Puranic Hinduism - An Introduction

The English word ‘hinduism’ is a fairly recent one and was first used by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in
1816-1817. The word ‘hindu’ is old and was derived from the Sindhu (Indus) river. It was
originally a geographical term used in ancient Persian inscriptions to refer to the flange beyond
the Sindhu river. In the course of the medieval period, the term acquired a religious and cultural
meaning.

The period during c. 200 BCE - 300 CE witnessed the emergence of important theistic cults like
Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism that are generally associated with Puranic traditions; and
also the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism with the conceptualization of Buddha as the
almighty God. Subsequently, these cults developed into major religious movements and
dominated during the time frame of c. 300 - 750 CE. One of the important features of these
theistic cults was the increasing emphasis upon the worship of one personal deity as the
supreme divinity. These theistic cults also increased the popularity of image worship followed by
the emergence of the temples as the monument as well as an institution. For example,
Patanjali’s Mahabhashya mentions images of the deities Shiva, Skanda and Vishakha. The
Arthashastra recommends that the temple dedicated to the Guardian deity and the family deity
of the king should be located in the center of the city.

The expansion of the trading network across the subcontinent in the post-Mauryan period
opened up the gates to the emergence of new political authorities in the areas outside the
Ganges valley. It facilitated the intermixing of various cultures and people. Thus, the Brahmana
ideologies were obligated to accommodate these new people and cultures within the
Brahmanical fold. This very process of Brahmanization and acculturation of these people,
cultures, and polities played an important role in the emergence of theistic cults of Puranic
Hinduism.

The beginning of the theistic trends that came to the fore can be traced to the later Upanishads.
However, the process is more clearly visible in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The new
religiosity of devotion is also reflected in the Bhagavad Gita and the Puranas. These theistic
cults are usually associated with Puranic Hinduism because Puranas are the literary texts which
act as a manual on the worship of a specific deity and a guide for the worshipper. The Puranas
are considerably later than the two great Epics. This is evident from the fact that many who are
described in the Epics as men and heroes only, in the Puranas are said to be divine beings.
These books differ largely from the Vedas in this respect. In the Vedas, religion was common to
all Hindus, all of whom worshipped the same deities. However, each Purana is concerned with
one god whose excellences are extolled, whilst others are spoken of in a deprecatory manner.
Generally, a certain measure of respect is shown to all the gods of the Pantheon; yet the
particular deity to whose praise the Purana is devoted, is said to be supreme, the others being
regarded as emanations from or incarnations of this one.

Though the Vedic Brahmanism continued, with the emergence of these theistic cults Puranic
Hinduism became widely popular as it was open to the people coming from various jatis and
varnas including shudras and women. Where Vedic Brahmanism was intimately linked with the
lavish sacrifices and upper jatis and varnas, Puranic Hinduism was accessible to all, even to the
shudra jati. Interestingly, now the Vedic deities like Varuna and Agni were reduced to the
position of minor or subsidiary deities and Vishnu and Shiva became the major deities around
whom major theistic cults developed gradually. Thus, the composition and compilation of the
Puranas was a way by which the brahmins were able to integrate the society. We see puranic
Hinduism as inclusive in nature.

The Hindus speak of the three great gods- Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. These form what is
often spoken of as the Hindu Triad, present in the Mahabharata and more clearly in the
Puranas. In this triad, Brahma is associated with the creation of the world, Vishnu with its
preservation and Shiva with its destruction.

The idea of devotion or Bhakti was different from Vedic sacrifices and ideology of renunciation,
as it laid great importance upon the complete surrender of self to the personal almighty God. It
was expected from a devotee to perform his duties, as propagated in Gita, without any concern
for the consequences. The grace of God rather the action became important in Bhakti, as the
supreme gods: Vishnu, Shiva, and Buddha were conceptualized as transcended to the scheme
of rebirth and Karma (Trautmann, 2007:70). The emergence of Puranic Hinduism does not
mean a complete disappearance of Vedic rituals and sacrifices. The Vedic sacrifices like
Ashvamedha and Vajapeya continued to be performed by new emerging polities.

Different Puranas
Purana is the name of a genre of popular Indian scriptures, primarily found in Hinduism, usually
written in the form of stories about specific gods. In Hindu religious literature, the designation
"Purana" confers on a text an aura of authority and antiquity and, as such, there are many texts
in India that go by the name of Purana. However, according to Hindu tradition, only eighteen
Mahāpuranas ("Great Puranas") are considered to be the most authoritative.

Two famous Vaishnava Puranas are the "Vishnu Purana" and the "Bhagavata Purana" which
are mostly concerned with mythical and historical narrations of the popular Hindu god Vishnu.
Puranas are often written in the vernacular, making them widely accessible to a mass audience,
and they continue to be an important part of the overall Hindu corpus of scripture.

In Hindu mythology, the Puranas are said to have been composed by the sage Vyasa, the
narrator of the Mahabharata epic. However, the way they’ve come down to us makes it clear
that they were not the composition of a single man. Their period of composition overlaps to
some extent with the Vedas, and continued well in the 5-6th centuries CE, even later.

Traditionally, it is said that there are eighteen Mahapuranas (meaning: "Great, mighty") and
eighteen Upapuranas (meaning: "Lower, additional"). They are usually written in Sanskrit by
Brahmins and normally tell of the creation of the universe and the human race, narrate the
genealogies of gods, kings, and saints, and contain assorted narratives, stories, and
philosophical and religious topics. Traditionally, they are said to narrate five subjects, called
"Pancha-Lakshana" which are:
1. Sarga—The creation of the universe.
2. Pratisarga—Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution.
3. Vamśa—Genealogy of gods and sages.
4. Manvantara—The creation of the human race and the first human beings.
5. Vamsanucaritam—Dynastic histories.
Sanskrit Mahapuranas are usually not directly accessible to the common person as read texts.
They are, however, available in vernacular translations and are disseminated by Brahmin
scholars, who read from them and tell their stories, usually in Katha sessions (in which a
traveling Brahmin settles for a few weeks in a temple and narrates parts of a Purana, usually
with a Bhakti perspective).
Notable Puranas
● The Bhagavata Purana is concerned with Vishnu Bhakti, telling of the exploits and deeds of
Vishnu's Avatar. Its tenth canto (its longest) narrates the deeds of Krishna and, probably for the
first time in Sanskrit, tells of his exploits as a child, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti
movements.
● The Devi-Bhagavata Purana is an Upapurana extolling the virtues of the goddess Durga as
the supreme being. It has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Markandeya Purana) a
basic text for Devi worshipers.
● The Skanda Purana is probably the longest of all. A vast storehouse of parables, legends, and
stories, with multiple versions and recensions.
● The Bhavishya Purana, apart from its other content, is said to contain references to the
Judeo-Christian creation myth (Adam and Eve are referred to as Adama and Havyavati).
Sthala Puranas

Other texts of lesser importance also bearing the name Puranas are Sthala Purāṇas. These
scriptures usually extol the virtues of specific Hindu temples or shrines (the word Sthala means
"place" in Sanskrit), narrating stories of the temple's creation and spiritual history. There are
numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well.
Most claim to have a Sanskrit origin, and some of the Sanskrit versions also appear in a
Mahapurana or an Upapurana. Additionally, there are several Tamil Sthala Puranas.
Kula Puranas

Another type of Puranas is called Kula Purāṇas, which deal with the origin and legends of
particular castes (the word Kula means "family" or "tribe" in Sanskrit). These Puranas deal with
a specific caste's origin, stories, and legends. The caste Purana is an important source for caste
identity and is usually contested by other, rival, castes. This subgenre is usually in the
vernacular and might, at times, be oral.
Non-Hindu Puranas

There are many Jain Puranas, dealing with Jain myths, history, and legends. Studies and
translations of this particular genre are meager. Additionally, some Buddhist Mahāyāna Sūtras
seem to have some characteristics of Puranas.

Factors leading to the emergence of Puranic Hinduism

a) Religious Rivalry

It was largely the result of sharpening of conflict amongst various religious systems fighting for
space. Buddhist and Jaina monks may be regarded as pioneers in carrying civilizational
influences into culturally backward areas, thus inaugurating the process of acculturation there.
Mahayanism was considered as a threat on the part of the brahmins who feared of losing
ground to these more enterprising rival systems, which led the Brahmanical leaders to change
their former elitist and almost inflexible stance and take more notice of the needs of people
standing on the lower rungs or the extreme periphery of society. A relevant example is that of
Vishnu being highlighted as a compassionate God who comes to the rescue of all his devotees
irrespective of their social standings in the society.

The Puranas were meant to be recited at collective gatherings and have been rightly described
as "scriptures for the common people’’. The wider acceptance given to idol and temple-centric
worship was perhaps yet another move on the part of the Brahmanical leaders to counter the
growing popularity of Buddhist and Jaina monastic institutions and shrines.
Most of the changes resulted from a compromise between orthodox belief and popular demand
for more personal religion. Image worship increased substantially and a multitude of new forms
took shape, many basically anthropomorphic.
This had far wider appeal, its accessibility lay in performing acts that required little investment
such as giving of gifts however small, keeping of fasts and vows, traveling collectively to
pilgrimage and subscribing to local mythologies as compared to the elaborate Vedic rituals.

b) Socio - Economic Factors

The decline of Roman trade led to a slump in Indian trade and there was hence a shift to
agriculture as the chief mode of production. Texts talk about knowledge of plants and irrigation
projects which points out to the fact that land became an important utility. They began to
recommend the gift of land to Brahmanas as yielding far greater spiritual merit than that
acquired through the performance of Vedic yajnas. Gift of land began to be considered a
mahadana or the greatest of gifts. The growing importance attached by the Brahmanas to the
gift of land not only brought about a significant change in the very tenor of Brahmanical
belief-system with gift-ritualism gaining importance over sacrificial ritualism but also provided an
additional incentive to the donors in the form of spiritual merit to be earned through it. Making a
gift of land to Brahmanas now served the same function which Vedic yajnas had done in an
earlier age, that of providing ritual validation to the newly gained power of aspirant chiefs and
nobles.
Moreover, the fact that the authors of the Puranas deemed it necessary to attribute to
Brahmanas of outlying regions mythical origins further points to their doubtful antecedents.
Thus, according to Skanda Purana, the Gitpavana Brahmanas of Konkan were created from the
funeral pyre of sixty men by Parasurama in want of brahmanas to perform for him a sraddha
rite. According to the same Purana, Parasurama in a similar manner created the Karhada
brahmanas from camel's bones and also conferred brahmanahood upon some Kaivarta families
who later came to serve as priests to that caste.

With the help of Puranic mythology and certain ideological constructs such as those related to
sin, hell, curse, etc. which were meant to serve as strong moral deterrents, the emergent system
aimed at making the natives conform to a new set of moral values and behavioral norms.
When the agricultural expansion was happening and new land was being brought under
cultivation, the Brahmanas and the followers of Brahmanical religion came in contact with the
tribal populations dwelling in the forest areas, who had their own set of religious practices and
cults. Thus, there was also a need to incorporate this new section of society and give them
some sort of recognition. Therefore, we see that these local gods and goddesses were
incorporated as incarnations of the major deities, adding to the diversification of the Puranic
Pantheon.

Tantrism
Toward the end of the 5th century, the cult of the mother goddess assumed a significant place
in Indian religious life. Shaktism, the worship of Shakti, the active power of the godhead
conceived in feminine terms, should be distinguished from Tantrism, the search for spiritual
power and ultimate release by means of the repetition of sacred syllables and phrases
(mantras), symbolic drawings (mandalas), and other secret rites elaborated in the texts known
as Tantras (“Looms”).

In many respects, the Tantras are similar to the Puranas. Theoretically, the Tantras deal with (1)
knowledge, or philosophy, (2) Yoga, or concentration techniques, (3) ritual, which includes the
construction of icons and temples, and (4) conduct in religious worship and social practice. In
general, the last two subjects are the most numerous, while Yoga tends to center on the
mystique of certain sound-symbols (mantras) that sum up esoteric doctrines. The philosophy
tends to be a syncretistic mixture of Sankhya and Vedanta thought, with special and at times
exclusive emphasis on the god’s power, or shakti.

The Tantric texts can be divided into three classes: (1) Shaiva Agamas (traditions of the
followers of Shiva), (2) Vaishnava Samhitas (“Collections of the Vaishnavas,” a name borrowed
from the Vedic Samhitas), and (3) Shakta Tantras (“Looms of the Followers of the Goddess
Shakti”). However, they all have the common bond of venerating the Goddess.

The surviving Hindu Tantras were written much later than many of those of Tantric Buddhism,
which may have heavily influenced the Hindu texts. Although there is early evidence of Tantrism
and Shaktism in other parts of India, the chief centers of both were in Bengal, Bihar, and
Assam.

Conclusion

According to Vijay Nath, careful scrutiny of the Puranic content shows that Brahmanism of the
Dharmasastras and the Smrtis underwent a complete transformation at the hands of the Purana
composers, as it came to acquire a wholly new aspect, which is described as Puranic Hinduism.
Certain features which distinguished it from its Vedic Smarta roots were its ever-widening.
horizon and popular base, its theological and sectarian pluralism, its Tantric veneer and an
extraordinary thrust on devotion and bhakti. It proved to be a multiplex belief-system which grew
and expanded as it absorbed and synthesized polaristic religious ideas and cultic traditions.
The transition from 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism' was neither sudden nor abrupt nor was it a
complete breaking away from the past tradition. It was more the outcome of a slow and gradual
process of evolution and growth, reflecting a remarkable continuity along with a significant shift
in ideological thrust and approach.