormous amount of air consumed.
Filtration is necessary to provide protection against the effects of contaminated air that
may degrade gas turbine performance and life through erosion, corrosion, fouling, and
plugging of the cooling passages.

23
 The inlet filter compartments that are now typically supplied by turbine
manufacturers can be separated into two generic types:
Self-cleaning and Multi-stage: Conventional compartments typically use self-
cleaning filter systems with treated paper media. Special features are included which
allow these high-efficiency filters to be cleaned of accumulated dust by momentarily
directing a backward flow of air through the filter. The pulse cleaning air can be
derived from the plants instrument air system or from the gas turbine compressor. The
reverse air pulse dislodges accumulated dust and debris, which then falls from the
filters. Only a few of the many filter elements are cleaned at any given time, so that
air flow to the operating gas turbine is essentially undisturbed. Pulsing of the filters is
normally initiated when the pressure drop across the filter compartment increases to a
predetermined set point. The ability to clean the filters while the unit is running
eliminates the need for an implosion door, thus removing a significant potential
leakage path which could allow ingestion of dust laden ambient air to flow directly to
the gas turbine.
Downstream of the filter compartment, baffles are often installed in the air
ducting to eliminating turbulence and to silence the flow of the rushing air. Care must
be exercised at all times to keep the gas turbine air inlet clean. Dirt, trash, forgotten
tools or clothing can be ingested by the compressor, resulting in serious turbine
damage. It is strictly forbidden for anyone to enter the plenum chamber whenever the
gas turbine is operating. Before a gas turbine engine is ever started, the air inlet duct
should be carefully checked for debris. Once all personnel are out of the inlet air
ducting, all entrance doors should be closed and locked.

2.3.2 C o m p r e s s o r
Function of a gas turbine compressor is to efficiently compress the required
mass of air and deliver this air to combustion section. There are two basic types of
compressors used for gas turbine applications; centrifugal compressors and axial flow
compressors. Axial flow compressors are most common in power plant applications
because of their ability to deliver large volumes of air at high efficiency levels.
Moving Moving
Fixed Fixed
Air Pressure

Air Pressure

Inlet

Fig 2.5 Axial and rotary compressors

24
 Both the centrifugal and axial-flow compressors compress air by imparting
momentum to the air by means of rotating elements and then converting that
momentum to pressure in suitable stationary passages. Refer to Figure 2-5. In the
centrifugal type compressor, air is drawn in at the centre, or ‘eye’ of a rapidly rotating
vane disc. Centrifugal action on the rotating air mass forces it to the tips of the disc
where it is flung off at high tangential velocity. Suitably shaped stator blades receive
this fast moving air stream and slow it down in such a manner as to increase the
pressure. About half of the pressure rise occurs in the rotor and the remainder in the
stator passages.
The two main elements of an axial flow compressor are the stator and the
rotor. A typical axial flow compressor rotor is illustrated in Figure 2-6. The rotor is
constructed with several rows of fixed blades which impart momentum to the air and
force it rearward. Following each row of rotor blades, is a row of stationary stator
blades.

Figure 2-6 Compressor Rotor of GT-5

An axial flow compressor draws in air from the atmosphere and moves it
parallel to the axis of rotation. The air is compressed in both the rotor and stator blade
passages, by continually diffusing the air flow from a high velocity to a low velocity,
with a corresponding rise in pressure. Each consecutive pair of rotor and stator blades
constitutes a pressure stage.
The first stage of the rotor, having the largest surface area, draws in the
ambient air, increase it's velocity, and pushes it to the first stage blades, or vanes, of
the stator. By virtue of this increased velocity, energy is transferred from the
compressor to the air in the form of velocity energy. As the passes through the stator
vanes, it's velocity is lowered causing a corresponding rise in pressure, thus

25
completing one stage of compression. The vanes of the stator create a diverging area
and act as a diffuser. The outlet of the vane area is larger than the inlet. The diverging
area takes the high velocity, low pressure air from the preceding stage and converts it
to a low-velocity, high-pressure air flow.
Most axial flow compressors are designed to deliver air at pressures 10 to 15
times the inlet pressure. The air flow requirement is also dependent on the physical
size and speed of the machine. The power to drive the compressor varies with air flow
and pressure rise. At full-load, the compressor uses roughly two thirds the power
produced by the turbine section. The remaining power (one-third) is used to turn the
generator and produce electricity. Therefore; a 1% gain in compressor efficiency
produces a 2% gain in load-shaft output. It is extremely important that the compressor
blading be kept clean and maintained in good physical condition so that maximum
overall efficiency and capacity can be maintained at all times.
What is a Compressor Surge?
Power plant gas turbines are designed for continuous operation at synchronous
speed to achieve the correct frequency (50 Hz) output of the connected generator.
Since the operating speed of the gas turbine is held constant and very little deviation
takes place, turbine manufacturers are able to design the aerodynamics of the
compressor blading to achieve optimum efficiency at the specified synchronous speed.
To achieve optimum aerodynamics, the angle and aerofoil shape of the rotor and stator
blades are precisely machined and set in place such that the compression of air
through the compressor is smooth and efficient.
During startup and shutdown of a gas turbine, the aerodynamics of the rotor
and stator blades do not promote a smooth progression of air through the compressor.
This occurs, simply because the shape and position of the blades is not conducive to
low speed and low flow conditions. As previously stated, power plant gas turbine
compressors are designed for operation at continuous synchronous-speed.
Compressor surge results when the air flow stalls across the compressor
blades; this is, air is not smoothly compressed. Stalling may occur over a few blades
or across one or more stages. If enough air flow is interrupted, pressure may surge
back through the compressor. This occurrence may be minor, or it can be very severe
with possible damage to the compressor blades. In extreme cases, a surge can
physically destroy the compressor blades, causing them to break apart and eventually
pass through the turbine, destroying the entire engine in a matter of seconds. A
compressor surge can be identified by one or several loud bangs followed by
excessive vibrations from the engine. Figure 2-7 illustrates the effects of air flow
through a gas turbine compressor during a compressor stall.

Fiqure 2-7 Compressore Surge / Stall

26
How to avoid Compressor Surge?
A key requirement of axial compressor design is the avoidance of compressor
surge during partial speed operation. The two primary methods of preventing
compressor surge are discussed bellow;

(1) Controlling the air inflow to the compressor through IGVs

Controlling the in-flow of air to compressor can be accomplished through the
use of variable inlet guide vanes (IGVs) and/or variable stator vanes (VSVs). Every
gas turbine compressor has a row of inlet guide vanes preceding the first stage of
compressor blades. In the fixed position, the purpose of the IGVs is to straighten the
air flow and direct it to the first stage of compressor blades. However, variable IGVs
pivot axially and their angle can be controlled to allow more or less air flow through
the compressor. Likewise, several stages of the compressor stator vanes can also be
constructed in the same fashion. During startup and shutdown, the IGVs and/or VSVs
can be hydraulically or pneumatically modulated by the turbine control system to limit
air flow through the compressor, thus preventing a stall or surge from occurring. At all
Gas Turbines of KAPCO there are pneumatically operated IGVs to control the
compressor surge. Fig 2.8 shows the IGVs installed at GT-5. Once the turbine is near
synchronous speed, the blades are opened fully to the normal operating position.

Fig 2.8 IGVs at GT-5

27
(2) Bleeding of air from the compressor at one or more stages.
The use of inter-stage bleed valves is another method by which compressor
can prevent surge. In this method, manufactures construct the gas turbine compressor
with annular bleed ports at specific locations (stages). Typically, two or three stages
are sufficient. The bleed ports are each equipped with an open/closed valve, which is
controlled by the turbine control system. During startup and shutdown, the valves are
held open to bleed air from the compressor, thus preventing a surge from occurring.
The discharged air is vented to the turbine exhaust and directed onward through the
stack. Once the turbine is near synchronous speed the bleed valves are closed and
must remain closed during turbine operation. Figure 2.9 shows the bleed valve
position at GT-4.
M Bleed Valve closes at 1800 rpm

Bleed Valve closes at 2700 rpm

M

Bleed Valve closes at 2850 rpm

20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10

9876
54 321

Exhaust
21
43
7 65
9 8
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Discavity air cooler

Fig 2.9 Bleed valve position of GT-4

IGVs for Temperature Control

During partial load operation in combined cycle configuration, gas turbine
exhaust temperature decreases as a result of decreased fuel consumption. The lower
exhaust temperature results in a decreased steam flow and temperature generated in
the HRSG, consequently leading to a drop in steam cycle efficiency.
In some gas turbine applications, the position of the variable inlet guide vanes
can be modulated during low load conditions to increase the turbine exhaust
temperature. Closing down on the IGVs at less than base load operation of the gas
turbine, effectively ‘chokes’ the engine somewhat, resulting in reduced cooling air
flow through the hot gas sections of the engine. In this respect, modulation of the
IGVs can be used to increase turbine exhaust temperature and thereby maintain steam
production and superheat out of the heat recovery steam generator.

28
2.3.3 Combustion Section
The combustion section is the area of the gas turbine engine where fuel is
injected for combustion. The injected fuel is very efficiently mixed (atomized) with
the continuous flow of hot compressed air discharged by the compressor. The
resultant thermal energy from the combustion section is directed to the nozzles and
blades of the turbine section where shaft horsepower is produced.
Various arrangements of the gas turbine combustion section are used by
different manufacturers. The four basic arrangements of combustion sections are:

 Can-Type Combustor
 Annular Combustor
 Can-Annular Combustor
 Silo Combustor
Figure 2.10 shows the different types of combustion sections:

29
Can-Type Combustor
A can-type combustor consists of individual, cylindrical, combustion
chambers mounted outside, around the axis of the engine. Refer to Figure 2-11. This
arrangement makes removing a chamber easy. However, it is a bulky arrangement and
consumes the largest amount of space around the engine. Each combustion chamber
consists of a thick metal housing and a thin metal combustion liner. A transition piece
provides routing of air from the compressor discharge, into the centre of the
combustion chamber inlet.

Fig 2.11 Combustion Chamber Details and Flow Diagram

The combustion chamber liner is constructed with perforated cooling holes all
along its length and around its circumference. The inlet end of the liner provides
mounting for a centrally located fuel nozzle. As shown in Figure 2-12. The
combustion liner fits inside the combustion chamber housing and there is an
intentional air gap between the two components. During operation, a continuous flow

Fig 2.12 Combustor Liner GT-5

30
of air from the compressor passes through and around the combustion chamber liner.
The air, which passes through the liner, is used for combustion. Simultaneously, a
blanket of secondary air flows around the periphery of the liner. The secondary air
flow serves two purposes;
(1) it serves as cooling air to keep the liner and the chamber housing from
experiencing hot spots and overheating,
(2) a portion of the air passes through the perforated holes of the liner to aid in ‘flame
centring’ and to maintain a blanket of cooling air between the flame and the
inside of the liner

The largest area of concern in any type of combustor is ‘hot spots’ and the
resultant thermal stress and damage to the affected components. Hot spots occur when
a continuous concentration of heat impinges on a specific area of the combustion
chamber and/or liner. Hot spots can result from insufficient cooling air flow to
different areas of the combustion chamber, or from uneven flame distribution within
the chamber. For example, a plugged or dirty fuel nozzle will produce a non-uniform
flame, which may impinge on the combustor liner to produce a hot spot. Over a period
of time, the affected area of the liner will erode until a hole is formed, at which point
sufficient cooling and flame centring cannot take place. It is for this reason that much
of the air supplied to the combustion section is used for cooling and flame centring,
while a smaller portion (25-30%) of the air is used for actual combustion.
The exposed construction of a can-type combustor provides ease of
maintenance and inspection. Replacement of fuel nozzles or combustor liners can be
performed without major disassembly of the gas turbine. The can-type combustor does
however, consists of many individual parts.

Annular Combustor
An annular combustor consists of undivided, inner and outer liners, which
extend around the outside of the turbine shaft housing (Figure 2-10). The inner and
outer liners form the combustion chamber within the confines of the engine and are
surrounded by a single outer casing.
Similar to the can-type combustor, the inner and outer liners of an annular
combustor are constructed of thin metal with numerous perforated holes to allow for
cooling and flame centring. Several fuel nozzles are located circumferentially around
the combustion chamber, each discharging into a common open area.
Annular combustors function much the same way as can-type combustors;
with the primary difference being that several flames exists within a single open area
rather than inside individual cans. Because of their open area, annular combustors are
very efficient and exhibit minimal pressure losses between the compressor and
turbine. In addition, annular combustors promote uniform exhaust temperature
profiles and uniform gas distribution to the turbine blades and nozzles. There are some
disadvantages however; on some engines, the liners are one piece and cannot be
removed without complete engine disassembly

31
Can-Annular Combustor
The can-annular combustor combines some of the features of both the can and
annular combustors. In the can-annular type of chamber, individual cans are placed
inside an annular case. The cans are essentially individual combustion chambers
(Figure 2-8) with concentric rings of perforated holes to admit air for cooling and
flame centring.
Depending on the size of the engine and the manufacturer, each combustion
can be of a can-annular combustor can be equipped with single centrally located fuel
nozzle, or several (6 to 8) fuel nozzles installed in a circular pattern at the front of the
can. On cans with several fuel nozzles, the centre of the can is often constructed with
a round perforated tube (Figure 2-8). The centre tube allows air distribution through
its perforations to provide more air for combustion, cooling and flame centring. The
effect is to permit more burning per inch of can length than could otherwise be
accomplished.
The short length of the can-annular type of chamber is a structural advantage.
It provides minimal pressure drop of the gases between the compressor outlet and the
flame area. Another advantage of the can-annular engine is the greater structural
strength it gets from its short combustor area. Maintenance on the cans is also easier
than on that of an annular combustor.
Silo Combustor
Silo type combustors are used on heavy duty industrial gas turbines. Asea
Brown Bovery (ABB) and Siemens are the only manufacturers, which currently utilize
the silo design. Silo combustors are vertical mounted, very large combustion
chambers, which resemble the construction of a single can-type combustors. This
arrangement has a high combustion efficiency due to the large volume of the
combustion chamber. Additionally, maintenance and inspection of the combustion
chamber is relatively simple in view of its large size and accessibility of the
components.

Fuel

Combustor
Compress

Air Inlet Exhaust

Figure 2-9 Silo Combustor

32
Ignition System
Regardless of its design or the type of combustion chambers used, the
combustion section of every gas turbine engine is equipped with an ignition system.
The function of the ignition system is to establish ignition of the fuel-air mixture in
the combustion chambers during the gas turbine start up sequence.
The primary components of a gas turbine ignition system consists of one or
two spark ignitors or spark plugs, and a high voltage power source. The ignitors /
spark plugs protrude into the combustion chamber area and produce a high voltage
spark when energized.

Ignition and Flame Distribution

Depending on the manufacturer and the size of the engine, every gas turbine
undergoes a specific start sequence during which ignition, combustion, and
acceleration takes place. Control systems are incorporated such that each phase of the
startup sequence occurs at a specific rpm, within a specified period of time, and that
certain parameters are achieved (e.g. temperature and rotational speed). Althogh each
model of gas turbine is different, the basic sequence of events for the startup of all gas
turbine is essentially the same.
During a gas turbine startup, an external device (diesel engine/electric motor)
is required to begin rotation of the engine. As rotation begins, the compressor draws in
air and begins forcing it through the engine. As shaft speed increases, the volume of
air flow through the gas turbine engine also increases. At a specific rpm, a
programmed 'ignition sequence' takes place.
During the ignition sequence, the spark ignitors are energized at a rate of two
to three pulses per second. Immediately following, the engine fuel valves are opened
and fuel is admitted through the fuel nozzles into the combustion section of the
engine. The presence of spark in the combustion section results in ignition of the fuel-
air mixture. The flame spreads throughout the combustion section until the fuel-air
mixture at the discharge of every fuel nozzle is ignited. In both the 'can' and 'can-
annular' type combustors, crossover tubes, or flame tubes, (Figure 2-8) provide
distribution of flame between the chambers to ensure all are ignited. The crossover
tubes are necessary since only one or two of the combustion cans are equipped with a
spark ignitor.
Because gas turbines operate on a continuous compression and combustion
cycle (Brayton Cycle), the ignitors are no longer required once a flame has been
established, and are therefore de-energized. As the startup sequence continues, the
starting device continually increases the rotating speed of the gas turbine. At the same
time, increased thermal energy passes through the turbine section and the turbine
begins to develop shaft horsepower. At a certain point of the startup sequence, the
turbine will develop enough horsepower to turn the compressor without the aid of the
starting device. Hence; the gas turbine is said to be at 'self-sustaining speed'. Once the
gas turbine passes the point of self-sustaining speed, the starting device is dis-
engaged. The gas turbine continues to accelerate until it reaches idle speed.

33
2.3.4 Turbine Section
The turbine section of a gas turbine engine converts the thermal and kinetic
energy of the combustion gases, into rotational mechanical energy. In theory, design,
and operating characteristics, the turbine used in gas turbine engines are similar to
those used in a steam plant. Gas turbines like steam turbines, use familiar impulse and
reaction principles (Figure 2-10). However; because gas turbines work with lower
initial inlet pressures, they have fewer stages and less change in blade height from
inlet to exhaust. The gas turbine also differs from the steam turbine in; (1) the type of
blading material used, (2) the lower ratio of blade length to wheel diameter.

Figure 2-10 Impulse and Reaction Turbine Blading

The turbine section of a gas turbine converts part of the thermal energy
contained in the hot gas into mechanical energy. Sufficient mechanical energy must be
removed from the gas stream to supply the power necessary to drive the gas turbine
compressor, the unit auxiliaries, provide for bearing frictional losses, and have enough
excess power to drive the electric generator.
The hot gas from combustion is delivered to the turbine section from the
combustion chambers. The temperature and flow of the hot gas is determined by
generator load. The hot gas temperature may range from 800 °C to 1300 °C,
depending on the design and limitations of the gas turbine engine. While flowing
through the turbine nozzles and buckets, the gas loses both heat and pressure. When
passing through the stages, the gas has given up enough energy to turn the turbine
rotor to provide the necessary mechanical power.

34
Cooling
The primary factor that has contributed to increasing turbine output in the last
two decades has been an increase in turbine inlet temperature (firing temperature).
Higher inlet temperatures and increased mass flow through the turbine, results in
increased power output. These higher temperatures are made possible by improved
blade and nozzle designs, better materials, and improvements in cooling techniques.

Leading
Edge
Holes
Gill
Holes

Trailing Edge
Holes

Air Cooled Nozzle 2nd Stage Stator blade cooling Rotor blade cooling
Figure 2-11

The nozzles and blades in the first two or three stages of a combustion turbine
are often constructed with internal cooling air passages. Compressor bleed air is
supplied through passages in the turbine, where it is directed to the air-cooled nozzles
and blades. The air-cooled components are constructed with many small holes or slots
on the leading and trailing edges. Figure 2-11 illustrates typical air-cooled stator and
rotor blades. Air is forced into the nozzle and out through the slots and holes, thus the
vane is cooled as the air passes through. The air is discharged into the hot gas stream,
passing through the remainder of the turbine section and onward into the exhaust duct.
The degree of cooling required for a turbine stage is a function of turbine
nozzle and bucket metal temperatures. Gas turbines are produced with turbines having
multiple stages, ranging from two to five or more. The number of stages determines
the energy recovered per stage and consequently the temperature drop per stage. More
energy recovery per stage and temperature drop per stage occur as the number of
stages is reduced. As a result, the average turbine blade metal temperature is
significantly lower for a gas turbine with few stages than those having a greater
number of stages.
Extraction air flow from the compressor for cooling can have a dramatic effect
on the efficiency and power output of a gas turbine. Greater extraction air flows
reduce the mass of gas flowing through the turbine. Since turbine developed power is
directly proportional to mass flow, and turbine power is roughly three times shaft
output power; a 1% increase in extraction flow results in a 3% decrease in useful
output. Increased extraction flow will dilute the main gas stream flow. The dilution of
main gas stream flow lowers its temperature and energy level. The result of a lower
temperature and energy level is that final exhaust temperature is reduced.

35
2.4 Gas Turbine Parameters and Efficiency
Operating parameters have a significant influence on gas turbine efficiency.
Some operating parameters are fixed by design of the turbine. Other parameters vary
with operation, regardless of the turbine design and vintage. The parameters
considered in this section are:

 Compressor Pressure Ratio

 Turbine Inlet Temperature
 Exhaust Pressure and Temperature
 Ambient Air Temperature

Gas Turbine Compression Ratio

The compression ratio of a gas turbine's compressor has the greatest influence
on the overall operational efficiency of the gas turbine. The compression of air by the
100

80
Cycle effiency

60

40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Pressure ratio

Figure 2-12 Brayton Cycle Efficiency vs Pressure Ratio

gas turbine compressor is the result of the compressor design, performance and
efficiency. The relationship between a turbine's compression ratio and the efficiency
of the Brayton Cycle is shown in Figure 2-12.
Early industrial gas turbines had pressure ratios of as little as 5 to 1. The latest
industrial gas turbine designs employ pressure ratios of 14 to 16 to 1, while aircraft
derivative gas turbines have pressure ratios as high as 22 to 1.
The gas turbine compression ratio is affected by the efficiency of the
compressor. The compressor consumes approximately 60% of the power output of the
gas turbine. As a result, if compressor performance deteriorates, the effect on gas
turbine output and efficiency will deteriorate. A 1% decrease in compressor efficiency
will decrease turbine output by almost 2%. Consequently, the condition of the
compressor should be closely monitored and corrective action taken as indicated. A
common problem for compressors is dirty blades. Corrective action in this case is
cleaning the compressor without disassembly by admitting special cleaning materials
to the air inlet. Different gas turbine manufacturers have methods and procedures for
both 'online' and 'offline' compressor washing.

36
Gas Turbine Inlet Temperature
Second most important parameter affecting the efficiency of the gas turbine is
the turbine inlet temperature or the firing temperature. This is the temperature of the
hot gas as it leaves the combustion section and before it enters the turbine.
The variation of gas turbine efficiency with turbine inlet temperature is not
straightforward. As the turbine inlet temperature increases, the energy contained in the
gas increases. The hotter gas has more energy to do work during expansion through
the turbine than it would if it were at a lower temperature. As a result, higher firing
temperatures can boost turbine efficiency if the turbine exhaust temperature is not
increased. In fact, the turbine exhaust temperature generally does increase with
increased firing temperature. The losses in the Brayton Cycle increase as the exhaust
temperature increases. The increased heat loss in the exhaust gas and the inefficiency
that results can be greater than the increase in turbine efficiency, thus resulting in an
overall decrease in gas turbine efficiency.
If the gas turbine operates in a combined cycle, an increase in exhaust
temperature does not represent a loss. In the combined cycle, the additional heat
energy in the exhaust gas can be captured in the HRSG and used to produce steam to
drive the steam turbine. The higher temperature exhaust gases can be used to increase
the pressure, volume and temperature of the steam produced by the HRSG. Increased
steam production increases the efficiency of the Rankine Cycle. Thus, while higher
gas turbine inlet temperatures may not benefit gas turbine efficiency, the overall
efficiency of the plant may increase.
Increased firing temperature has an impact upon the unit output as well as
efficiency. Output increases as the firing temperature increases. Maximum firing
temperature corresponds to maximum output. Since most power plant gas turbines are
operated at base load, they are most often operated in a temperature control mode that
adjusts the fuel input to control firing temperature at the maximum safe limit.
The limiting factor for firing temperature is the ability of the turbine hot gas
components to withstand the high temperatures without dangerous loss of strength or
erosion. Early industrial gas turbines had firing temperatures ranging from 600°C to
760°C. The latest gas turbine designs have firing temperatures approaching 1300°C.
These higher firing temperatures have been made possible through the use of special
design features in the hot gas path.
The hot gas path begins in the combustion section and ends at the turbine
exhaust. The first several stages of the blading (both stationary and rotating) are
generally constructed of high strength alloys and/or coated with special materials for
corrosion and oxidation resistance. Internal and external air cooling circuits are also
required for the first few stages of blades and stationary nozzles. These blades are
generally hollow to allow cooling air to flow inside. Small holes in the leading and
trailing edges of the blades are often employed to allow cool air to flow over the outer
surface of the blades thus protecting them from the hot gases. Cooling air is typically
drawn from the compressor discharge or from individual compressor stages.
The most recently built, heavy-duty industrial gas turbines operate with firing
temperatures approaching 1300°C. These turbines have thermal efficiency of over
35%. Gas turbine manufacturers are developing improved models with elevated firing
temperatures in the 1370°C to 1430°C range. Once available, these gas turbines have
a predicted simple cycle efficiency of over 40%.

37
Exhaust Temperature/Pressure
The exhaust gas pressure and temperature do not influence gas turbine
efficiency in the same sense that pressure ratio and firing temperature affect
efficiency. The exhaust gas conditions are determined by other factors such as firing
temperature, pressure ratio, turbine design and the condition of the gas path. In
general, the lower the pressure and temperature of the exhaust, the greater the
efficiency of the gas turbine.
The exhaust pressure is determined by the turbine inlet pressure, the design of
the turbine and the design of the exhaust gas flowpath. The gas turbine is designed to
expand the gas to nearly atmospheric pressure. Low turbine exhaust pressure is
desirable because the lower the pressure at the turbine exhaust, the more efficient the
turbine. The number of stages in the turbine and the pressure drop (or expansion)
experienced by the hot gas in each stage determine the pressure at the turbine exhaust.
The temperature at the turbine exhaust is related to its pressure. For a fixed
firing temperature, the greater the expansion of the gas in the turbine (which can be
measured as the pressure ratio across the turbine), the lower the gas temperature at the
turbine exhaust. Thus, lower exhaust pressures yield lower temperatures. The pressure
ratio across the turbine is slightly less than the compressor pressure ratio. Thus, for a
fixed firing temperature, as the compressor pressure ratio increases, the exhaust gas
temperature tends to decrease.

Ambient Air Temperature

Combustion turbine performance varies significantly with the pressure and
temperature of the ambient air. The pressure of the air is principally a function of the
elevation (altitude) of the plant site; the higher the elevation, the lower the pressure.
Variations in pressure due to weather changes are usually so small that they are not
significant. Since the plant elevation is fixed, the most significant component of site
conditions is the temperature of the air which may vary from summer to winter.
Ambient air pressure and temperature affect the gas turbine efficiency because
of their effect on the density of the air. The gas turbine, also called a volumetric
machine, has a certain capacity that is expressed in terms of volume (usually in cubic
feet per second). The density of air decreases as temperatures increases and/or
pressure decreases. If the density of the air is decreased, the mass flow is reduced even
if the volumetric flow rate remains constant. The reduction in mass flow occurs
because there is less air in each cubic foot. Conversely, as the density of the air
increases (which occurs as the temperature decreases and/or pressure increases), the
mass flow increases. When ambient air temperature drops from 15°C to 0°C, an
approximate 12% increase in mass flow occurs through an axial flow compressor.
For most gas turbines, the compression ratio of the compressor increases
slightly as the ambient air temperature drops. During cool ambient conditions, a
greater mass flow of air is discharged from the gas turbine compressor. The increased
flow of air provides additional air for combustion as well as additional cooling air to
the hot gas sections of the engine. Therefore, more fuel can be burned and thus, more
thermal energy is introduced to the turbine. The increase in thermal energy and mass
flow across the turbine section, results in increased shaft horsepower and increased
electrical output from the generator.

38
 In any internal combustion engine, shaft horsepower is a product of how much
fuel the engine consumes; e.g. increasing fuel flow to the engine results in increased
power output. In a gas turbine engine, the turbine inlet temperature is the primary
limiting factor as to how fuel can be admitted to the combustion section. Admitting
too much fuel can exceed the design firing temperature of the engine and result in
severe thermal stress and eventual component failure. If during the operation of a gas
turbine, it was desired to maintain a specific turbine inlet temperature and/or exhaust
temperature; fuel flow to the gas turbine would change (vary) in accordance with the
changes in ambient temperature at the compressor inlet. The following scenario
illustrates this concept.
Ambient Fuel
Air Controller
Fuel
TE

Combustor
Generator Compressor Turbine
Exhaust

Disc Cavity air cooler

Fig 2-13 Fuel Control vs Ambient Conditions

Referring to 2-13; turbine exhaust temperature is sensed by a temperature

element (TE) which provides a feedback signal to the fuel controller. If the controller
were given a setpoint of 540°C, it would modulate fuel flow to the gas turbine in an
effort to maintain the turbine exhaust temperature at 540°C, regardless of ambient
conditions. At any given ambient temperature, the mass air flow through the
compressor will be a specific, corresponding value. For example, at cooler
temperatures the mass flow will increase, while at warmer temperatures the mass flow
will decrease. Changes in mass air flow through the gas turbine, directly affect the
amount of cooling air that is available to the hot gas sections of the engine. If ambient
temperature increase to 35°C, less cooling air is available, and thus fuel flow must be
decreased in order to prevent the turbine exhaust temperature from exceeding 540°C.
As ambient temperatures decrease, more cooling air is available to the hot gas
sections, and thus fuel flow can be increased to maintain the turbine exhaust
temperature at the 540°C setpoint.
As previously mentioned, more fuel input equals more shaft horsepower. More
shaft horsepower equals increased electrical output from the generator. In general,
cooler ambient temperatures and increased fuel flow results in an increase of both the
output and efficiency of a gas turbine. For most gas turbines, a 23% increase in
turbine output and a 5% increase in thermal efficiency occurs when the ambient air
temperature drops from 15°C to 0°C.

39
3. Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)

3.1 Overview
In the simple cycle mode of operation, the temperature of the exhaust gas
leaving a gas turbine can be as high as 540°C, and a huge mass flow (On HRSG-13,14
mass flow is 64 Kg/sec on Gas and 57 Kg/sec on FO). This high temperature gas
represents a source of heat energy, which can be recovered if the means to do so are
available. By recovering this waste heat, not only can the output of a power plant be
increased but also its overall efficiency will be greatly enhanced.
The means to recover some of the energy in the gas turbine exhaust gas is
provided in a combined cycle power plant. By installing a Heat Recovery Steam
Generator (HRSG) at the exhaust of the gas turbine, part of the heat energy available
in the exhaust gas can be utilized to produce steam, which can then be used to drive a
steam turbine to produce electricity.
For the transformation of Fuel energy resources into electric energy the water
steam cycle has proved to be the most economical solution in high output plant.
Thermal energy is transformed into mechanical energy by means of turbines
and into electrical energy by means of generators. The entire cycle consists of various
components, as well as main auxiliary and additional systems. They allow for
transforming energy with an optimum energy exploitation from the economic and the
technological point of view.

3.2 Objective of the System

The exhaust gas system comprises the uncooled, gastight, welded components
of the exhaust gas path with gas turbine diffuser, exhaust gas ducts, diverter damper,
boiler housing, boiler outlet ducting, silencer and exhaust gas stack.
A bypass stack with silencer is provided for simple cycle operation of the gas
turbine without heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). The exhaust gas system also
includes the boiler framework, stiffening, silencers and instrumentation.
The HP system of the boiler is producing the HP steam of the HRSG. For this
purpose it has to be supplied with the right amount of feedwater at any time during its
operation; e.g. during start up, load variation etc. Additional it has to produce steam of
specific quality, which means of correct pressure and temperature, which varies again
with different operation modes and load conditions.
The high-pressure system HA10 generates HP steam at 60 bar/530°C from the
thermal energy contained in the GT exhaust gas.
The LP system of the boiler is producing the LP steam of the HRSG. For this
purpose it has to be supplied with the right amount of feedwater at any time during its
operation, e.g. during start up, load variation etc. The LP steam is used for condensate
heating and for the feedwater deaeration in the deaerator.
The low pressure system generates saturated LP steam at 3-10 bar and
corresponding boiling temperature from the thermal energy contained in the GT
exhaust gas and ensures a low boiler exhaust temperature.

40
3.3 Gas Side Flowpath
Steam temperature from any particular section of the HRSG can never be
higher than the gas temperature entering that section. This is because transfer of heat
requires a temperature differential in the direction of heat transfer. The hottest gases
flow across the HP section of the HRSG. Once through the HP section, the gases are
still at relatively high temperatures and can be used to generate more steam, although
at a lower pressure. This is done in another section of the HRSG, which operates at a
lower pressure. The resultant LP steam is injected in feedwater storage tank to control
the feedwater temperature according to the fuel burning in GT which is in operation.
The LP steam from LP drum controls the temperature of feedwater tank.
From Condensate
3.4 General Plant Layout (for HRSG-13,14) Dearator Pumps

Feed Water Storage Tank

The gas turbine exhaust gases first flow horizontally
LP Fw Pump
through the exhaust gas diffuser and the diverter damper at HP Feedwater
LP Drum Pump
the base of the bypass stack and then enter the boiler inlet
ducting. After being deflected at the boiler inlet, the exhaust LP Evaporator

gases flow upwards through the vertical part of the heat

recovery steam generator (HRSG). The steam generator HP Economizer
heating surfaces are dividing into following sections in the HP Drum
direction of the exhaust gas flow: M

 HP superheater HP Evaporator

 HP evaporator
 HP economizer Super heater To Steam Turbine

 LP evaporator Flue Gases Inlet Desuperheater

~540 °C

The heating surface construction consists of finned Figure 3-1 – HRSG-1 Simplified Diagram
of bare horizontal tubes welded together to form heating
surface packages. Support plates, by which the tubes are fixed and supported, are
located at regular intervals within the heating surface packages. The heating surface
packages with surrounding walls, headers and piping are suspended in the boiler
frame and can expended freely downward.
Pipes elbows are located inside the exhaust gas flow so that bypassing of the
tubes bundles by the exhaust gas is prevented. The headers are located outside the
gastight boiler enclosure.
After it leaves the LP evaporator, the cooled down exhaust gas flows through
the boiler silencer and is discharged through the stack to atmosphere.
During simple cycle gas turbine operation, the exhaust gas duct is closed to the
boiler by the diverter damper. The gas turbine exhaust gases are deflected upwards in
the diverter damper, flow through the bypass stack silencer and then through the
bypass stack to atmosphere. The diverter damper is hydraulically operated.
The diverter is equipped with a seal air system for the damper and shaft to
ensure full gas-tightness. The sealing air system is equipped with 2 x 100% sealing air
fans, one of which is always on standby.
Downward of the diverter-box in direction to HRSG a blanking plate is
incorporated to enable safe maintenance of the boiler during simple cycle operation. In

41
combine cycle operation, the diverter dampers close the bypass duct. The exhaust gas
duct is opened to the boiler. The exhaust gas then flow through the boiler and stack.
Each sootblower is equipped with one sealing air fan preventing penetration of
the gas through the boiler walls.
Fabric type expansion joints are incorporated in the exhaust gas system to
absorb the thermal expansion of the ducting.
The diverter-box and gas ducting up to the blanking plate before the boiler
inlet will made out of carbon steel and provided with internal insulation covered by
stainless steel lining.
The GT diffuser, the silencer housing including transition ducts, the bypass
stack, boiler inlet ducting and the first part of the boiler casing will be made out of
stainless steel and will be provided with external insulation covered with aluminium
cladding. The connection with the carbon steel diverter is made by means of
expansion joint of fabric type.

3.5 Configuration of the Pressure System

3.5.1 High Pressure (HP) System

The high pressure system is subdivided into the following sections, listed in
the order in which exhaust gas flows through them:
 HP superheater
 HP evaporator
 HP economizer
The HP superheater and the HP economizer are counterflow heat exchangers
and the evaporator flow is parallel to the exhaust gas flow. The HP evaporator is of a
forced circulation design.
The high pressure system is located between the exhaust gas inlet and low
pressure system in the lower portion of the heat recovery steam generator. The heating
surfaces are fabricated from finned tubes or plain tubes (HP superheater).
The feedwater is pumped from the feedwater tank by HP feedwater pumps to
the HP economizer where it is heated up to preheat temperature and then delivered to
the HP drum. Two feedwater control valves are located between HP economizer and
HP drum inlet. The 100% main feedwater regulating control valve is suitable for 30-
100% and the 30% low load feedwater regulating valve is suitable for 0-30%. Both
valves are fitted with upstream and downstream isolating valves. A non-return valve
is provided downstream of each control valve.
The HP economizer is prevented from flashing in the part load range by
maintaining a pressure above boiling pressure by means of HP feedwater valve and
not regulated feedwater pumps.
In case of heavy fuel (FO) firing the HP economizer inlet temperarure is
controled by forced recirculation of boiler drum water to the economizer inlet. Two
100% recirculation pumps are connected in parallel, one being standby and cut in only
on loss of the other.

42
 Each pump is equipped with a suction-side and a discharge-side isolation
valve, a non return valve on the discharge side and a strainer on the suction side to
protect the pump. The two recirculation pumps discharge into a single pipe where a
control valve regulates the recirculation flow. An orifice to measure the flow is
located between this valve and economizer inlet.
The spray water line to the HP spray desuperheater branches off the feedwater
line before the HP economizer recirculation.
Water is fed from the HP drum through standpipes to the circulation pumps
(2x100%) . The HP circulation pumps are connected in parallel, one being on standby
and cut in only on loss of other. Each pump is equipped with a suction side and a
discharge side isolation valve, a non return valve on the discharge side and a strainer
on the suction side to protect the pump. The two circulation pumps discharge into a
single pipe from which water flows to the inlet header of the HP evaporator. An
orifice to measure the flow is located between the circulation pumps and the
evaporator.
A portion of water fed into the HP evaporator evaporates and the water/steam
mixture is fed from the outlet header back to the HP drum. The connecting piping
between the outlet header and drum are distributed uniformly over the length of the
drum. Water and steam are separated in the drum. The HP main steam line, in which a
spray desuperheater is provided for HP temperature control, is connected to the outlet
header.
Starup and blowdown lines connected to the atmospheric flash tank are also
connected to drum.
3.5.2 Low Pressure (LP) System
The LP system is LP evaporator of a forced circulation design and is connected
to the exhaust end of the HP system. The heating surfaces are fabricated from finned
tubes.
The feedwater is pumped from the feedwater tank by LP feedwater pumps to
the LP drum. The feedwater control valve is located between the LP feedwater pumps
and LP drum inlet and is fitted with upstream and downstream gate valves. A non-
return valve and an additional isolation valve is provided downstream of the control
valve. An orifice to measure the feedwater flow is located between this valve and the
feedwater pumps.
Water is fed from the LP drum through downcomers to the LP circulation
pumps (2x100%). The LP circulation pumps are connected parallel, one being on
stand-by and cut only on loss of the other. Each pump is equipped with suction side
and a discharge side isolation valve, a non-return valve on the discharge side and a
strainer on the suction side to protect the pump. The two circulation pumps discharge
into a single pipe from which water flows to the inlet header of the LP evaporator. An
orifice to measure the circulation flow is located between the circulation pumps and
the evaporator.
A portion of the water is fed into the LP evaporator evaporates and the
water/steam mixture is fed from the outlet header back to the LP drum. The
connecting piping between the outlet header and drum are distributed uniformly over
the length of the drum. Water and steam are separated in the drum. Saturated steam

43
flows from the LP drum through connecting piping to the feedwater tank. A control
valve is arranged in the saturated steam piping to regulate the pressure in the LP
evaporator and thus also the inlet temperatures and output. This arrangement permits
both connected boiler to be operated with different inlet temperatures at the LP
evaporator but the same deaeration temperature in the feedwater tank. This is
necessary when one gas turbine is operated with natural gas and other with heavy fuel
oil.
The control valve is equipped with suction and a discharge side isolation
valve. An orifice between the LP drum outlet and the LP steam control valve is used
to measure the LP steam mass flow.
Startup and blowdown lines connected to the atmospheric flash tank are also
connected to the drum. An additional blowdown line from drum outlet header to the
atmospheric flash tank is used to discharge excess LP steam not required for
feedwater heating during part load operation. For this purpose this line is equipped
with a straight way valve as well as stop valve.
3.6 Operating Modes
3.6.1 Single Cycle Gas turbine Operation
In this operation mode, the diverter damper closes the exhaust gas duct to the
boiler. The gas turbine is operated without the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG),
and the sealing air flow ensure gas tightness to the boiler duct.
3.6.2 Normal Operation during Combined Cycle Operation
In this operating mode, the diverter damper closes the bypass duct and the heat
recovery steam generator is in operation. The sealing air system ensures gas tightness
to the bypass duct. The heat recovery steam generator adapts its operating conditions
to the prevailing gas turbine exhaust gas conditions.
The required HP feedwater flow rate is measured upstream of the HP
economizer and controlled by a 3-component control system. This 3-component
control system uses the following signals as controlled variables for the feedwater
control station;
 Steam mass flow
 Feedwater mass flow
 HP drum level
The required LP feedwater flow rate is measured between the feedwater
pumps and the feedwater control valve controlled by 3-component control system.
This 3-component control system uses the following signals as controlled variables for
the feedwater control station;
 Steam mass flow
 Feedwater mass flow
 LP drum level

44
3.6.3 Start Up of HRGS-13,14
When combined cycle operation has been selected the plant is started up
according to the following sequence;
 Exhaust gas duct to the boiler closed by the diverter damper
 Starting the gas turbine (turning GT set via generator)
 Ignition of the gas turbine burners / run up and synchronizing the GT,
minimum load of GT
 Setting the GT exhaust temperature to < 350°C
 Fulfill enabling conditions for boiler for switching the diverter to ‘bypass
duct closed’
The steam generator first must be purged before combined cycle operation by
taking the following steps;
 Gas turbine ON and exhaust temperature < 350°C.
 Switch the diverter damper to “bypass duct closed”
 Setting the signal “bypass duct closed” and waiting for the requisite purging
time to end
 After the purging time has elapsed, opening the bypass duct and throttling
the boiler exhaust gas duct with the diverter damper
 Issuing of enable signal for further gas turbine power increase
 Opening the exhaust gas duct to the boiler and closing the bypass duct as
required for further operation of the plant (load increase)
When changing over from the previous simple cycle operation to combined
cycle operation, the GT exhaust temperature must be reduced to < 350°C, when the
HRSG has not been purged before. For 100% combined cycle operation, the diverter
damper is fully closed to the bypass stack.

3.6.4 Shutdown and Part-load Behaviour

The reduction of GT exhaust gas flow and GT exhaust gas temperature on a
load reduction of the gas turbine is shown in Fig. 2.9 for gas turbine operation with
30°C ambient temperature. The steam generators adapt to this behaviour of the gas
turbines. The main steam temperature upstream the spray desuperheater starts to rise
slightly (around 5°K) in the first phase of the GT load reduction down to 75%. The
desuperheater in the main steam line limits the main steam temperature. The main
steam temperature drops with GT exhaust gas temperature only when the GT power is
further reduced.
In the range from 100-60% ST load, the plant is operated with variable
pressure, below 60% ST load, pressure is held constant at approx. 36 bar. The fixed
pressure operation in the lower load range is not determined by the ST but rather by
plant design and is determined by the maximum allowable velocities in the evaporator
and downstream systems.
The high pressure system is shutdown by closing the exhaust duct to the boiler
with the diverter damper.
By means of the LP steam control valve the pressure in LP evaporator is
controlled in accordance the following criteria:

45
 The LP drum pressure during normal operation is at least:
 2.0 bar for Gas firing
 3.0 bar for HSO firing
 5.0 bar for FO firing
In order to avoid low temperature corrosion in the LP evaporator heating surfaces
the boiling temperature in the LP drum shall not drop below a certain limit,
depending on the sulphur content of the fuel. This requires at least 5 bar or 150°C
in the LP drum.
The feedwater temperature at the feedwater tank is 105°C for gas firing, 120°C
for HSD firing and 150°C for FO firing. During part load operation the LP steam
mass flow is adjusted to the required condensate heating by raising the LP drum
pressure above the limit of 3 resp. 5 bar.
If condensate heating would require the LP drum pressure to exceed the design
pressure (10 bar) the excess LP steam is led off to the blow down tank through
the blow down line which branches off the LP drum outlet header.
The LP system is shutdown by closing the exhaust gas duct to the boiler with
the diverter damper.

Fuel Combination LP-Drum Pressure Feedwater Temperature

Gas 2 bar 105°C
Gas/HSD 3bar 120°C
HSD/FO 5bar 150°C
Gas/FO 5bar 150°C

3.7 HRSG Protection Criteria

If an HRSG protection signal is initiated the diverter damper has to be closed
to the HRSG in case of a trip or load rejection of the gas turbine in order to protect the
steam generator and the steam turbine (temperature decrease) and if the pressure in the
exhaust gas duct rises to 45 mbar, the bypass duct is opened, the GT must then trip
simultaneously without any delay. Further the gas turbine must be shut down
whenever the diverter or its hydraulic drive fails to operate properly.

3.7.1 High pressure parts

The diverter damper is moved to the “boiler duct closed” position, e.g.
- On break down of one of the HP circulation pumps the corresponding standby
pump is cut in and does not go into operation.
- At level LL in the HP drum the corresponding circulation pumps are shut
down.
- At level HH the feedwater gate valve is closed and the feedwater pumps are
shut down if the gate valve is not closed after a defined time (at level H the
drain control valve opens).
- If the MS temperature reaches or exceeds 560°C
- If MS pressure exceeds 70bar (gas turbine is tripped)

46
3.7.2 Low pressure parts
The diverter damper is moved to the “boiler duct closed” position, e.g.
- On break down of one of the LP circulation pumps the corresponding standby
pump is cut in and does not go into operation.
- At level LL in the LP drum the corresponding circulation pumps are shut
down.
- At level HH the feedwater gate valve is closed and the feedwater pumps are
shut down if the gate valve is not closed after a defined time (at level H the
drain control valve opens).

3.8 Main Components

3.8.1 Soot Blower System / Scavenging Air

The soot blower system (HCB on Block 1,3 and FRM on Block 2) is provided
for periodic cleaning of the tube bundles (exhaust gas side), and operates with steam
from the high pressure steam system. Soot blower penetration are sealed with
scavenging air from seal air fans. Individual seal air fans are provided at Block 1,3 and
one main seal air fan is provided at Block 2.

3.8.2 By Pass Stack and Damper

In KAPCO combined cycle arrangements, a bypass stack and damper are
provided at the outlet of the gas turbine, prior to the HRSG. At some facilities, the
damper can be modulated to allow a portion of the turbine exhaust to pass through the
HRSG for warm-up purposes. The installation of a bypass damper has several
advantages including the ability to run the gas turbine in open cycle mode, and to
allow the gas turbine to be brought up to load independently and faster than the HRSG
or steam turbine. By allowing the gas turbine to be operated in the open cycle mode, it
becomes possible to increase the availability of the gas turbine, even if the steam cycle
is out of service for maintenance.

i) By Pass and Boiler Inlet Dampers (HRSG 1-4, 5-8)

At Block 1 & 2 Dampers are installed at bypass stack of the gas turbine and at
boiler inlet which makes it possible to send the exhaust gas directly to the atmosphere,
by means of a bypass stack or allow the flue gases entering in gas path of the boiler.
This system is operated by hydraulic power pack called as PU pumps. This system is
specially studied to isolate the boiler or the bypass. In any case, it is impossible to
close simultaneously the boiler and the bypass.

1 The Hydraulic Power System

1.1 General Description of Hydraulic System
Installed at ground level adjacent to the dampers, the Electro-Hydraulic Power
Packs (EHPP) are designed to generate sufficient power to operate one by-pass and
one boiler inlet isolator. The hydraulic components of the EHPP are enclosed in a
weatherproof cabinet, vented by covered apertures on either side.

47
1.2 Power Pack Main Components
1.2.1 The Hydraulic Reservoir
The 400 litre reservoir tank and a sealed inspection panel is provided. A return
line filter is fitted in the main fluid return line to the reservoir. Fluid level indication is
by inspection glass and also by an electrical float switch to give a remote (control
room) indication. This electrical float switch has two contacts. One for low level and
the other indicates low-low level. Low is for warning, low-low show emergency
OPEN Bypass and switch off PU pumps.
1.2.2 Motor/Pump Unit PU1
A 18.5 kW, 1440 rpm electrical motor driving a variable displacement,
pressure compensated, in-line axial piston pump. This unit provides the hydraulic
fluid for normal opening or closing of both dampers through two separate directional
valve manifold assemblies, and only operates when such movement of the damper
blades is necessary. It also acts as a back-up for PU2 in the event of failure of that
pump. The output of PU1 can be monitored by pressure gauge PG1 or remotely
through pressure switch PS1.
1.2.3 Motor/Pump Unit PU2
A 3 kW, 1440 rpm electrical motor driving a variable displacement, pressure
compensated, in-line axial piston pump. This unit runs continuously, primarily to
maintain pressure in the main storage accumulators and secondarily to maintain
pressure in the hydraulic cylinders of the boiler inlet dampers when it blades are fully
open or fully closed position. It also acts as a back-up for PU1 in the event of failure
of that pump. The output of PU2 can be monitored by pressure gauge PG2. In the
event of pressure loss from PU2, pressure switch PS2 will energise PU1 and operate
directional valve to direct the output from PU1 to the main accumulator circuit,
ensuring the availability of emergency venting capability.
1.2.4 Motor/Pump Unit PU3
A 1.5 kW, 1440 rpm electrical motor is driving a fixed displacement radial
piston pump. This unit runs continuously to supply hydraulic fluid to the pilot circuit
controlling the six logic element check valves via the solenoid valves. A pressure
switch PS4 actuates at the specified pilot pressure causing the pump unloader valve to
operate, circulating the pumped fluid back to the reservoir. An accumulator in the
circuit stores hydraulic energy.
The circuit pressure of the pilot circuit can be monitored by the pressure gauge
PG3. PS4 actuates the solenoid valve and gives alarm signal “low level” to the control
room, if the contact PS4 will fall within 30 sec. PS 5 indicates “low-low level” and
gives emergency open alarm.
1.2.5 Hydraulic Accumulators (86) & (87) (Emergency Pressure Relief)
Two accumulators provide hydraulic pressure for the emergency opening of
the by-pass damper, their capacity being sufficient to fully extend all four hydraulic
cylinders on that damper.
In the event of the gas turbine duct pressure exceeding the pre-determined safe
level, pressure switches on the damper trigger the release of the stored hydraulic
pressure, opening the by-pass damper in approx. 10 seconds. The speed of the

48
emergency opening can be adjusted by flow regulators. Accumulator fluid pressure
can be monitored by pressure gauge PG4. Drain valves can be opened to drain the
stores fluid back to the tank.
1.2.6 Hydraulic Accumulators (88) (Pilot Control Circuit)
Storage bladder accumulator with a capacity of 4 litres. In the event of
emergency opening this accumulator provides pressure to positively open logic
elements. Additionally, in the event of the failure of PU3 indicated by PS5, the stored
fluid forces the by-pass isolator into emergency opening.
1.2.7 Solenoid Control Valves
All solenoid control valves, with the exception of the pump unloader valve are
grouped in three manifold assemblies as follows:
Manifold (91) – Boiler inlet isolator solenoid control valves.
The solenoid valves (30) & (31) and the valves controlling the boiler inlet damper are
mounted on a 3-station CETOP 5 manifold. Both solenoid valves are the four-port wet
armature type, incorporating a four-land spool design and are direct acting. The valves
themselves are rated at a maximum flow of 120 l.p.m at 314 bar maximum. The
operating solenoids are 220V DC.
Solenoid valve (30) operates only when, for any reason, PU2 fails to deliver the
required pressure, thereby maintaining the hydraulic fluid supply to the main
accumulator circuit. Directional valve (31) is a 4-way, 3-position unit controlling the
position and movement of the boiler inlet blades. In its neutral, de-energised state the
pressure line from the pump is blocked and both service lines are directed to the tank,
locking the cylinders on the pilot operated check valve.
Manifold (92) – By-pass isolator solenoid control valves.
The solenoid valves (32) & (33) and the valves controlling the normal operation of the
by-pass damper are mounted on a 2-station CETOP 5 manifold. Both solenoid valves
are the four-port wet armature type, incorporating a four-land spool design and are
direct acting. The valves themselves are rated at a maximum flow of 120 l.p.m at 314
bar maximum. The operating solenoids are 220V DC.
Each blade of the damper is controlled through an independent system of valves, the
pump pressure and return lines being divided within the manifold. In this way, the
operation of at least one blade is assured even if one valve assembly fails. These
valves are by-passes in the emergency mode.
Manifold (93) – Emergency pressure relief control valves.
The valves controlling the by-pass damper in the emergency, power failure of shut-
down modes are mounted in two interconnected manifolds. Solenoid valves (34) to
(39) are the poppet type inserted into formed recesses in one manifold. Each valve is
connected by a steel pipe to the second manifold which houses the logic check
elements (56) to (61), which are controlled by their own solenoid operated 2-position,
3-way poppet type directional valve. The operating solenoids are 220V DC.
Valves (34) and (35) are arranged to form a closed way to their individual valves
under normal circumstances, maintaining their associated check elements in the closed
position.

49
1.2.8 Pump Unloader Valve (40)
PU3 pump runs continuously, charging the pilot control circuit accumulator (88). At a
preset charge, pressure switch PS4 is actuated causing the operating solenoid to de-
energise, allowing pumped fluid to flow directly back to the reservoir at low
circulating pressure.
1.2.9 Hydraulic Cylinders
All the cylinders are double acting tie-rod type incorporating cushioned end-stops in
both directions. Each end is fitted with self aligning bearings and provision is made
for the fitting of banjo-mounted counterbalance valves for hose failure protection.
1.2.10 Set points for KWU Dampers
a) Pre-charge
i) Main accumulators (86), (87) 35 bar
ii) Pilot accumulator (88) 110 bar
b) Main system pressure
(set on pumps PU1 & PU2) 145 bar
c) Relief valve (25) (Rising) 160 bar
Pilot pressure High 160 bar
Low 145 bar
Low-Low 110 – 115 bar
Relief valve (26) (Rising) 170 bar
d) Pressure switch settings
P.S-1 (Make on falling) 20 bar
P.S-2 (Make on falling) 20 bar
P.S-3 (Make on rising) 140 bar
(Break on falling) 120 bar
P.S-4 (Break on rising) 155 – 165 bar
(Make on falling) 145 bar
P.S-5 (Make on falling) Not of important
e) Relief valve settings
(25) Rising 160 bar
(26) Rising 170 bar
(28) Rising 175 bar
(29) Rising 175 bar

2 Operating Modes
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Interlock System
As an operating safety precaution the boiler inlet and by-pass dampers are
electrically interlocked to prevent both dampers being closed at one time.
2.1.2 Manual Operation
A hydraulic hand pump allows the operation of the boiler inlet or by-pass
dampers in the event of loss of electrical power, e.g. during commissioning or major

50
maintenance. A Ball valve allows selection of the damper to be operated by hand. The
shut-off valves are fitted with an electrical interlock to isolate their operating
solenoids from control circuits during manual operation.
2.1.3 Hydraulic pipe failure
Pressure retention in the full-bore volumes of both sets of hydraulic cylinders
is essential. In the event of a flexible pipe failure in the hydraulic circuit it is important
to prevent the uncontrolled closing of the by-pass damper since this could cause
serious damage to the blade seals, blades or main frame.
To prevent such an occurrence each cylinder on the by-pass damper is fitted
with pilot operated counterbalance valves [(112) to (115) inclusive]. These valves
prevent fluid flow from the cylinder unless there is a pressure balance between both
ends of the cylinder. Therefore, if there is a pipe failure, there will be a pressure
imbalance and the valve will shut, locking the system in a fail-fixed condition.
The same counterbalance valves (130-133) are also fitted to the cylinders of
the boiler inlet damper.
2.1.4 Overload protection
Since the pressure

ii) Diverter Damper and Seal Air Fans, MBR 40 (HRSG 13,14)
At outlet of the gas turbine, upstream the boiler, a diverter is provided which
makes it possible to send the exhaust gas directly to the atmosphere, by means of a
bypass stack. This system of diverter is specially studied to isolate the boiler or the
bypass. In any case, it is impossible to close simultaneously the boiler and the bypass.
The diverter is provided with hydraulic actuators. The actuators have been
sized to permit intermittent operation of the damper to a predetermined position, but
not regulated control. The ‘close position’ is with the blade closed to HRSG and the
open to bypass stack. The ‘open position’ is with the blade open to HRSG and the
close to bypass stack.
The diverter damper seal air fans provide sealing air to the shaft seals of the
diverter damper to ensure full gas tightness. This system is equipped with 2x100%
sealing air fans, one of which is always on standby.
The diverter damper is actuated through the various modes of operation by an
electrically controlled hydraulic system. This hydraulic system comprises an
independent, self contained power unit connected electrically and hydraulically to the
diverter blade, controlled by Programmable Ladder Controller (PLC) and relays to
achieve the various modes of operation using the minimum of output from the plant
computer. Feedback signals are provided to the plant computer from this control
system. This enclosure is built into the hydraulic power unit.
The power unit consists of a weather proof enclosure containing a system of
two motor pump units, one control valve assembly, a hand pump system and 3
hydraulic accumulators.

51
3.9 HRSG Characteristics and Design Considerations

3.9.1 HRSG Geometry

The majority of the heat transfer surfaces within an HIRSG use finned tubes (Figure
3-2) to increase their heat transfer area. If the fuel being burned is clean, high fins with
high fin densities are used. For natural gas, it Is normal to use 6 fins per inch, having a
height of 0.75 inches. For less clean fuels like No. 2 oil, it is necessary to reduce the
fin height and density to reduce the possibility of soot build-up and excessive fouling.
Higher fins and fin densities increase the heat flux and tube wall temperatures. This
affects the selection of tube and fin material and also the circulation design for forced
circulation evaporators.

One of the principal issues, which affect combined cycle efficiency, is gas turbine
exhaust pressure. Increasing the pressure, against which the gas turbine must operate,
decreases its output and efficiency. Minimum backpressure at the outlet of the gas
turbine engine promotes maximum efficiency.

Figure-3.2 Heat Transfer Tubes

The pressure at the gas turbine exhaust is the same as the pressure at the HRSG inlet.
Tube size, tube pitch, and tube orientation are all critical factors which affect the
exhaust gas velocity and pressure drop through the HRSG,

Heat transfer in the HR5G is principally connective heat transfer. The effectiveness of
connective heat transfer is partially dependant on velocity; i.e. higher velocities result
in higher rates of heat transfer. If the turbine exhaust pressure at the inlet of the HRSG
were increased, the velocity of the exhaust gas through the HRSG tube bundles would
increase. Thus, HRSG efficiency can be improved by increasing the gas turbine
exhaust pressure. This however, is the opposite of what is desirable for gas turbine
efficiency. Increasing the pressure, against which the gas turbine must operate,
decreases its output and efficiency.

Gas side pressure drop is critical for optimum gas turbine performance. If the pressure
drop through the HRSG is higher than expected, gas turbine performance will
deteriorate. In each combined cycle application, the HRSG is matched to the
associated gas turbine so that the relationship between the turbine exhaust pressure
and the pressure drop across the HRSG is balanced.

Instrumentation is generally provided for monitoring the pressure losses through the
HRSG. If a high differential pressure is noted, the gas turbine should be shutdown and
the fins of the-heat transfer sections checked for excessive accumulation of carbon
and soot deposits.

52
3.3.2 Exhaust Gas Considerations
In order to optimize the performance of the HIRSG for combined cycle applications, it
is essential that HP pressure section generate superheated steam. The pressure and
temperature of steam that can be generated in the HRSG is a function of the
temperature and quantity of exhaust gases leaving the gas turbine.

High-pressure steam has a high saturation temperature, and consequently needs to be

heated up to that temperature to convert to steam. This high-pressure steam then needs
to be heated to a higher temperature to have a certain degree of superheat to avoid
excessive moisture formation in the lower stages of the steam turbine. If the steam is
not superheated enough at the turbine throttle, it will start condensing at an early stage
and will contain unacceptable quantities of moisture by the time it exits the last stages
of the steam turbine.

The amount of steam that can be generated in the HRSG is a function of the total heat
available in the exhaust gases, which depends on their quantity and temperature. One
way of ensuring that the steam generated in the HRSG has a high enough superheat
temperature is to maximize the temperature of the exhaust gases. This can be
accomplished in many different ways depending on the capabilities and limitations of
the gas turbine; however, the simplest method is to maintain the gas turbine at base
load operation. This will achieve maximum electrical output from the generator, and
maximum exhaust gas temperature output from the gas turbine.

When the gas turbine is operated at partial loads, the exhaust gas temperature will
likely decrease due to the fact that the air flow rate remains the same but fuel input to
the turbine is decreased. Under such conditions, the superheat steam temperature tends
to decrease. Consequently, there is an increased probability of higher moisture content
in the lower stages of the steam turbine. If the gas turbine is provided with variable
inlet guide vanes, they can be modulated during operation to reduce air-flow to the
compressor at low loads to help alleviate this problem. By reducing air flow at low
loads, the temperature of the gas turbine exhaust gas, and consequently steam
temperature, is maintained at design levels over a greater range.

3.3.4 Stack Temperature

The effectiveness of a HIRSG is highly dependent upon the stack temperature. This is
true, since the amount of heat lost through the stack is considerably higher than from
all the other losses combined. Therefore, the emphasis is to lower the stack
temperature as much as possible. Lowering of stack temperature can be achieved by:

• Increasing the surface area of the heat transfer sections within the HRSG.

• Lowering the temperature difference between the exhaust gas and the last component
of heat transfer surface (economizer) within the HRSG.
• Decreasing the operating steam pressure. However, steam turbine or processes steam
requirements may preclude this possibility.

53
Theoretically, it is possible to reduce the stack temperature to within 20 to 25'F
feedwater inlet temperature. A more practical approach is to maintain stack
temperature between 340°C and 1648°C. Operating with too low of a stack
temperature may have the following detrimental consequences:

• HIRSG may require excessive surface area to extract the last BTU's resulting in
excessive capital cost.

• Excessive surface area in the HIRSG will increase the gas pressure drop.
Additionally, colder exhaust gas could cause a loss of draft in the stack. The losses of
draft will increases the backpressure on the gas turbine

There are practical limits to how much the gas temperature may be reduced. The most
significant of these limits results from sulphur in the fuel. Sulphur appears as SO,
(sulphur dioxide) in the gas turbine exhaust gas. If the flue gas is cooled below the
saturation point of the water, moisture contained in the exhaust gas condenses. The
condensing moisture mixes with the SO, in the flue gas to form sulphuric acid. These
acids are very corrosive and can quickly damage the HRSG. The temperature at which
the acids are formed is called the acid dewpoint. Every effort is made in design and
operation of the HRSG to assure that the flue gas is not cooled below the acid
dewpoint. Operation below the acid dew point can quickIv result in corrosion damage
to the HRSG casing and heat transfer sections.

In some HRSGs, the last heat transfer sections are made of corrosion resistant
stainless steel as a precaution. Stainless steel is used in the construction of these heat
transfer sections since they are the most likely to be subject to condensation and attack
by acid.

3.3.6 Stress and Fatigue

As steam temperatures and pressures are elevated to maximize combined cycle
efficiency, the HRSG's must be designed to handle these conditions. Thermal stresses
are particularly important because the system must retain its rapid start-stop and load
cycling capabilities. During startup and shutdown of the gas turbine, significant
changes occur in both the mass flow and thermal energy being directed through the
HRSG. Also, combined cycle plants usually operate in the sliding pressure mode,
meaning that drum pressure and steam flow vary (follow) gas turbine load. Over a
period of time, the resulting transients can impart stress and fatigue to the HFISG
components resulting in eventual failure.

3.3.7 Blowdown

As steam is produced, any impurities that may be present in the makeup feedwater are
left behind in the steam drums. These impurities are generally concentrated in the
upper 4 to 6 inches of the drum water level and must be continuously removed to
prevent excessive accumulation. For this purpose, steam drums are typically equipped
with a continuous blowdown header, which extends internally across the length of the
drum, just below the normal water level. The rate of continuous blowdown is

54
controlled by throttling an isolation valve, in an effort to maintain water chemistry
requirements.

The continuous removal of blowdown water from a steam drum represents a loss of
thermal energy from the system; and hence, a reduction in cycle efficiency. One way
to minimize theses losses in through the use of a 'cascading' continuous blowdown
piping arrangement. That is; blowdown water from the high pressure steam drum
passes to HIRSG blowdown tank.
Also the same arrangement is provide in LP drum for controlling the steam and water
quality,

4.0 STEAM TURBINES

Steam turbines convert the heat energy of steam into rotational mechanical energy.
The mechanical energy of the steam turbine is then used to produce electrical energy
from a generator. The steam turbine generator is, by itself, a very simple machine with
few moving parts. This is desirable because it allows the steam turbine-generator to
have very good reliability. It is not unusual for a steam turbine-generator to operate
continuously for more than a year without shutdown.

4.1 Turbine Principles

The power plant is often described as an energy conversion factory in which the
chemical energy in the fuel is transformed in a series of steps into electrical energy,
with the turbine-generator as one part of the power plant. The function of the steam
turbine is to convert the energy in superheated high-pressure steam from the boiler or
HRSG, into mechanical energy. It is common to refer to the energy conversion that
occurs in the turbine as happening in a single step. The conversion of energy in the
turbine actually occurs in two steps. First, the heat energy in the steam is converted
into kinetic energy of a steam jet by nozzles. Second, the steam jets are used with
buckets or blades mounted on a rotor to produce a mechanical force and torque. This
section describes both of these processes.

4.1.1 Nozzles and Their Principles

A steam turbine nozzle is a device that converts heat energy of steam into kinetic
energy (energy of motion) by expanding the steam. A simplified, convergent nozzle of
the type most often used in steam turbines is shown in Figure 4-1.

Assume that steam at temperature T1 and pressure P, enters a convergent nozzle. The
higher the pressure and temperature, the more thermal energy is in the steam. The
steam is moving at velocity V, before entering the nozzle. The steam leaves the nozzle
at a lower pressure and temperature, T2 and P2 but at a higher velocity, V2. This is
because some of the heat energy in the steam has been converted into energy of
motion, called kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is a function of the square of velocity
therefore, as the velocity increases so does the kinetic energy.

The ratio of the pressure upstream and downstream of the nozzle is critical in the
efficient operation of the nozzle. It is designed to operate with a constant pressure

55
ratio for best efficiency in energy conversion. If turbine conditions change the pressure
ratio, inefficiency results. Also, if changes to the nozzle such as erosion occur, the
design is upset and inefficiency results. Common problems with nozzles, which occur
in operation, are erosion from debris in the steam and deposits from contamination of
the steam,

4.1.2 Basic Turbine Types and Principles

The kinetic energy in a jet of steam is not useful as it is. The nozzle by itself cannot
convert the energy in the steam to useful mechanical energy. There are two basic
turbine types: impulse and reaction. Both use nozzles and rotor buckets (also called
oladcs), but in different ways.

Impulse Turbine
Figure 4-2 illustrates the operating principles of an impulse turbine. Steam enters an
impulse turbine through a stationary nozzle that expands the steam and creates a steam
jet. The steam jet strikes the rotor buckets (blades). Each set of nozzles and rotor
buckets is called a stage. The graph in Figure 4-2 illustrates that all the pressure drop
in the stage occurs at the nozzles, and the velocity and volume of the steam increase in
the nozzles.

The expanded steam strikes the buckets, forcing them to rotate and reducing the
velocity of the jet of steam. The force of the steam on the buckets produces the
mechanical energy needed to turn the generator. This mechanical energy comes from
the jet of steam which has its velocity reduced considerably.

In large modern power plants, there is considerable thermal energy in each Kg of

steam delivered to the turbine. It is impractical and inefficient to build a single nozzle
and rotor large enough to convert all the steam's thermal energy into useful work.
Therefore, large modern turbines are usually multi-staged, with each stage converting
part of the steam's thermal energy to mechanical energy. In a basic multi-staged steam
turbine, steam enters through the first-stage nozzle, which converts part of the thermal
energy in the steam into kinetic energy. The steam jet from the first-stage nozzle
strikes the first-stage rotor buckets. After leaving the first-stage rotor buckets, the
steam passes through the second-stage nozzle. Some of the remaining thermal energy
is then converted to kinetic energy. The second-stage rotor buckets are forced to rotate
by the steam jet leaving the second-stage nozzles.

Impulse turbines can be multi-staged in two ways. One of these ways is referred to as
the Rateau (or pressure compounded) stage. A Rateau turbine consists of a series of
nozzles and buckets; with each set of nozzles and buckets making up one stage. The
turbine previously illustrated in Figure 4-2 above is an example of a four stage,
pressure compounded, impulse turbine. As shown, the steam pressure in a series of
Rateau stages drops in steps through each set of nozzles.

The second way that impulse turbine stages may be arranged is the Curtis (or velocity
compounded) stage shown in Figure 4-3. A velocity-compounded stage has one set of
nozzles with two or more rows of moving buckets. There are stationary buckets

56
between each row of moving buckets. Each set of nozzles and buckets make up one
stage.

In passing from the nozzle exit through one set of buckets, the velocity of the steam
decreases because of the work it does on the buckets. The steam then passes through,
a row of stationary buckets that change the direction of the steam without changing its
pressure or speed. The new steam direction is approximately parallel to the original
steam direction leaving the nozzles. The steam then strikes a second row of buckets
that are attached to the same wheel as the first row. This process may be repeated
through as many as four rows of moving buckets in one stage. Most Curtis stages,
however, are limited to two rows of moving buckets.

Figure 4-3 also shows that in an ideal Curtis stage, the entire pressure drop occurs
through the nozzle, and the pressure remains constant across the buckets. This is a
characteristic of impulse turbines. The velocity, on the other hand, drops in steps as it
passes through the moving buckets.

In a sense, Curtis staging is not multistaging. This is because, as pointed out above, no
matter how many rows of moving buckets a Curtis stage has, it is still only one stage.
It is possible, however, to have a second Curtis stage behind the first.

Figure 4-3 Curtis Impulse Turbine

Many old, multistage, impulse turbines consist of both Rateau (pressure compounded)
and Curtis (velocity compounded) stages. Usually, the first stage (and sometimes the
second stage) is a velocity compounded stage with two rows of moving buckets on its
wheel. The remaining stages are then pressure-compounded stages as shown in Figure
4-4. Newer turbines seldom use Curtis staging, however, otherwise the multi-staging
is the same. It is not unusual to have as many as 20 stages in an impulse turbine.

Figure 4-4 Combination of Curtis and Rateau Stages

Reaction Turbines
Figure 4-5 illustrates the basic operating principles of an ideal reaction turbine. The
turbine rotor is forced to turn by the active force of the steam jet leaving the nozzle. In
an ideal reaction turbine, the moving buckets would be the only nozzles. Therefore, all
the steam expansion would occur in the moving buckets. This is impractical in large
turbines because it is difficult to admit steam to moving nozzles. Thus, large turbines
use fixed nozzles to admit steam to moving nozzles. Therefore, practical, large
reaction turbines use a combination of impulse and reaction principles.

The typical reaction turbine has stationary nozzles and moving nozzles. The moving
nozzles are created by varying the cross section of the openings between adjacent
buckets (usually called blades in such turbines) as shown in Figure 4-6. Reaction
turbines can be classified by the percentage of the energy conversion that occurs in the

57
moving nozzles. Typically, turbines that are called reaction turbines have about 50%
reaction and 50% impulse. Turbines, which use a combination of impulse and reaction
principles, are often referred to simply as reaction turbines to distinguish them from
the impulse turbines.
Figure 4-5 Example of Reaction Nozzles Figure 4-6
Reaction Turbine

Figure 4-7 shows a series of reaction turbine stages. Each stage consists of a set of
fixed nozzles and a set of moving nozzles. The pressure drop occurs over both the
fixed and moving nozzles. Reaction turbines are multi-staged by alternating sets of
fixed and moving nozzles and are basically pressure compounded turbines with
reaction. Each pair of fixed and moving nozzles makes up one stage.

Figure 4-7 Reaction Turbine Characteristics

Many times, reaction turbines have one Curtis impulse stage as the first stage of the
turbine, and reaction blading on the remaining stages.
Figure 4-8 shows a typical arrangement.

Figure 4-8 Combination; Curtis & Reaction Turbine

4.1.3 Classification of Turbines

Impulse and reaction turbines can be further divided into a large variety of types using
important characteristics. Each of the six characteristics discussed below is applicable
to both impulse and reaction turbines. These characteristics are:

-Condensing
 -Extraction
 Single Pressure vs. Multiple Pressure
-Reheat

-Condensing
One characteristic for classifying steam turbines is whether they are condensing or
non-condensing. In a condensing turbine, the steam is exhausted into a condenser. By
condensing the steam, the turbine exhaust pressure and temperatures can be very low.
Low exhaust pressure allows the turbine to make maximum use of the thermal energy
in the steam and makes the power plant more efficient. Nearly all-large steam turbines
are of the condensing type.

In non-condensing turbines, the exhaust steam is not condensed. Instead, the exhaust
steam is often collected in a piping system and used for another process. In this
application, the steam turbine can provide an efficient method of reducing high-

58
pressure steam to low pressure steam; ie, pressure letdown device. If a
non-condensing turbine exhausts to a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure, it is
referred to as a backpressure unit. The implementation of this type of turbine is
becoming common at larger cogeneration facilities, which provide low/medium
pressure steam to a steam host.

-Extraction
A second way turbines can be classified is by extraction or non-extraction. Extraction
turbines are sometimes called "bleeder" turbines. An extraction turbine is a
multi-stage turbine where some of the steam is exhausted, or bled, from between
turbine stages at extraction points. This extraction steam may be used for feedwater
heating, or as an alternate source of LP steam to the plant, or many other purposes.

Most turbines have steam admitted to the first stage from a single source. Some
turbines have steam at a lower pressure admitted to the steam path at some point after
the first stage. This arrangement is common in steam turbines used in combined cycle
plants because it is common to have Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSG's) that
operate with more than one pressure.

-Reheat
A third way that turbines can be classified is reheat or non-reheat. A reheat turbine is a
multistage turbine in which the steam is directed from some intermediate stage of the
turbine back to the boiler. In the boiler, the steam is reheated and then piped back to
the turbine. Some large turbines return the steam to the boiler to be reheated a second
time. This is called a double reheat turbine. There are two advantages to reheating
steam. First it makes the power plant more efficient thermodynamically. Second, it
delays the start of steam condensation in the turbine. Nearly all modern large steam
turbines use reheat.

Another way to classify turbines is as single casing or compound turbines. A single

casing turbine has all the stages of the turbine in one casing as shown schematically in
Figure 4-9(a). As turbines become larger, it is not practical to have all the stages in
one casing. Therefore, they are divided into two or more casings. These machines are
known as compound turbines. There are two different types of compound turbines,
tandem compound and cross compound.

A tandem-compound turbine is shown in Figure 4-9(b). The turbine sections are in

line with one another and the sections are on the same shaft. The tandem compound
turbine shown has two different sections. Large modern units may have as many as
five separate sections.

A cross-compound turbine is shown in Figure 4-9(c). In this case, the different

turbine sections are on different shafts. For power plants, this means that two separate

59
generators are used. This can be an advantage for very large turbine generators since it
may be easier to build and ship two half-size generators

60
than one very large generator. Some large cross-compound units have two or more
turbine sections on each shaft, and thus they are a combination of cross compound and
tandem compound.

Nearly all large steam turbines are multiple casing units. The tandem compound
arrangement is most common. Cross compound turbines are often designed for large
units and in cases where the advantage in efficiency of a cross compound unit over a
tandem compound can be justified.

Figure 4-9 Single Casing Verses Compound

Condensing turbines can be further classified by their exhaust flow. A single-flow-

condensing turbine passes all of its exhaust steam to the condenser through one
exhaust opening. However, the low-pressure sections of a large compound turbine
become so large that they must be split up into more than one section because of
design limitations. Turbines with as many as six flows are, not uncommon.

5.0 INTEGRATED COMBINED CYCLE OPERATION

Combined cycle plant operations vary significantly from traditional Rankine cycle
power plants. Although standard operational considerations are given to the balance of
plant support systems, specific considerations must be given to the combustion
turbine, heat recovery steam generator (HRSG), and steam turbine.

5.1 Normal Startup

Prior to unit startup, all support systems, power sources, and control devices must be
checked and aligned for operation. Typically, these checks depend on individual
station operating procedures and requirements, but may include such areas as correct
valve alignment, correct power supply breaker positions, returning tagged out
equipment to service, aligning control systems for startup/operation, and ensuring all
safety equipment is in place and functional.

Upon successful completion of the necessary prestart checks, the unit can be started
and brought up to base load operation. The operational sequence for a combined cycle
plant startup consists of the following major steps:

1- Placing the necessary balance of plant support systems in operation such as

compressed air, circulating water, condensate, boiler feed water system etc.
2- Starting the Gas turbine/HRSG.
3. Generating steam.
4. Starting the steam turbine.
5. Increasing unit load.

61
1- Starting the Gas Turbine/HRSG
- Introduction

This section is intended to provide operating personal with general guidelines on

activitles to be performed during gas turbine startup with fuel gas.It is assumed that
gas turbine plant is ready for operation.
The plant-specific preparation and checks are performed in accordance with the
specification given in the appropriate startup.

The startup operating programme of GT

Prior to startup operating personal should familiarize themselves with the sequence of
steps foe the subgroup controls in the operating programme associated process
sequence. The indicated shutdown criteria in the event of a failed start must likewise
be well known so that the correct decision can be taken on the basis of knowledge of
the cause of failed start.The control commands of SGC operating programme of
subsequent indiviuel steps are based on the standard version PCC 45/R. A detailed
description with the applicable functional diagrame are given in the following section.

Sequence For Startup Programme

Initial condition. The gas turbine id in the step “ Turning Gear Operation “ or “Shaft
Standstill “ of the automatic shutdown programme (appropriate step is indicated)

for operation.
The control room operator must input the appropriate operating mode manually at the
control console using the following selection criteria.
1- Start using offsite power or black start via MBJ 1 DE001
2- Manual or automatic synchronization via MBAC 01 DE011
3- Selection of the loading gradients normal or quick
4- Input of the target output
- Base load
- Peak load
- Adjustment with output setpoint adjuster via MBY 10 DEO 10
5- Fuel selection fuel oil by selection MBY 10 EU 011

Sequence of the Steps of the Operating Programme

The programme is switched on using start switch MBY 01 EC 001

By inputting the automatic start command, step indication change from shutdown e g.
Step 61 to 01 of the startup programme.

62
After inputting startup, the gas turbine tun through the sequence of the steps of the
operating programme up to the preselected operating point (e g. base load)
The sequence of steps indicated on control console by the illuminated indicator MBY
01 EE 001

Note-
During the startup programme in the, the sequence at the steps with the execute
commands shellbe performed and checked.
The following control commands are divided into individual steps.

Step-1
Fuel oil start
- HSD System… ........................................... ON
- HSD feed valve… ...................................... OPEN
Fuel gas start
- FG supply vent valve ................................ CLOSES
- FG S/O supply valve… ............................. OPEN
Interregation
- Start using offsite power or black start… ............ SELECTED
- Remote start… ........................................................ SELECTED
Step-2
- SLC generator auxiliary equipment… ................. ON
- SLC lube oil pump… ............................................... ON
- Bearing auxiliary 0ilpump…....................................ON
- SLC shaft turning gear… ....................................... OFF
- Shaft turning gear… ................................................ OFF
- SLC generator cooling air dampers..................... OPEN
- Excitation equipment… ........................................... OFF
- Syenchronization equipment… ............................. OFF
- Shutdown heating for compressor… .....................OFF
- SLC compressor shutoff damper ........................... OPEN
- Fueel shutoff valve… .............................................. CLOSED
(Protection interrogation)
Step-3
- SLC bearing off cooler ............................................ ON
Step-4
- Solenoid valve for emergency stop device......... OPEN
- (Operating position Control oil pump… ............... ON
- Fuel preselection
- Manual enable cancel
Step-5
- Emergency lube oil pump… ................................... OFF
- Stationery blade pitch adjustment device ............ ON
- Start-up converter…................................................ PREPARE
Step-6
- Ignition gas valve no 1 ......................................... OPEN
Step-7

63
- SLC fuel oil injection… ............................................ ON
- Fuel oil injection pump ............................................. ON
- Fuel oil startup pressure limiting valve ................. OPEN
- Inhibitor dosing ......................................................... ON
- FO bypass valve CCL .............................................. CLOSE
- FO bypass valve CCR .............................................. CLOSE
Step-8
- Startup converter… ................................................... ON
Step-9
- SLC shaft turning gear… ......................................... ON
- Auxiliary lube oil pump… ......................................... OFF
- Ignition gas valve no 2… ........................................ OPEN
(When n>S TURB 31 (1) )
- Fuel oil drain valve .................................................... OPEN
Step-10
- Fuel oil ball valve assemblies… ............................... OPEN
STEP-11
- Fuel oil emergency valve… ......................................... OPEN
- FO RET/REC valve ........................................................ POS. RETURN
- FO return valve… ........................................................... POS HSD-TANK
Note-
To seco/ids after opening of the ihnition gas valve no 2, the open command is given to
the fuel of emergency valve.
Enable of the flame monitoring period as of n>s. TURB 34 (!)
Step-12
- No command during fuel oil start-up
Step-13
- No command during fuel oil startup
Step-14
- No command
Interrogation; Flame ON
Note-
The signal (FLAME ON) MBM EU !0 must be indicated on the control console at the
latest 12 seconds after the OPEN command is issued to the fuel of emergency stop
valve. In the event that the flame on signal is not given, the emergency stop valve
shell be closed after 12 seconds and startup is thus aborted.
Fuel oil drain valve no 1 and 2 are closed when the signal “FLAME ON” is given.
Step-15
- No Command;
Interrogation Speed n > 900 rpm
Step-16
- NO command
Interrogation Speed n > 2100 rpm
- Ignition gas valve no 1and 2… ..................................... CLOSED
- Startup converter… ........................................................ OFF
Note
Extended ignition burner operation is necessary during fuel oil Startup.

64
The ignition gas valves remain open for an extended period of time after ignition of
the main flame and close only as of n > S TURB . 66 (1)
Step-17
- No command
Interrogation Speed =n= 2850 rpm
Step-18
- Auxiliary lube iol pump .................................................... OFF
- Emergency lube oil pump… ........................................... OFF
- Exciter set…........................................................................ON

Step-19
- Fuel apportioner… ................................................... use initial setting
(Only for detail fuel operation)
Step-20
- Synchronization… .....................................................ON
Note
Generator is connected to the grid and is loaded up to the preselected target output
Step-21
- SLC auxiliary power changeover… ......................... OFF
- SLC auxiliary power changeover… ......................... CHANGE OVER
Step-22
- SLC auxiliary power changeover… ......................... OFF
Step-23
- Duel-fuel operation… ................................................... Enable
- Fuel preslection… ......................................................... Manual Enable
- GT controller… ........................................................... Reset power changeover
- Fuel oil fill up function… ............................................... Fill up
(Only for changeover to duel fuel mode during fuel gas operation)
Note-
On selection of the duel fuel mode (Keypad MBY 10 EU 12) this sequence
programme is followed and also fuel changeover is initiated
The following steps 24-28 contain control commands for the fuel oil fill up
programme which is only used when changing over to duel-fuel operation during fuel
gas operation.
Application of the duel fuel operation key MBY 10 EU 012 initiates the following
fillup programme.
Step-24
- HSD system…....................................................ON
- HSD feed valve… ............................................. OPEN
- Fuel oil injection pump… ................................. ON
- Fuel oil Startup pressure limiting valve… ..... OPEN
- Fuel bypass valve ............................................. OPEN
-
1- Startup programme of gas turbine
Introduction

65
This section is intended to provide operating personel with general guidance on
activities to be performed during gas turbine Startup with fuel gas.
It is assumed that the gas turbine plant is ready for operation.
The plant specific preparations; and checks are performed in accordance with the
specification given in the approp selection

Notes on the Startup operating programme

Prior to startup, operating personal should be familiarize themselves with the
sequence of steps for subgroup control of the operating proramme including the
associated process sequence.
The indicated shutdown criteria the vent of the failed start must likewise be well
known so that the correct decision can be taken on the basis of the knowledge of the
cause of the failed start.
The control commands of the SGC operating programme of subsequent individual
steps are based on standard version PCC 45/R. A detailed description with the
applicable functional diagrams are given in the following section.

Sequences for Startup Programme

Initial; The gas turbine is in the step”turning Gear Operation” or Shaft standstill” of
the automatic shutdown programme.
(Appropriate step is indicated)
The ready for startup is illuminated by MBNY 01 EC 001 when ready for operation.
The control room operator must input the appropriate operating mode manually at the
control console using following selection criteria.
1- Manual or automatic Synchronization via MBJ 01 CE 001
2- Manual or automatic Synchronization via MBA 001DE011
3- Selectior of the loading gradients normal or quick
4- Input of the target output
- Base load
- Peak load
- Adjustment with output setpoint adjuster via MBY 10 DE 010
5- Fuel selection fuel gas by selection of MBY 10 EU 011
6- Specification of burner mode diffiusion/premix operation via
MBP 20 EE001.

Sequence of Steps of the Operating programme

The programme is switched on using start switch MBY 01 EC 001

66
After inputting the automatic start command, the step indication change form the
shutdown programme e.g.step 61to step 01 of the startup programme.
After inputting the gas turbine runs through the sequence of operating programme up
to the preselected operating point (e.g. base load)
The sequence of steps is indicated on the control console by the illuminated indicator
MBY 01 EE 001

Note-
During the startup programme the sequence in the steps with excute commands shell
be performed and checked.
Step-1
- FG supply vent valve ....................................... CLOSED
- FG supply S/O valve ........................................ OPEN
Interrogation- Start using offsite power or
- Black start… ....................................................... SELECTED
- Remote start… ................................................... SELECTED
Step-2
- SLC generator auxiliary equipment… ............ ON
- SLC lube oilpump… .......................................... ON
- Bearing auxiliary oil pump….............................ON
- SLC shaft turning gear… ................................. OFF
- Shaft turning gear… ......................................... OFF
- SLC generator cooling air dampers…........... OPEN
- Excitation equipment… .................................... OFF
- Synchrinization equipment… ........................... OFF
- Shutdown heating for compressor… ..............OFF
- SLC compressor shutoff damper .................... OPEN
- Fuel shutoff valves… ........................................ CLOSED
(Protection interrogation)
Step-3
- SLC bearing oil cooler ....................................... ON
STEP-4
- Solenoid valve for emergency stop device..... OPEN
(Operating position)
- Control oil pump… ................................................ ON
- Fuel preselection
Manual enables cancel
Step-5
- Emergency lube oil pump… ................................. OFF
- Stationery blade pitch adjustment device ........... ON
- Start-up con/erter ....................................................prepare
Step-6
- Ignition valve no 1… ................................................ OPEN
Step-7
- NO Command for fuel gas start-up

67
Step-8
- Start-up converter….................................................... ON
Step-9-10-11
- No Command for fuel gas startup
Step-12
- SLC shaft turning gear… ............................................ ON
- Auxiliary lube oil pump… ............................................ OFF
- Ignition valve no 2… ............................................... OPEN
(when n = s TURB 09 (!)
- Shutoff valve as diffusion burner… ....................... OPEN
- Fuel gas vent valve.................................................. CLOSED
- Fuel oil drain valve .................................................... OPEN
Note-
When ignition valve no 2 is opened and the ignition current s switched on, the ignition
gas burner put in operation.
In gas turbine, which permit duel-fuel operation, the fuel oil drain solenoid valves also
half opened and are closed when the signal “flame ON” is given for functional
purpose, even during fuel gas startup.
Step-13
- Fuel gas emergency valve… ..................................... OPEN
Note-
10 Second after ignition gas valve no 2 opens the OPEN command is given to fuel gas
emergency valve.
Enable of the flame monitoring period as n > s TURB 33 (!).
Step-14-15
- No command
Interrogation flame ON?
Note-
The signal “flame ON” MBM 00 EU 010 must be indicated on the control console at
the latest 12 seconds after the open command is issued to the emergency stop valve in
the event that the flame on signal is not given, the emergency stop valve shell be
closed after 12 seconds and startup is thus aborted.
Step-16
- No command
- Interrogation speed n > 2100 rpm
- Ignition gas valve no 1 and 2… .................................... CLOSED
- Startup converter… ......................................................... OFF
Note-
Ignition valves nos. 1 and 2 receive the CLOSE command as a function of speed as of
n > s TURB 35 (!) (Indicated speed to enable for flame monitoring)
Step-17
- No command
Interrogation speed = n = 2850 rpm
Step-18
- Auxiliary lube oil pump… ..................................... OFF
- Emergency lube oil pump… ................................. OFF
- Exciter set.................................................................ON

68
Step-19
- Fuel apportioner ....................................................... Use initial reading
(only for preselection for duel fuel operation)

Step-20
- Synchronization… ...........................................ON
Note-
Generator connected to the grid and is loaded up ot the preselected trget output.
Step-21
- SLC auxiliary power changeover… ................ ON
- SLC auxiliary power changeover… ................ CHANGE OVER
Step-22
- SLC auxiliary power change over… ................ OFF
Step-23
- Duel-fuel operation… .......................................... ENABLE
- Fuel preselection… .............................................. MA NUAL ENABLE
- GT controller… ................................... REST POWER CHANGE OVER
- Fuel oil fill up function… ....................................... FILL UP
(Only foe changeover to duel-fuel mode during fuel gas operation)
Step-24

Step-25
- Fuel oil emergency valve… ................................... OPEN
- Fuel oil return shutoff valve… ................................ OPEN
Note-
After expiry of fillup time K FUELL 02 (!) the return into shutoff valve is closed and
the fuel oil emergency valve receives the activation command ‘OPEN”
The fuel oil return line is filled
Step-26
Note-
After pressure has been built up to the return line, the fuel oil start up pressure
limiting valve open and expiry of time K FUELL 03 (!) for pressure reduction the fuel
oil emergency stop valve closed.
The FO start up pressure limiting valve is closed when the CLOSED signal has been
given foe fuel of emergency stop valve.
Step-27
- No command
Step-28
- S:C Fuel oil booster pump… ............................. OFF
- Fuel oil booster pump ......................................... OFF
- Fuel injection pump… ......................................... OFF
Note-
The fill up process is completed when the pressure downstream of fuel oil emergency
stops valve is below the response level of the pressure switch.

69
Thus the criteria for correct filling are present and changeover to duel-fuel operation
during fuel gas operations command in step 7 of the SGC programme

5.1.2 HRSG Startup

The HRSG, located at the exhaust end of the gas turbine, efficiently utilizes the excess
thermal energy in the gas turbine exhaust gases to generate high pressure, superheated
steam. Because of its location, the HRSG is placed in operation according to the
operation mode as combined cycle with the gas turbine.

In KAPCO combined cycle plants, a bypass stack and damper is installed between the
gas turbine and the HRSG. In the bypass configuration, exhaust gases from the turbine
can be diverted directly to the atmosphere instead of passing through the HRSG.
Regardless of the specific gas turbine/HRSG arrangement, similar considerations are
applicable the startup and operation of all HRSGs.

The HIRSG must be prepared for operation prior to initiating a start of the gas turbine.
Preparing the HIRSG for operation consists of following evaluations
When combined cycle operation has been selected the plant s started up according to
the following sequence;

minimum load of GT

Closed’

The steam generator first must be purged before combined cycle operation by taking
the following steps;

he requisite
purging time end.

the boiler exhaust gas duct with the diverter damper.

ening the exhaust gas duct to the boiler and closing the bypass duct as
required for further operation of the plant (load increase)

When changing over from the pravious simple cycle operation to combined cycle
operation, GT exhaust temperature must be reduced to < 350°C, when the HRSG has
not been purged before. For 100% combined operation, diverter damper is fully closed
to the bypass stack.

Remarks;

70
Further operation procedures concerning the HP- and LP piping system will be
discribed the subject “plant operation”

Shutdown and Part-load Behavior

The reduction of the GT exhaust gas flow and GT exhaust gas temperature on a load
reduction of the gas turbine is shown on in Fig . 2.5
30°C ambient temperature. The steam generator adapt to tis behavior of the gas
turbines.The main steam temperature upstream the spry desuperheater starts to rise
slightly (around 5K) in the first phase of the GT load reduction down to 75%. The
desuperheater in the main steam line limit the main steam temperature only when the
GT power is further reduced.

In the range from 100-60% ST load the plant is operated with variable pressure, below
60% ST load pressure is held constant at approx,36bar. The fixed pressure operation
in the lower load range is not determined by the St but rather by plant design and is
determined by the maximum allowable velocities in the evaporator and downstream
systems.

The high pressure system is shutdown by closing the exhaust duct to the boiler with
the diverter damper.

By means of the LP steam control valve the pressure in LP evaporator is controlled in

accordance the following criteria;

 2.0 bar for Gas firing

 3.0 bar for HSO firing
 5.0 bar for FO firing

surfaces the boiling temperature in the LP drum shell not drop below a
certain limit, depending on the sulpher content of the fuel. This requires at
least 5 bar or 150°C in the LP drum.

120°C for HSDO firing and 150°C for FO firing. During part load operation
the LP steam mass flow is adjusted to the required condensate heating by
rising the LP drum pressure above the limit of 3 resp- 5bar

 If condensate heating would require the LP drum pressure to exceed design

pressure (10bar) the excess LP steam is led off to the blow down tank through the
blow down line which branches off the LP drum outlet header.
 The LP system shutdown by closing the exhaust gas duct to the boiler with the
diverter damper.

 Protection Criteria

71
If the HRSG protection signal is initiated the diverter damper has to be closed to the
HRSG in case of trip or load rejection of the gas turbine in order to protect the steam
generator and the steam turbine(temperature decrease) and if the pressure in the
exhaust gas duct rises to 45 mbar, the bypass duct is opened, the GT must then trip
simultaneously without any delay. Further the gas turbine must be shutdown when
ever the diverter or its hydraulic drive fails to operate properly.

High Pressure Part

The diverter damper moved to the “boiler duct closed” position e.g.

standby pump is cut in and does not go into operation

the corresponding circulation pumps are shut
down.

are shut down if the gate valve is not closed after a defined time (at level
H the drain control valve open)

Low Pressure Part

The diverter damper moved to the “boiler duct closed”position e.g.

the LP circulation pumps corresponding standby

pump is cut in and does no go into operation.

down.
er pumps
are shutdown if the gate valve is not closed after a defined time (at level
H the drain control valve opens)

Interaction with other System

Soot Blower System/Scaveging air

The soot blower system is provided for periodic cleaning of the tube bundles (exhaust
gas side) and operates with steam from the high pressure steam system soot blower
penetration are sealed with scavenging air.

Gas Diverter Damper Seal Air

The diverter damper seal air fans provide sealing to the shaft seals the diverter
damper.

72
Main Components

1- Divberter Damper

At the outlet of the gas turbine, upstream the boiler, a diverter is provided which
makes it possible send the exhaust gas directly to the atmosphere of a bypass stack.
This system of diverter is specially studied to isolate the boiler and the bypass.

The diverter is provided with hydraulic actuators. The actuators have been sized to
permit intermittent operation of the damper to a predetermined position, but not
regulated control.

The closed position is with the blade closed to HRSG and the bypass stack open.

The open position is with the blade open to HRSG and the bypass stack closed

A metallic sealing syystem is provided around each blade. The material.allows a free
thermal expansion of the blade with the same tightness.

A seal air system is provide to ensurefull gas-tightness. The system is equipped with
2X100% seal air fans, one of which is always on standby. If a tip occurs on one fan,
the other one is automatically switched. The position of the valves and the air barrier
pressure are monitored by the appertaining control system.

The diverter damper is actuated through the various modes of operation by an

electrically controlled hydraulic system. This hydraulic system comprises an indepent,
self contained power unit connected electrically and hydraulically to the diverter
blade, controlled by a programmable Ladder controller (PLC) and relays to achieve
tha various modes of operation using the minimum output from the plant computer
from this control system. The system is contained within its own weatherproofed
enclosure and the inputs and outputs to the unit are made to a terminal rail built into
unit. The enclosure is built into the hydraulic power unit.

The power unit consist of a weather proof enclosure containing a system of two motor
pump units, one control valve assembly, a hand pump system and 3 hydraulic
accumulators connections, both hydraulic and electric, are made directly to this
enclosure via the main control unit (MCU) and two hydraulic bulkhead connections.
The diverter is actuated by one hydraulic rotary actuator incorporating signle
counterbalance valves to lock the blade in position of hose failure.

The control system is self contained unit mounted inside the hydraukic power pack.
This control panel incorporates all power supplies, fuses and signal processing
equipment necessary for control of diverter system.

A Mitsubishi Programmable Ladder controller is hosed in the panel and processes all
digital and analogue signals to it from plant, the door mounted controls or the plant
computer.

73
Circulation Pumps

2- LP Circulation pump

Two 100% LP evaporator circulation pumps will be provided for the LP evaporator
section each waste heat boiler, with respect to the possibility that each of the gas
turbine may b operated with different fuel at different loads, the control of feedwater
shell be individually achieved by forced recirculation of boiler drum water to
evaporator.

The pumps are of the single stage centrifugal type with overhang impeller and driven
by an electric motor.

The arrangement of circulation system are shown in Fig-

3- HP Circulation Pump

The waste heat boiler each be provide with two 100% (MRC) forced circulating
pumps for the HP evaporator section and two 100% circulation pumps for the HP
economizer in case of heavy fuel oil firing the HP economizer inlet temperature is
controlled by forced recirculation of boiler drum water to the economizer inlet.

The pumps are of the single stage centrifugal type with overheating impeller and
driven by an electric motor.

The pump shaft of each pump is made of forged stainless steel and the impeller on
cast stainless steel in order to minimize corrosion of the pump during service.

The arrangement of the circulation systems and are shown in. Fig-

3- HP and LP Drums

The purposes of the drum are multiple;

The steam/water separtion will be occurred by means of staem/water separation of the

cyclone type, which are arranged in thw boiler drum.In addition to the cyclone
separators, the drum will be provided with all required steam purifieres and steam
defecting baffles so that the limits for carry over compensate mentioned the VGB
guidelines shell not be exceeded.

Internal fighting are provided for the extraction of the continuos blow-down over the
whole length of the drums. One start-up blow-down will be provided for each drums.

74
The drum will be provided with a manhole in each end, the mandoor being arranged
to swing inward on a hinge attached to the inside of the drum. The design of the drum
ibternal fitting allows quick and easy removal and replacement of all parts fir
inspection purpose.

Further, the drum is installed outside of the casing, it is not heated by hot flue gases.

When starting the gas turbine and HRSG from cold conditions, a focus of primary
concern must be placed on the operation of the HRSG and its limited physical ability
to withstand a rapid increase of temperature. If gas turbine load, i.e. exhaust gas
temperature, is increased at an accelerated rate, excessive thermal stress is induced on
the pressure sections of the HRSG, If the gas turbine exhaust gas temperature is
increased significantly above the HIRSG tube metal temperatures, steam/water
hammering and metal fatigue will result. Therefore, upon synchronization to the
electrical grid, the gas turbine must be maintained at a minimum megawatt load until
the HIRSG is sufficiently warmed and the temperatures of each pressure section have
stabilized.

A simplified schematic of a single pressure, reheat HRSG is illustrated in Figure 5-1.

As illustrated, the HRSG feedwater heater is located at the back of the casing
structure, near the exhaust gas exit to the stack. This location is ideal for the intended
purpose of the feedwater heater, which is to utilize the remaining thermal energy from
the combustion turbine exhaust to preheat feedwater en route to the deaerator. When
designing a HRSG, the manufacturer calculates, constructs, and locates each bank of
tubes to absorb a specific amount of thermal energy from the exhaust gas flowpath
when the gas turbine is operating at "base load". As a result of these calculations, the
amount of available thermal energy at each progressive location, from the inlet to the
outlet of the HRSG, can be determined. The heat exchanger segments of each pressure
section are arranged, respective of each other, to take maximum advantage of the
temperature difference between the exhaust gas and tube side temperatures.

Figure 5-1 Simplified Schematic of HRSG

A basic law of thermodynamics states that the rate of heat transfer from hot to cold is
dependant upon the temperature difference between the objects. HRSGs are designed
on the basis of this thermodynamic principle. During base load operation, with steam
and water flowing through the respective boiler tubes, the temperature of the gas
turbine exhaust decreases as it progresses through the HRSG. By the time the exhaust
gas reaches the inside the HRSG through the tube bundles, the exhaust gas
temperature has been reduced to less than 149°C. As per design calculations, the
suerheater and HP evaporator and HP economizer LP evaporator is sized with the
appropriate heat transfer surface to obtain a specific water outlet temperature when the
unit is operating at base load. As illustrated in Figure 5-1, the pre-heated water is
routed to the deaerator.

75
 Heating Surface of Different HRSG,s in KAPCO Power Station
Heating Surface Unit no 1&2 Unit no 3&4 Unit no11&12 Unit no15
LP Economizer (M2) 4345 10200 13139 -----
2
LP Evaporator (M ) 18200 17950 7439 9914
HP evaporator (M2) 28220 22820 26014 34578
HP Superheater(M2) 5415 3212 9794 5693
Total Heating Surface (M2) 58180 54182 56386 84094

Upon initial start-up of the gas turbine, the hot exhaust gases pass through the HIRSG
without a significant reduction in temperature. Even though each section absorbs
'some" heat from the exhaust gases during startup, none of the absorbed heat is
removed from the HIRSG in the form of steam. Upon gas turbine startup, the
temperature of the gases at the exhaust stack is nearly equal to the temperature of the
gases at the gas turbine exhaust. Therefore, the startup period can be basically
considered a "preheat stage" in which the temperature difference between the exhaust
gas and the boiler tubes decreases, i.e. they equalize. Although this preheat stage is
required in order to prevent excessive thermal stress to the boiler tubes and steam
drum.

Throughout the preheat stage, the "high exhaust stack temperature" condition remains
present even as gas turbine generator load is increased and the HRSG begins to
generate steam. Until the steam drum begins to develop significant steam flow, the
removal of thermal energy (steam flow) from the HIRSG is inappreciable. Likewise,
feedwater makeup to the steam drum is at a minimum during this period and
therefore, the economizer is absorbing very little thermal energy from the exhaust gas
flowpath. During this period, makeup water to the deaerator is bypassed around the
feedwater preheater to prevent exposing the water to the higher than normal gas
temperatures at the exhaust stack. If the water were allowed to pass through the
feedwater preheater, it would absorb so much heat that some of the water would flash
into steam upon entering the deaerator. Not only would this condition result in excess
pressure within the deaerator, but the "design" temperature limitations of the boiler
feed pumps would be exceeded resulting in accelerated wear and damage to the pump
internals.

Once the HIRSG begins to generate steam, the load on the gas turbine generator can
be gradually increased at the programmed rate of a ' pproximately 3 to 11 megawatts
per minute. As more load isplaced on the gas turbine generator, the exhaust gas
temperature increases proportionately, and the result is increased steam production.
When the gas turbine generator reaches 40-50% of base load,the transfer of thermal
energy through the HRSG will have increased to a point where the exhaust
gastemperature at the feedwater preheater is near its normal operating value. At this
point, the feedwater preheaterinlet isolation valve can be opened, and the bypass
closed.

When increasing gas turbine load, and consequently HRSG steam production, the rate
of temperature rise (°C per minute) with the steam drums should be closely
monitored. HRSG manufacturer. Often provide specific limitations. Accelerating the
temperature rise beyond the manufacturer recommendations will cause undue stress to

76
the steam drums and heat transfer components. If an excessive temperature difference
is noted. Changes in gas turbine load should cease until the temperatures stabilize.

Steam Generation
Steam from the HRSG superheater is supplied to the steam header for use by the
steam supply systems and the steam turbine. The control of steam flow from the
superheater outlet is generally through a motor-operated stop check valve and steam
stop valve; such as the example illustrated in Figure 5-1. The position of the valve
motor operators is typically controlled from the Qperator Monitor at the DCS
operating system.
During startup of the HRSG, the motor operators for the stop check valve and the
steam stop valve are moved to the OPEN position before the steam drum begins to
develop steam pressure. As the HRSG heats up, steam will flow through stop check
valve and begin to warm the steam header. During this period of the startup, the gas
turbine is maintained at minimum load. Once the HIRSG and the steam system piping
are completely heated and pressurized, the gas turbine load can be increased to meet
the prestart steam requirements of the steam turbine.

In multiple unit applications, if the steam header is already pressurized prior to

HIRSG startup, the disk of the stop check valve remains seated due to the already
pressurized steam header. Once the steam drum increases to a pressure equal to the
steam header, the check valve will slowly open and steam will begin to flow through
the superheater from the drum. Once steam flow through the superheater and is
sufficient, the applicable vent and drain valves are closed. It is very important that the
drum water level be closely monitored during the transition period when steam is
initially delivered to the system.

HIRSG Drum Level Control

Maintaining proper steam drum level is a critical function and can not be over
stressed. An excessively high drum level will flood the moisture separators located
within the steam drum, resulting in moisture carry over to the superheater and a steam
turbine trip. An excessively low drum level will result in decreased steam output,
overheating of the economizer, evaporator, and superheater tubes and a gas turbine
trip.

Drum pressure is a result of drum level combined with the generation of steam in the
evaporator tubes. The drum pressure will fluctuate with changes of load demands on
the steam system. During a sudden steam load increase, drum pressure will decrease.
This will result in a false high level condition known as "swell." During a sudden
decrease of steam demand, steam drum pressure will increase and result in a false low
level condition known as "shrink." In some situations, the tuning of the steam drum
level control loop may not respond quick enough to maintain proper drum level during
such abnormal conditions. In this event, the Operator may be required to take
MANUAL control of the level control valves.

5.1.3 Steam Turbine Startup

77
The next progressive step of bringing a combined cycle plant up to base load
operation is to preheat and start the steam turbine. In general, proper warmup of the
steam turbine may take up to several hours. If an external source of steam is available,
preheating of the steam turbine can begin prior to startup of the gas turbine to
facilitate the overall startup process. In some applications however, the HIRSG may
be the only means of producing steam at the plant.

Upon startup of the gas turbine and HRSG, the steam generated by the HRSG is
routed to the condenser through the steam turbine bypass valve(s). The bypass valve is
modulated to control steam flow to the condenser and consequently, HIRSG steam
drum pressure.

Steam Turbine Prewarming

One of the primary concerns of steam turbine operation is the gradual and uniform
heating and cooling of the rotors, shells, and valves. Controlling the rate of metal
temperature change is necessary to ensure excessive thermal stresses do not occur in
any portion of the turbine metal. Each steam turbine manufacturer provides starting
and loading instructions for each specific steam turbine application. These instructions
are designed primary to minimize cyclic damage to the turbine rotor, but they also
have the effect of limiting cyclic damage to the turbine shell. In general, the starting
and loading instructions contain recommended temperature ramp rates. acceleration
rates, soak periods at different holds, and generator loading rates. If properly followed,
the starting and loading instructions will increase the availability and reliability of the
turbine components.

During steam turbine prewarming and startup, the Operator must be aware of the
following limitations:

Any of the above limitations may be introduced by subjecting the turbine metal to
excessive temperature mismatches and/or rates of temperature change. One of the
above limitations is likely to be reached before the others, depending on the turbine
design and configuration, although the other two may be present to a significant
degree.

Ramp rates are maintained during steam turbine startup by careful matching of the
first stage and steam temperatures to the corresponding metal temperatures. The
steam-to-metal temperature difference should be maintained as small as possible. The
main steam pressure and temperature should be controlled in such a way to produce a
steam-to-metal temperature difference of 10°C to 37°C. This match, or slightly
positive mismatch, is an important factor is establishing and maintaining the desired
ramp rate. Proper control of the thermal ramp is primarily achieved controlling the
main steam temperature, and by controlling generator load upon synchronization to
the grid.

78
First-stage steam temperature is affected not only by throttle steam temperature, but
by boiler pressure and temperature, and the resultant throttling at the turbine
admission. Lower pressures result in a higher first-stage steam temperature at the
same initial steam temperature.

Maintaining Steam Temperature and Pressure

During the steam turbine warmup process, the steam seals can be placed in service
followed by the application of the condenser vacuum system. Once the steam flow and
temperature from the HRSG has stabilized, the gas turbine generator load can be
gradually increased to meet the steam turbine prestart requirements, i.e. steam flow,
pressure, and superheat. With all requirements met, the steam turbine is rolled off the
turning gear and brought up to synchronizing speed.

As previously illustrated in Figure 5-1, steam from the HRSG steam drum must be
superheated to a controlled temperature before entering the steam turbine. To
accomplish this, steam from the drum is routed through a superheater, where its
temperature is increased above the saturation point. This initial superheating of the
steam brings the steam temperature and pressure to the correct conditions before the
admission of spray water (attemperation) which provides downstream temperature
control. Spray water is admitted into the attemperator based on the steam outlet
temperature from the superheater. Typically, a pneumatically operated temperature
control valve is provided to modulate spray water flow into the attemperator in a
effort to maintain the correct steam temperature to the steam turbine.

Prior to steam turbine operation, HRSG drum pressure is controlled through the
throttled position of the steam turbine bypass valves. However, once the steam turbine
generator is synchronized and electrically loaded, the bypass valves are modulated
closed to provide full steam flow to both the steam turbine and the steam host. At this
point of the plant startup, steam pressure and flow is controlled by increasing the
electrical load on the gas turbine generator, i.e. increased exhaust gas temperatures
result in increased steam production and steam superheat.

In a combined cycle power plant arrangement, the HRSG and consequently the steam
turbine is totally dependent upon the gas turbine for its energy input. It is quite
common to operate such units with the steam turbine valves wide open under all
operating conditions, and allow steam turbine generator load to vary as a function of
the steam pressure available from the HRSG. This arrangement is called sliding (or
variable) pressure operation. An advantage of sliding pressure operation is that it '
reduces thermal stress on turbine components as the steam temperature remains
relatively constant over a wide load range. This mode of operation is also more
efficient since there is minor energy loss across the control valves since they are left
wide open. In other words, the steam turbine operates in the turbine follow mode with
regard to the gas turbine.

5.1.4 Fast Starts

As previously discussed, there are specific points of a combined cycle plant startup
where proper warmup of components must take place; i.e. the HIRSG and steam

79
turbine. These warmup periods are critical to the life expectancy of the plant
equipment and must never be ignored or bypassed. However, upon a plant shutdown
or trip, the HRSG, steam turbine, and the associated piping and components will
already be at or near operating temperature. Only under these circumstances, can a fast
start be performed. By definition, a hot restart of a steam turbine is one in which the
first-stage shell inner metal temperature is greater than 371°C.

In terms of, gas turbine combined cycle operation, a fast start refers to the increased
rate at which the plant load is increased upon a successful start and synchronization of
the gas turbine. It must be noted, there is not a means of bypassing or accelerating the
"programmed start sequence" of the gas turbine. The limiting factor during a fast start
is the ability of the HRSG to accept a large mass of thermal energy at an accelerated
rate. However, if the HRSG is already "hot" from recent operation, gas turbine load
can be safely increased.

During a fast start, once the gas turbine generator is synchronized and electrically
loaded, the Operator may load the unit to either a preselected load value or allow the
unit to assume base load. The actual loading rate is often programmed by the
manufacturer to protect the gas turbine and HRSG from thermal damage. For
example, a loading rate of 5 megawatts per minute is not uncommon for an industrial
(frame) gas turbine. Aero-derivative units are generally capable of faster loading rates
since the overall mass of their components is a fraction of the larger frame units.
When determining loading rates, each gas turbine manufacturer takes the following
parameters into consideration:

materials, but between parts of different thickness

5.1.1 Operating Modes

The purpose of any combined cycle power plant with a QF Status (qualified facility) is
to; 1) supply steam to a thermal host, and 2) generate electricity. The requirement of
supplying steam to a thermal host is the primary variable in obtaining a QF status. As
such, once the plant is operating, the steam requirements of the thermal host must be
continuously met in order to maintain the QF status.

Although the steam demands of the thermal host are generally within specified limits,
the actual steam demand may change at any given time. To facilitate this variable, the
steam turbine stop/control valve is typically operated in a sliding header pressure
mode; i.e. it serves as a backpressure regulator. In this configuration, the production of
steam from the HRSG can remain constant regardless of the steam demands by the
thermal host. Then, as the steam demands of the thermal host change, the steam
turbine stop/control valve modulates to maintain header pressure at a predetermined
setpoint with the excess steam flowing to the steam turbine.

5.2.1 Base Load

80
Manufacturers publish the rated output of their gas turbine generator sets based on
industrial standard operating (ISO) conditions. Two of the major factors defined in an
ISO rating are a compressor inlet temperature of 15°C and the specific altitude, with
respect to sea level, which the unit in installed. Since the power output of a gas turbine
is very sensitive to changes in ambient temperature, the use of ISO conditions have
been standardized throughout the industry to insure uniform methods of rating gas
turbine shaft horsepower and generator output.

As air cools, it's density increases. Likewise, warmer air decreases in density. Cool,
dense air at the inlet of the gas turbine compressor results in increased mass air flow
through the turbine and an increased cooling of the combustor and turbine sections.
As a result, during cool ambient conditions, increasing fuel flow to the combustion
section can be accomplished without exceeding the maximum allowable turbine inlet
temperature. The combined effect of increased mass air flow and increased fuel flow
(Btu's) through the turbine section, results in an increase of gas turbine shaft
horsepower. Consequently, as ambient temperatures increase, a decrease of shaft
horsepower occurs even when the turbine inlet temperature is maintained at maximum
allowable value.

The most critical area of a gas turbine is the hot gas flowpath through the turbine
section. Experience has shown that wear in this area is directly related to the
combustion gas temperature at the turbine inlet. Since gas turbine generators operate
at a continuous synchronized speed, the combustion gas temperature at the turbine
inlet is a function of; 1) the amount of fuel burned, or ) level of power, and 2) ambient
temperature.

Base load operation of a gas turbine generator is not based on maintaining a constant
power output, but on maintaining a constant turbine inlet temperature and allowing
shaft horsepower to vary as changes in ambient temperature occur. When base load
operation is selected, the gas turbine control system increases or decreases fuel flow to
the combustor in an effort to maintain the maximum allowable turbine inlet
temperature regardless of ambient conditions. Consequently, the changes of fuel flow,
and thereby shaft horsepower, results in a corresponding change in generator
megawatt output.

The highest temperature attained in the gas turbine occurs in the combustion chambers
and at the turbine inlet. This temperature must be limited by the control system to
prevent thermal damage to the turbine section. Some gas turbine control systems are
designed to measure and control turbine exhaust temperature because it may be
impractical to measure temperatures in the combustion chambers or at the turbine inlet
directly. The indirect control of turbine inlet temperature, called firing temperature is
possible through known turbine performance relationships. For example, the exhaust
temperature alone does not fully determine firing temperature; the measured
compressor discharge pressure is also required.

In addition to exhaust temperature control, there are several other control and
protective functions incorporated into the gas turbine controls to ensure safe operation
of the unit. These include such variables as shaft vibration, bearing temperatures, oil

81
pressures, etc. Although each of these variables are equally important and critical to
the operation of the gas turbine, exhaust temperature is of primary concern when
operating the unit at base and peak load. It must be noted; excessive firing temperature
can damage the turbines hot gas path components.

When operating the combustion turbine at base load, the control system compares the
exhaust temperature control setpoint with the actual combustion turbine exhaust
temperature as measured from thermocouples mounted in the exhaust plenum. These
thermocouples are located on the circumference of the turbine exhaust and provide
representative input signals to the control system. in addition, some combustion
turbines are equipped with thermocouples which sense the wheeispace temperatures
between each turbine stage.

Daily reading of the turbine exhaust and wheeispace temperatures aid in monitoring
the turbine's combustion characteristics and in detecting faulty thermocouples. Aside
from the actual temperature indications, the "temperature spread' between the highest
and lowest temperatures around the circumference of the turbine exhaust must be
closely monitored.

Throughout the life of the gas turbine, it is important to define a "baseline value" of
exhaust temperature spreads with which to compare future data. This baseline data is
established during steady state operation after each of the following conditions:

Before and after scheduled maintenance

An important point regarding the evaluation of an exhaust temperature spread is not

necessarily the magnitude of the spread, but changes in the spread over a period of
time. Accurate recording and plotting of exhaust temperatures on a daily basis can
indicate a developing problem. Such problems may be the result of faulty
thermocouples, deteriorated/damaged turbine blades, deteriorated/damaged
combustion liners, or a blockage in the cooling and sealing air flowpath. Each gas
turbine manufacturer specifies maximum allowable temperature spreads and
wheelspace temperature operating limits, which can be found in the technical
reference materials delivered with the unit. In general, an allowable temperature
spread may be as follow on unit no GT-13 and GT-14

Temperature limits on GT-13 of 6 thermocouples on different load

Description Alarm Tripping
13MBA 22 CT 012 564°C 590°C
13MBA 22 CT 013 574°C 600°C
13MBA 22 CT 014 649°C 675°C
13MBA 22 CT 016 629°C 679°C
13MBA 22 CT 017 653°C 665°C
13MBA 22 CT 018 639°C 665°C
Temperature limits on GT- 14 of 6 thermocouples on different load
Description Alarm Tripping

82
14MBA 22 CT 012 604°C 630°C
14MBA 22 CT 013 587°C 613°C
14MBA 22 CT 014 616°C 642°C
14MBA 22 CT 016 616°C 642°C
14MBA 22 CT 017 647°C 673°C
14MBA 22 CT 018 649°C 675°C

It is important when reviewing exhaust temperature readings to observe any trend,

which may indicate deterioration of the combustion system. Gradual and/or sudden
temperature excursions should be investigated as soon as possible to determine the
validity of readings.

5.3 Shutdown of Combined Cycle Plants

5.3.1 Normal Shutdown

Similar to a startup, the gas turbine control system decreases generator load at a
programmed rate during the shutdown sequence. The rate of load reduction is
typically the same as the programmed loading rate, i.e. 4 to 11 megawatts per minute.
As gas turbine load decreases, HRSG steam production decreases proportionately.

With respect to the thermal limitations of the gas turbine and HRSG, a load reduction
of 4 to 11 megawatts per minute can be safely performed. However, in combined
cycle applications, the steam turbine temperature ramp rates are the limiting factor
during the shutdown sequence. When decreasing steam turbine load, steam flow and
temperature must be gradually reduced in accordance with manufacturer
recommendations. Consequently, gas turbine load, and therefore steam production,
must be gradually decreased to accommodate the temperature ramp rates of the steam
turbine.

Once the steam turbine is at minimum operating load, it trips on reverse power. Upon
coasting down, the steam turbine is immediately placed on turning gear to prevent
shaft bowing.

With the steam turbine removed from service, the gas turbine is shutdown by
initiating a stop signal at the operator control interface. Once initiated, an automatic
shutdown sequence will decrease generator load at a programmed rate. Once the
generator load has decreased to a minimum value, the generator breaker is tripped
open and fuel to the turbine is decreased until flame can no longer be maintained in
the combustion chambers. When the turbine speed decreases to a standstill, the rotor
turning device is automatically initiated. Throughout the shutdown sequence, gas
turbine support systems will be activated or shutdown as required.

83
Immediately following a shutdown, the gas turbine rotor must be turned to provide
uniform cooling. Uniform cooling of the turbine rotor prevents rotor bowing, resultant
rubbing and imbalance, and related damage that might otherwise occur when
subsequent starts are attempted without cooldown. Typically, a gas turbine can be
started and loaded at any time during the cooldown cycle.

84
After the gas turbine is shutdown, the HRSG steam pressure should be allowed to
decrease naturally without opening vents or other intentional means of taking steam
from the unit to accelerate the lowering of steam pressure. A cooling rate exceeding
37°C per hour to 65.5°C per hour by excessive opening of vents should be avoided to
limit drum distortion and the resulting strain on the boiler tubs joints. Rapid heating or
quenching can cause leaking tube joints in the steam drums.

Throttled opening of the superheater vent valves permits steam flow through the
superheater and permits a modest pressure reduction within the above stated
temperature limits. Superheater vents can be fully opened when the steam pressure
decreases to 1 bar to1.5 bar (1bar = 14.5 Psig).

Simultaneously, the steam drum vent must be opened to prevent a vacuum from
forming within the HRSG pressure sections. If it is required to drain the boiler for
maintenance, the water temperature must be allowed to cool below 93°C. The vents
and drains are controlled through the (SGC) Sub group Control of HRSG boiler start
up programme.

5.3.2 Emergency Shutdown

Emergency shutdowns are the least desirable method of shutting down any power
plant. An EMERGENCY STOP or TRIP push-button is generally provided to
simultaneously trip both the gas turbine and steam turbine. However, a unit trip
should only be performed if an emergency condition exist which requires an
immediate shutdown. If time permits, the electrical load on both generators should be
removed over a period of approximately 3 minutes prior to tripping the unit. Although
this type of a shutdown is still considered highly undesirable, it is preferred over a
high load trip.

Upon performing an emergency shutdown, both turbines must be placed on turning

gear to prevent shaft bowing. Similar to a normal shutdown, the steam turbine bypass
valves will open to route excess steam to the condenser.

6.0 COMBINED CYCLE PERFORMANCE MONITORING

6.1 Introduction
The primary purpose of any power plant installation is to profit monetarily from the
generation of electricity. The profitability of a power plant is directly proportional to
the efficiency and performance of the plant and the manner is which is it operated. It is
the responsibility of the operating staff to continuously monitor and control the
operation of the plant to achieve optimum performance and efficiency, while
minimizing losses. Being conscientious of the plant's performance not only increases
profitability, but will pay back great dividends in extended equipment life and
equipment reliability.

Maximum plant performance requires awareness on behalf of the Operators, of the

conditions, which can lead to reduce plant efficiency and output. This awareness
demands strict attention to detail, combined with the ability to identify and correct

85
performance related problems as they occur. Upon completion of this course, the
Operator will be aware of the factors that affect plant performance and reliability, and
the actions that can be taken to ensure the plant is operated in an efficient and reliable
manner.

Before a performance related problem could be solved, the 'root cause' of the problem
must be precisely identified. This module provides plant personnel with the required
knowledge to identify performance-related problems associated with each major
component of the combined cycle power plant. The information conveyed in this
section is broken down into individual sections, each pertaining to the following
objectives:

how it is measured.

their operation affects plant performance.

6.2 Energy Conversion Cycle

The energy conversion cycle consists of those components, which are responsible for
converting one form of energy into another. For example; converting water into
superheated steam. In general terms, a power plant can be thought of as a large energy
transfer system made up of several smaller energy transfer systems. Figure 6-1 is a
simplified diagram of the energy conversion cycle of a typical combined cycle power
plant.

6.2.1 Energy Conversion

As illustrated in Figure 6-1, natural gas or fuel oil is provided as the fuel source to the
gas turbine. The fuel provides chemical energy to the plant which must undergo
several conversions to produce electrical energy to the grid:

thermal energy (heat). The majority of this heat is converted to mechanical

energy as it causes the gas turbine shaft to rotate.

generator through a drive shaft. Within the generator, mechanical energy

is converted into electrical energy.
ust heat from the gas turbine passes through the HRSG. Within the
HRSG, the thermal energy from the gas turbine exhaust is used to convert
water into superheated steam.

through the turbine stages-causing the shaft rotate. The steam turbines
convert thermal energy into mechanical energy.

associated generator through a drive shaft. Within the generator,

mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.

condensate/feedwater is reintroduced into the HRSG to repeat the process.

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 Figure 6-1 Energy Conversion Cycle of a Combined Cycle
Power Plant

6.2.2 Energy Leaving the Plant

As energy is converted through each stage of the power plant process, losses occur
due to the impossibility of the systems and the individual components to be 100%
efficient. These losses are inherent to the design of the plant and occur continuously
while the plant is in operation. Although these losses can not be avoided, it is
important to realize where these losses occur so that they can be monitored and kept to
a minimum.

In thinking of the power plant as an energy transfer system, it is important to realize

that most of the energy, which enters the plant, as fuel is not converted to a useable
energy form such as electricity. A typical combined cycle power plant converts less
than 50% of the energy in the fuel into electrical energy. The rest of the energy is used
within the plant for running auxiliary equipment or is lost from the plant cycle at
various stages in the conversion process. Since energy cannot be destroyed, the fuel
energy that is not converted to electrical energy must leave the power plant in some
other form. The major areas of energy loss in a power plant cycle are as follows:

urned combustibles in the flue gas

maintenance

om the
power plant is as heat in the circulating water leaving the condensers. Once the steam
has given up its energy to the turbine, it must be returned to the boiler to complete it's
cycle and start over. Since the steam is at a very low pressure and will not flow back
to the boiler, it needs to be condensed and pumped to the boiler as feedwater.
Transferring its latent heat of vaporization to the circulating water passing through the
condenser tubes condenses the steam. The -heat contained in the circulating water is
discharged to the atmosphere and thus, is lost from the plant cycle.

most of the thermal energy inside the HRSG is transferred to the steam/water cycle, a
portion of the heat contained in the flue gas is discharged directly through the stack.
This discharge of heat to the atmosphere takes place in accordance with the
thermodynamic design of the boiler by the manufacturer; i.e., a certain amount of heat
rejection must occur in order to achieve reliable HRSG operation. Reducing the flue
gas temperature below the design point can lead to problems with corrosion in the
ductwork and decrease the thermal lift (natural draft) of the flue gas through the stack.
Therefore, it is necessary that the flue gas temperature exiting the boiler is above a
defined minimum value; generally between 170°C to 175°C depending on the firing in
the gas turbine. Although this temperature value seems insignificant, it quickly

87
becomes a major factor when a quantitative measurement of the rejected flue gas mass
flow is taken into account.

incomplete burning of fuel within the gas turbine. Although the gas turbine is
extremely efficient, a measurable amount of the injected fuel is not burned
completely. Incomplete combustion of fuel appears as carbon monoxide in the flue
gas. Unburned combustibles indicate that all of the chemical energy in the fuel is not
converted to heat, and therefore energy is also lost from the plant cycle.

loss is heat, which is lost to the ambient environment.

These losses result from the radiation of heat from plant equipment, motors, electrical
busses, and piping. Additional losses may be present in the form of gas, steam, or
water leaks. These types of losses can be minimized through the use of insulation on
piping and equipment, and by proper maintenance to prevent leaks. However, no
matter what measures are taken, a significant portion of energy losses will occur due
to radiation.

6.3 Plant Heat Rate

Plant heat rate is a method of showing the performance of a power plant. It is a
measure of the amount of heat energy needed to produce one unit of electrical energy.
The heat rate of a power plant is generally regarded as a symbol of pride as it is a
measure of the plants operating efficiency and is directly representative of the hard
work, knowledge, and dedication of the plant personnel to maintain optimum plant
performance.

The plant heat rate accounts for all inefficiencies of the plant in transferring the heat
of combustion into electricity. There are two kinds of plant heat rate; 1- Gross plant
heat rate and,
2- Net plant heat rate:
 Gross Plant Heat Rate is defined as the amount of heat energy in the fuel
needed to produce 1 kilowatt-hour of electricity at the generator output terminals.
Net Plant Heat Rate is defined as the amount of heat energy in the fuel needed to
produce 1 kilowatt-hour of electricity delivered to the transmission system for sale to
users. The net plant heat rate is most often used as a benchmark of the plant
'performance.

6.3.1 Gross Plant Heat Rate

The gross plant heat rate is determined by measuring the kilowatts generated at the
generator terminals for a given period of time (usually one month). During this time
the amount of fuel burned in the gas turbine. The heat energy of the fuel is found by
determining its heating value (HV) in Kilo Joules. Natural gas has a nominal heating
value of 33126Kj/M3. The amount of fuel used, multiplied by the heating value, and
determines the number of Kilo Joules needed to generate the measured
kilowatt-hours. The ratio of Kilo Joules to KWH's is the gross plant heat rate. The
formula is illustrated below:

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Formula For Heat Rate

(Kilo Joules/M3/Litters of fuel)X(M3/Litters of fuel per hour)X( Numbers of hours) Kilo Joules
=
(KW Electrical output)X(Numbers of hours) KWH

Data For Heating Values Of Different Fuels And Conversion Factor In KAPCO
Description GAS HSD BFO
Heating Values 33126 Kj/M3 36250 Kj/Litter 41100Kj/Kg
Conversion Factor 12600 kJ/Kwh 12600 kJ/Kwh 12188 kJ/Kwh

Conversion Table
To convert Into Multiply by
Btu Joules 1054.8
Btu/Hour Watts 0.2922
Btu/Minute kilowatt/Hour 2.928X10-4
Btu/Minute Watts 17.57
International volt Joules 9.654X10-4
Joules Watt/Hours 2.788X10-4
Joules Kg/Calories 2.389X10-4
Joules Btu 9.480X10-4
Kilowatt/Hour Joules 3.6X106

6.3.2 Net Plant Heat Rate

A portion of the electrical energy generated by the plant is needed to drive auxiliary
plant equipment such as circulating water pumps, boiler feed pumps, gas turbine
auxiliaries, etc. Therefore, not all of the electrical energy generated is delivered to the
switchyard for transmission to the grid. The auxiliary electrical load may be as much
as 6% of the total generator output. If the sum auxiliary load is subtracted from
generator output, the result is net plant heat rate.

One kilowatt-hour of electrical energy is equivalent to 3,413 Btu's of heat energy. If a

power plant were 100% efficient, it would have a net plant heat rate of 3,413 Btu per
KWH. A very efficient, modern coal fired power plant uses 8,500 Btu of heat energy
to produce one kilowatt-hour of electrical energy. Early power plants were very
inefficient and some used more than 30,000 Btu to produce 1 kilowatt-hour of
electrical energy. The lower the plant heat rate. the more efficient the plant.

6.4 Factors Affecting Plant Performance

Modern distributed control systems (DCS) continuously calculate the net plant heat
rate and provide the information to the Control Room Operator. Since changes in
ambient conditions have a direct affect on the performance output of the gas turbine,
the net plant heat rate will change accordingly based on that premise alone. Over a
period of time, these changes will be realized as baseline values to an experienced
Operator. However, significant changes in the net plant heat rate during base load

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steady-state operation should be investigated immediately. A numerically higher than
normal heat rate value indicates an unnecessary loss of energy from the power plant
cycle; thus indicating a reduction in plant efficiency and performance.

As previously illustrated in Figure 6-1, each major component of the energy

conversion cycle plays a key role in the overall performance of the plant; e.g., the gas
turbine, HRSG, steam turbines, etc. A malfunction or abnormal condition associated
with any of these components has a direct impact on the overall plant performance. It
is the Operators responsibility to be aware of these potential conditions and how to
identify them. The following subsections discuss the operation and purpose of each
major component and the abnormal conditions or malfunctions would can lead to
reduced plant performance.

6.4.1 Gas Turbine

Gas turbine units are equipped with a programmed control system designed to
maintain the turbine at maximum efficiency during all modes of operation. Unlike
traditional coal or oil fired boilers which require constant Operator attention to fuel
and air ratios, combustion temperatures, and so forth; the gas turbine control system
maintains peak operation of the unit and does not allow for Operator interaction on
specific functions. This method of control is necessary to ensure emission parameters
(NOx) are continuously met and the integrity of the gas turbine is not jeopardized or
damaged.

For example; during startup and operation of the gas turbine unit, the control system
modulates the position of the fuel valves, controls the operation of the blow-off
dampers, and controls the position of the inlet guide vanes. Precise control of these
components is extremely vital to the operation of the unit, and thus these components
are controlled by the gas turbine control logic. Human interaction to these controls
would invariably result in unnecessary thermal stress and damage to the gas turbine
unit, and possibly an explosion or flame out.

Although the control system has primary control over the gas turbine, there are
conditions, which the Operator must monitor to ensure peak efficiency and
performance. The following can affect the performance of the gas turbine and should
be periodically monitored:

-Off Damper Malfunction

The most common area of performance degradation for any gas turbine is the
cleanliness of the compressor. Over a period of time, traces of dirt particles
accumulate on the surface of the compressor blades resulting in reduced efficiency
and compressor output. As the performance of the compressor deteriorates, the overall
reduction in performance of the gas turbine unit is very significant. In general terms, a

90
one- percent decrease in compressor efficiency results in a two- percent decrease in
turbine output.

Even with the gas turbine intake filters functioning properly, compressor fouling will
undoubtedly occur over an extended period of time. In an ideal situation, it would be
desirable to keep the gas turbine compressor extremely clean at all times. However, in
real life terms it is not feasible to continuously wash the compressor in an effort to
maintain peak performance from the unit. The most common method of determining
when an offline water wash of the compressor is required, is by monitoring the
performance output of the unit with respect to ambient conditions. When a 5%
decrease in unit performance is noted, a water wash should be performed during the
next unit shutdown, or an online water wash performed.

An obstruction of airflow to the gas turbine will undoubtedly result in decreased

performance. The gas turbine inlet air filters are equipped with a self-cleaning feature,
which operates automatically to prevent an excessive pressure drop across the filter
elements. Although this is an automatic function, the operation of the cleaning
sequence and the condition of the filters should be periodically checked to ensure
proper operation. Failure of the self-cleaning system or the high differential pressure
alarm could result in reduced performance of the gas turbine unit.

Most gas turbine compressors are equipped with interstage bleed valves used to purge
excess air from the compressor during startup and shutdown; i.e. to prevent a
compressor stall or surge. The bleed valves remain closed while the turbine is in
operation and are not sequenced to open until a shutdown signal is generated.

If any one of the interstage bleed valves are wholly or partially open during unit
operation, the performance and efficiency of the gas turbine will decrease. For
monitoring purposes, open/close indications are often provided at the gas turbine
control system display. However, the bleed valves should be visually checked on a
periodic basis to ensure they are fully closed or are not leaking by. One method of
checking valve position is by observing the local position indications on the valve
actuator. A second method involves temperature. If the body and discharge piping of
one bleed valve is significantly warmer than the other two, chances are that the valve
is passing air due to leakage or failure to close completely. Any suspected leakage
should be investigated at the earliest opportunity.

6.4.2 Heat Recovery Steam Generator

The HRSG is an important factor in the energy conversion cycle of any combined
cycle power plant. In effect, the HRSG is large heat exchanger, which utilizes hot flue
gas from the gas turbine exhaust to convert feedwater into superheated steam. The
installation of an HRSG on the exhaust end of a gas turbine provides a means of
capturing waste heat, and utilizing this heat to produce additional electrical energy.

91
Hence the term; combined cycle. Depending on the plant, the HRSG may be equipped
with one unique features; a bypass damper.

Bypass Damper
As previously illustrated in Figure 6-1, the bypass damper is installed between the gas
turbine and the HRSG. In the combined cycle mode, the damper is positioned such
that it directs the gas turbine exhaus through the HRSG. This represents the most
efficient mode of plant operation. In the simple cycle mode, the damper is positioned
such that it directs the gas turbine exhaust directly to the atmosphere, bypassing the
HRSG. This by far, is the most inefficient mode of plant operation. Directing the
turbine exhaust to the atmosphere eliminates the HRSG and the steam turbine
generatoi from the plants energy conversion cycle. This mode of operation results in
an enormous reduction in overall plant efficiency and a corresponding increase in the
net plant heat rate. The simple cycle mode of operation should only be used during
extreme circumstances.

HIRSG Efficienc
The most significant performance related factor associated with the HRSG is the
efficiency of heat transfer across tubes. Placing all design characteristics and other
fixed variables aside, the primary interaction that an Operator has with the
performance of the HRSG is to ensure the water chemistry is maintained within limits.
Proper water chemistry ensures internal cleanliness of the boiler tubes, thus promoting
optimum heat transfer.The two most important impurities which need to be controlled
within the HIRSG feedwater are as follow;

1- Oxygen
2- Dissolved solids.

1- Oxygen causes corrosion attack on the internal tube surfaces resulting in pitting and
eventual tube failure. Oxygen corrosion is not only damaging to the tubes, but it
reduces the heat transfer efficiency of the tubes while it is occurring. Therefore, it is
very important to the overall efficiency of the plant to ensure proper operation of the
deaerators and the oxygen scavenger injection system.

2- Dissolved solids are particles of material, which readily dissolve in water.

Dissolved solids have two detrimental effects on the HRSG. First, they affect the
acidity of the water, thus controlling the tendency of the water to chemically attack
pipe and tube surfaces. Secondly, dissolved solids leave behind a formation of
deposits on the internal tube surfaces after the water is boiled-off and converted to
steam. When this occurs, two undesirable effects can result:

1- When the deposits adhere to the inside of boiler tubes, they .form a layer
of scale which retards the transfer of heat from the combustion gasses
through the tube metal to the boiler water. Thus, overheating and failure of
the tubes results. Shutdowns are then required to replace failed tubes and
possibly to clean the boiler. Figure 2 illustrates the obstruction of heat
transfer across fouled tubes.

92
2- If the deposits are carried over in the steam, they can become lodged
inside the superheater or transported to the steam turbine blades. If the
former occurs, overheating and failure of the superheater tubes can
result. If the latter occurs, the deposits can greatly reduce turbine
efficiency as well as erode the blade surfaces.

BTU's transmitted per Square Foot (ftl) of Boiler Surface per Hour
Figure 6-2 Effects of Scale on Boiler Tube Efficiency

Because dissolved solids have such a high impact on the overall efficiency of the
HRSG, it is pertinent that the Operator maintain correct operation of the water
treatment system and control the accumulation of solids in the boiler through correct
chemical injections and blow downs. Proper water treatment in a power plant is just as
important as proper maintenance and operating procedures.

6.4.3 Steam Turbine

Within the steam turbine, heat energy stored in the steam is converted to mechanical
energy. As the steam expands through the turbine, it causes the turbine shaft to rotate.
This rotation is transmitted to the generator, where the mechanical energy is converted
to electrical energy. The heat energy lost from the steam (equal to the work
performed by the steam) appears as a drop in steam pressure and temperature
enthalpy drop as the steam passes through the turbine. The steam inlet pressure and
temperature plus the turbine back pressure (condenser vacuum) are all factors that
affect the enthalpy drop through the turbine per-form work.

Although the operation of a steam turbine is very straight forward, there are several
factors which affect the efficiency of the turbine in converting the thermal energy of
the steam into mechanical energy the turbine shaft, The following subsections discuss
these performance related factors and how they affect, steam turbine efficiency.

Condenser Backpressure
Condenser backpressure is the most significant factor that affects the cycle efficiency
of a steam turbine. Because the steam turbine exhausts into the condenser, it is
desirable to reduce the pressure in the condenser as much as possible, thus reducing
the backpressure against which the turbine must operate backpressure is decreased, the
pressure drop across the steam turbine increases and a corresponding increase of
steam flow through the turbine results. A decrease in backpressure increases the
enthalpy drop across the turbine; thus improving the work performed by the steam as
it passes through toward the exhaust end,

93
The two primary factors, which affect condenser backpressure, are the operation of the
vacuum pumps and the temperature of the circulating water. It is very important that
the Operator monitor these two factors closely to ensure peak performance of the unit.
Once placed in service, the vacuum pumps will operate as needed to withdraw air and
non-condensable gases from the condenser shell. The primary -variable in maintaining
condenser vacuum is the temperature of circulating water. Very cool circulating water
will increase the 'quench' effect that the condenser has on the condensing steam; thus
resulting in increased vacuum inside the condenser. Warm circulating water reduces
the quench effect; thus reducing the ability to achieve a high level of vacuum in the
condenser. Controlling the flow and temperature of circulating water to the
condensers, as well as other variables that affect condenser performance.

Leakage
There are two types of leakage that can affect the operating efficiency of a steam
turbine are as follow;

1- Steam leaking out,

2- Air leaking in.

1- Every seam, joint, and seal on the steam turbine casing has the potential to develop
a leak. Periodic inspection by the Operator during steam turbine operation will aid in
detecting any leaks and prevent reduced performance of the unit.

One area of specific concern is the high-pressure section of the steam turbine.
Excessive steam leakage along the shaft of the turbine can escape to the gland seal
exhaust fan, taking its heat energy with it. This leakage reduces steam flow through
the turbine, thus reducing turbine work and efficiency.

2- Air in-leakage can occur at the shaft sealing area of a low-pressure turbine. A leak
of this nature draws air into the condenser by virtue of the condenser vacuum. The
in-leakage of air interferes with condenser performance causing an increase in
condenser backpressure. Consequently, turbine work and efficiency are reduced.

Finally, leakage can occur internally inside the steam turbine. Steam can leak from a
high-pressure stage, past the interstage packing, to a low-pressure stage. This leakage
will not affect flow to the turbine, but the work produced by the turbine will decrease.
Once again, turbine efficiency is reduced.

Blade Fouling
The internal components of a steam turbine are precisely machined and assembled
with close tolerances. The accuracy of these tolerances has a great impact on the
performance and efficiency of the machine. The most common cause of lost efficiency
is fouling and erosion of the turbine blades and nozzles. Any damage to the turbine
nozzles which affects their shape or cross-sectional area will result in lost turbine
efficiency.

94
Tests have shown that a 0.003-inch thick deposit, uniformly distributed over the steam
path of a turbine, can decrease flow through the turbine by 1 % and cause a reduced
turbine efficiency of 3%. Deposits of this type are most commonly caused by poor
water chemistry in the boiler. The most prevalent constituent, which causes scaling
and deposits inside a steam turbine, is silica.

Silica is a crystalline substance similar to glass and sand. Next to oxygen, silica is the
most common substance found in the earth's crust. Water taken from wells contains
high concentrations of silica. Proper treatment of the water through the cation and
anion vessels is extremely important to the performance and efficiency of the steam
turbines. In general, turbine scaling can be avoided when the feedwater silica is less
that 0.07 ppm. A secondary measure of reducing silica is by controlling the boiler
feedwater pH. The concentration of silica in the steam will decrease when the boiler
water pH is increased.

During unit operation, silica vaporizes in the boiler at high pressure and temperature.
When the vaporous silica comes in contact with the cooler, low pressure surfaces of
the turbine, it 'plates out' forming a shiny glass-like layer. Silica deposits on the
turbine balding can restrict flow through the turbine and cause a higher than normal
first stage shell pressure. This is opposite of the normal trend for first stage pressure to
vary directly with flow.

Erosion
Blade erosion is primarily caused by excessive moisture in the steam due to
insufficient superheating. As steam passes through each stage of the turbine, it reduces
in pressure and expands. If the steam is not sufficiently superheated, it will begin to
condense in the later stages of the turbine. The condensed droplets of steam impinge
on the nozzle and blade surfaces, resulting in erosion. Erosion can actually increase
steam flow through the turbine because of the increased nozzle area, but will reduce
turbine efficiency because of its effect on the nozzle pressure ratio.

A secondary form of erosion can occur from the existence of debris or solids
suspended in the steam. This type of steam contamination can result from the breaking
loose of slag or deposits in the main steam piping, or from tube exfoliation in the
HRSG. Exfoliation is the process in which the protective iron oxide film on the
interior surface of the HRSG superheater tubes flakes off. No matter how clean a
steam system is, a certain amount of erosion will occur over an extended period of
time due to steam contamination.

Generator Air Pressure

6.4.4 Main Condensers

The Rankin Cycle portion of a combined cycle plant consists of the steam/water cycle
components; to include the HRSG, the steam turbine generators, and the condensers.
There is no single component in the Rankine cycle with a greater impact on the cycle
efficiency than the condenser. Accordingly, the plant Operators must have a good

95
understanding of how the condensers work and the factors, which affect their
efficiency.

The primary function of a condenser is to condense the turbine exhaust steam into
condensate. In this respect, the condenser serves as the heat sink for the Rankine cycle
and consequently, the points of heat reject and heat loss from the cycle. The more
efficient the condenser is, the less heat that is dumped out of the cycle, and thus
overall plant efficiency is increased.

The difference in volume between steam and water at condenser operating

temperature is roughly twenty five thousand to one; i.e. at 35°C a pound of water
occupies 0.016113 ft3 while steam occupies about 404.484620 ft3 . This reduction in
volume creates a 'quench effect' in the condenser when the steam is converted from a
vapour to a liquid. The quench effect (pressure reduction) at the turbine exhaust
increases turbine efficiency and is very much responsible for maintaining condenser
vacuum.

During unit operation, the vacuum pumps are responsible for removing air and
non-condensable gases introduced into the condenser shell by the exhaust steam,
while the quenching effect of the circulating water is the primary action which
maintains condenser vacuum. Improper operation of the vacuum pumps can result in
an accumulation of air and non-condensable gases inside the condenser shell. If not
removed, these gases will tend to 'blanket' the condenser tubes, resulting in reduced
heat transfer efficiency. Continued operation under these conditions will result in
diminished vacuum and a unit trip. For these reasons, it is very important that the
Operator maintain correct operation of the circulating water system and the steam jet
vacuum pumps.

Condenser performance has a significant impact on the overall efficiency of the plant.
The following factors directly affect condenser performance and must be continuously
monitored by the Operator:

-Leakage

Efficient operation of the condenser requires that the exhaust steam be cooled only
enough to remove its latent heat, leaving the resultant condensate at the saturation
temperature. It must be kept in mind, that all of the thermal energy removed from the
exhaust steam by the condenser is dumped from the cycle by action of the circulating
water. Additional cooling of the condensate below the saturation value is not
necessary and only serves to decrease the efficiency of the cycle. Any unnecessary
heat removed from the cycle must be replaced before the condensate is reintroduced
into the HRSG as feedwater.

96
The reduction of the condensate temperature below the saturation point is referred to
as Subcooling. Some Subcooling is necessary to provide sufficient suction head to the
condensate pumps; however, excessive subcooling reduces cycle efficiency and
should be avoided. The primary factors, which affect condenser subcooling, are
circulating water flow and temperature. From an operating standpoint, whatever the
circulating water temperature is, there will always be a certain point at which the
condenser vacuum will not increase any further, no matter how much the circulating
water flow is increased. In this respect, condenser vacuum varies with seasonal
conditions; i.e., the coldness of circulating water.

The best method to avoid excess subcooling is by controlling the circulating water
flow and temperature in an effort to maintain the hotwell at the highest temperature
attainable, without experiencing a reduction of condenser vacuum. An excess of
circulating water flow beyond this point results in subcooling of the hotwell
condensate. In other words, increasing the circulating water flow after the maximum
vacuum is attained only reduces the condensate temperature as it fails downward into
the hotwell and does nothing toward further reducing vacuum.

In general, it is desirable to maintain hotwell temperature equal to or as near to the

turbine exhaust steam temperature as possible. In practical terms, it is not possible to
have temperatures of turbine exhaust steam and condenser hotwell condensate.
However, a good rule of thumb is no more than 10°F between steam and condensate
temperatures.

If an excessive temperature difference exists between the exhaust steam and the
hotwell, the circulating water flow through the condenser should be reduced by the
amount necessary to equalize the temperature This may be done by either throttling
the condenser circulating water outlet valves or reducing the number of circulating
water pumps. Reducing the circulating water flow to equalize the temperatures not
only helps to retain heat in the condensate, but also reduces the circulating water
pump electrical consumption.

The internal cleanliness of the condenser tubes has a direct impact on the operating
efficiency of the condenser. Any fouling or build-up of material inside the tubes acts
as an insulating layer which reduces th rate of heat transfer between the turbine
exhaust steam and the circulating water. When fouling exists, optimum condenser
vacuum is not attainable due to the inhibited ability of the circulating water to
efficiently condense the turbine exhaust steam and produce the desired 'quench' effect
needed for maximum vacuum. The net result of fouled tubes is reduced condenser
vacuum and reduced steam turbine generator output.

Proper water treatment is essential in maintaining efficient and reliable operation of

the condenser. This holds true whether the system is being operated in the closed-loop
mode using the cooling tower, or when recirculating water out of a nearby lake or
river. The purpose of injecting chemicals into the circulating water is prevent internal
scaling and corrosion from occurring inside the system components and to control the
growth of bacterial slime and algae. Not only are the chemicals used to keep the

97
condenser tubes clean but also the heat transfer surfaces of the cooling tower and all
other components served by the system. For example, the growth of micro-organisms
in the circulating water system can impair flow distribution at the cooling tower and
cause deterioration of the cooling tower materials. In summary, circulating water
treatment must be closely monitored and tested to ensure the injected chemicals are
effective.

-Leakage
Because the condenser operates under a vacuum, the presence of a leak results in air
being drawn in the condenser. The in-leakage of air results in reduced condenser
vacuum, increased steam turbine backpressure, and decreased unit efficiency.

If a reduction of condenser vacuum is noted during unit operation, the Operator can
determine the cause of the problem by checking the discharge airflow from the
vacuum pumps. If the airflow is normal, the cause of reduced vacuum can be traced to
the operation of the circulating water system. As previously discussed, inadequate
circulating water flow or high water temperature can result in reduced condenser
vacuum. If the discharge flow rate from the vacuum pumps is abnormally high, an air
in-leakage condition exists.

Determining the location of an air leak on a system which is under a vacuum presents
a unique problem. If the leak is of significant size, it can be located by listening for an
in-rush of air. However, most leaks are small enough that a more sophisticated
detection method must be used. One common method is to admit non-flammable gas,
such as Freon into the atmosphere around the suspected area while monitoring the
vacuum pumps discharge with a gas detector. When gas is detected, the point where
gas was released is identified as having a leak. Once a leak is located, temporary
repairs should be made so the turbine backpressure is reduced, and steps should be
taken to initiate permanent repairs.

The in-leakage of air through the steam turbine casing and related components was
previously discussed in Section 6.4.3. Inadequate seal steam to the steam turbine shaft
seals is the most likely cause of an air in-leakage problem and should be one the first
items checked by the Operator. If the steam seals are functioning properly, the
Operator must consider the probability of a leak at the condenser shell and all
components and piping connected to it. Leaks can originate from any one of the
following:

ondensate Drain Piping to the Condenser

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During unit operation, circulating water flow through the condenser tubes bundle
passes through water boxes mounted on each end of the condenser shell. The churning
and continuous flow of water through the condenser water boxes and tubes promotes
the liberation of entrained air from the water. As the small bubbles of air are released,
they rise to the surface and form an air pocket inside the water boxes. Over a period of
time, continued releases of air from the water will increase the size of the air pocket to
the extent that the upper row of tubes becomes air bound. When this occurs,
circulating water can not flow through the affected tubes due to the presence of the air
pocket.

As with any shell and tube heat exchanger, the amount of heat transfer is directly
related to the size of the heat transfer area. In the condenser, the heat transfer area is
the combined area of all the condenser tube surfaces. If a portion of these tubes do not
have circulating water flowing through them, they can not transfer heat and thus the
rate of heat transfer through the condenser is decreased. The end result is less effective
cooling of the steam turbine exhaust, leading to a reduction of condenser vacuum and
reduced unit performance and efficiency.

To prevent the above scenario from occurring, the condenser is equipped with a Water
Box Priming system, which continuously evacuates any entrained air from the upper
section of the water boxes. It is very important that the Operator maintain correct
operation of the system, thus ensuring optimum condenser performance. Sight glasses
are generally provided on the upper portion of the water boxes and they should be
periodically checked by the Operator to ensure an air pocket is not present.

6.4.5 Deaerator
When referring to plant performance and efficiency, one component of the heat
transfer cycle that is often over-looked is the deaerator. The life and reliability of the
HRSG is very much dependant on the operation and effectiveness of the deaerator. It
is very important that the deaerator function properly in order to prevent oxygen-based
corrosion from attacking the water side heat transfer surfaces of the HRSG. This type
of corrosion reduces heat transfer efficiency while it is occurring and can lead to
eventual tube failure and unit shutdown.

The primary function of the deaerator is to remove non-condensable gases from the
feedwater en route to the HRSG. The efficiency of the deaerator in performing this
function is partially dependent on the temperature of the incoming feedwater. If the
inlet water temperature is abnormally low, proper deaeration can not take place. This
creates the need for additional chemical injection to control feedwater dissolved
oxygen content; and thus wasted chemicals and money are expended. The Operator
must ensure that the feedwater preheater to the deaerator is in service and operating
properly, and that it is not bypassed for any reason.

To efficiently perform the task of deaeration, the deaerator requires an adequate

supply of steam at the design flow and pressure requirements. If the pressure of the
steam supply deteriorates, deaeration efficiency and heating decreases; again creating

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the need for additional chemical injection. To alleviate this, the Operator must ensure
that the steam supply to the deaerator is continuous and adequate, and that the pressure
regulator is functioning properly.

Deaerators must be properly vented to carry off the non-condensable gases which are
"driven off` from the feedwater. However, the continuous venting of the deaerator can
be a source of considerable lost energy and is often the single largest contributor to
poor feedwater system efficiency. To minimize these losses, the deaetator should be
vented only enough to meet the unit's dissolved oxygen removal requirements. The
Operator should observe the flow of steam from the deaerator vent to ensure
obstruction or pluggage is not present.

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