CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of Study

Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes
and similar forces. To say that manager motivate their subordinates is to say that they do things
which they hope will satisfy these drives and desires and induced the subordinates to act in a
desire manner.

Motivations are energizing factors and are the main cause for movement of any living organism
including human being. Because, motivation will keep the workers committed to their duties and
do their jobs seriously and joyfully. One of the reasons for successfulness of employees and thus
organizations is the presence of motivational factors at high degree in those organizations.

The concept of motivation is used to explain the distinction between employees which have the
same talents, abilities and opportunities to do their jobs in a similar organization and are under
the same employment conditions and with the same facilities, but demonstrate different
performances. These employees perform their jobs in such a manner that the jobs are required to
be done with relatively more efforts, so they can try more to play the role for which they are
asked (Ramprasand 2013). Thus, improved productivity is driven by positively motivated
employees by the organization (Eze, 2001).

The awareness of the motivating factors and factors leading to increased job satisfaction allow
the implementation of targeted strategies of continuous improvement (Unterweger et al., 2007).
Bolman and Deal (2008) showed that when workers are dissatisfied with their work they
withdraw and exhibit behaviors such as absenteeism, rebellion and attitude that affects their
performance which leads to loss of productivity and effectiveness in the organization but if they
are satisfied with their jobs they effectively utilize their skills and the organization benefits.
Bearing this in mind one can see that satisfaction at job is important to both the workers and
organization.

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Furthermore, employees have both intrinsic and extrinsic needs (Mustafa, 2012; Nadin, 2012).
An employee, who is intrinsically motivated, undertakes tasks satisfaction, for the feeling of
accomplishment and self-actualization. On the other hand, an extrinsically motivated employee
may perform activity duty in order to obtain a reward such as salary. Nevertheless, both factors
influence employee’ behavior (Din 2008; Mustafa, 2012).

The aim of the organization such as manufacturing firm therefore should be to build on
and enhance extrinsic motivation for its workers to perform the production of goods effectively,
but also at the same time to supply some of intrinsic motivation along the way for organization
improvement.

In particular, to what extent do intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect the level of employee’
performance in manufacturing industry (Aqua Rapha).

1.2. Statement of The Problem

Generally, the attitude of Nigerians toward work is not very encouraging. However,
empirical studies of work attitudes and motivation in Nigeria have also indicated that many
Nigerian workers do not perceive any satisfactory relationship between their effort and their
organizations reward for their effort.

This is occasioned by ethnocentric chauvinism resulting from favoritism, nepotism,

discrimination, ethnic or clannish consideration which dominates the hiring and firing
procedures, promotions and transfer exercises. The resultant effect of the above is low
motivation among the less privilege workers.

Organizations where workers are well motivated have been found to excel better and
achieve higher productivity with reference to Aqua Rapha Company in Enugu Metropolis.

1.3. Objectives of The Study

The broad objective of the study is to determine the effect of motivation on employees’
performance in most firms in the manufacturing industry: Aqua Rapha Company, Enugu Region.

The specific objectives include

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1. To determine the impact of motivation on workers’ performance in Aqua Rapha

2. To examine the motivational techniques applied by the Aqua Rapha management to enhance
the productivity and service of its employees.

3. To determine the effectiveness of such motivational techniques on employee performance.

4. To find out whether the incentives offered reflect the needs and aspirations of the employees.

1.4 Research Question

The research attempts to provide answers to the following questions:

1 To what extent does motivation impact on workers’ performance?

2. How do the motivational techniques applied by the Aqua Rapha management enhance the
productivity and services of its employee?
3. How effective is such motivational techniques on employee performance?
4. Do the incentives offered by Aqua Rapha management reflect the needs and aspiration of
the employee?

1.5 Hypothesis Formulation

To achieve the objectives of this study, the following hypotheses were tested;

1. H0: Motivation has no significant impact on workers’ performance in Aqua Rapha.

H1: Motivation has significant impact on workers’ performance in Aqua Rapha.
2. H0: Motivation techniques applied by the Aqua Rapha management do not enhance
the productivity and services of the employee.
H1: Motivation techniques applied by the Aqua Rapha management enhance the
productivity and services of the employee.
3. H0: Motivation techniques applied by the Aqua Rapha management are not effective.
H1: Motivation techniques applied by the Aqua Rapha management are effective.
4. H0: The incentives offered by the Aqua Rapha management do not reflect the needs
and aspirations of the employee.

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 H1: The incentives offered by the Aqua Rapha management reflect the needs and
aspirations of the employee.

1.6 Significance of The Study

The study is significant because it will enable individuals and organizations know the
impact of motivation on worker’s performance. It is hoped that the findings and recommendation
of this researcher will undoubtedly contribute tremendously to the overall human resource
management and motivation style of the organizations; it will enhance the level of employee
motivation and productivity organization. It will also serve as a source of reference to other
students who might embark on a similar work. Also, this work will also benefit the researcher as
it will widen the researcher’s mind on issues relating to motivation of employees. In the future,
the researcher will have a better knowledge on how to motivate her employees as a manager. It
will also give the researcher the opportunity to give a better or an expertise advice to student who
wish to carry out this research or even to other managers who might not know the best way to
motivate their employees.

1.7 Scope of The Study

The scope of the study is on the effect of motivation on the employees’ performance in
the manufacturing industry. The study was carried out in the year 2019, at Aqua Rapha opposite
Nigerian Breweries Plc Ama, 9th Mile corner, Ngwo, Enugu. It also covers the definition of
motivation, motivation as goal oriented, theories of work motivation, and management by
objective as a motivational strategy, the job as a motivator, pay as a motivator, and Patton’s
identification of managerial motivators.

1.8 Limitations of Study

Some limitation that were identified and encountered in the process of the study includes:

 Financial constraint: it is one of the limitations the researcher encountered in carrying out
the research work.
The amount of money she spent in transportation and in sourcing materials for the study
was a serious constraint to researcher.

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  Attitudes of respondents: In responding to questions in the questionnaire administered to
them are another constraint, some of the respondents did not even respond to the
questions while some exhibit negative attitude in answering the questions.
 Time constraint: The researcher was equally constrained by time.

1.9 Operational Definitions of Terms

Incentives: Incentives are reward and/or punishment that healthcare providers face from the
organization in which they work and specific intervention they provide (WHO Report 2008).

Motivation: Motivation is defined as the forces within a person that affects his or her direction,
intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior (Ezigbo, 2007).

Intrinsic motivation: Intrinsic motivation is an inducement derived from within the person or
from the activity itself and, positively affects behavior, performance, and well-being (Ryan &
Deci, 2000).

Extrinsic motivation: Extrinsic motivation is said to exist when behavior is performed for its
own sake rather than to obtain material or social re-enforcers (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Performance: The accomplishment of a given task measured against preset known standards of
accuracy, completeness, cost, and speed. In a contract, performance is deemed to be the
fulfillment of an obligation, in a manner that releases the performer from all liabilities under the
contract (Aguinis, 2009)

Job satisfaction: it is the level of contentment an individual derives from the work and
workplace (Akah 2010).

Organization: Organization is defined as a structured process in which individuals interest for

objectives (Hicks and Gullet, 1987).

Management: Management is defined as a process of procuring, combining, allowing and

utilizing organizations inputs i.e. 4 persons (men, machine, money and materials) by action or
function such as planning, organizing, directing and controlling in order to produce desired
output that will help to achieve organizational objectives (Akpala, 1996).

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 REFERENCE

Afam, E.F (2011), Nigeria workers: a sacrificial lamb’ Business Time.

Berhan R and stanier G.A (1964), Human Behavior: New York Harcourt Brace Publisher.

Baker, G.P (1992), Incentive Contracts and Performance Management. Journal of Political
Economy, Vol. 1 (?).

Filippo E.B (2000), Personal Management; New York; McGraw Hill.

French, W.L (1988), Management and Organization: Theory and Practice; Enugu; Vougasen
ltd.

Prendergast, C. (1999), The Provision of Incentives in Forms: Journals of Economic Literature

Vol. 37 (?).

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

2.1.1: Concept of Motivation

The concept of motivation can be problematically subjective without a clear definition of

the term itself. According to philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer Stanford university (2003). “To
be motivated is to be moved into action, or to decide on a change of action.” Motivation of
behavior can be linked to internal events such as things that can repel or pull an individual.

Motivation is defined as “the forces within a person that affects his or her direction, intensity and
persistence of voluntary behavior (Mcshane et al., 2000). Robbins and Coulter (2005) further
suggest that motivation refers to the “process that account for an individual’s willingness to
accept higher levels of effort to each organizational goals conditioned by the effort’s ability to
satisfy some individual need”. If managers today are to assume responsibility to lead employees
towards attaining organizational goals, it is then crucial for them to comprehend the
psychological process of motivation. Other researcher such as Kreitner (1995), Buford, Bedeian
& Linder (1995), Higgins (1994) all cited in Linder (1998) define motivation as “the
psychological process that gives behavior a purpose and direction, a predisposition to behave in a
purposive manner to achieve specific unmet needs, an unsatisfied need, and the will to achieve,
respectively.

According to Atkinson et al (1983), term motivation was not used until the beginning of the 20 th
century. According to them, for hundreds of years, the predominant view of philosophers and
theological was that people were rational beings with intellects, who freely chose goals and
decided on courses of action. For these philosophers’ reason determined what a person did and at
that point, a concept of motivation was unnecessary.

A person was free to choose and the choices were good or bad, depending on the individual
intelligence and education. Rationalism means that a person is largely responsible for his or her
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own behavior because he/she would make good choice if it is known. This implicit confidence
on rationalism continued until some scholars began to experiment and to arrive at the conclusion
that reasoning alone cannot provide man with all the drive to act were found in what is today
know as motivation.

Motivation itself is a specific sequence of events beginning with the selection of a valued goal.
After this initial goal (or series of goals) is chosen, the individual is then motivated to
demonstrate the necessary behaviors to satisfy the specific motive and ultimately achieve the
specific goal. Finally, when the motive is satisfied, or the goal is achieved, an end-state occurs.

2.1.2 Criteria for Employee Motivation

Lawlew (1981) asserted that there are different criteria for employee motivation in the
workplace. This includes:

1. Motivation must satisfy individual needs:

Whether it is pay rise or non-monetary rewards, a reward has no motivation impact
unless it satisfies on operative need. Not all people need the same things and one person
may need different things at different times. Money is a powerful motivation for those
who seek security through material wealth. But the promise of more money may mean
little to a financially secure person who seeks ego gratification from challenging work.
People have need concerning when and how they want to be paid, also vary.

2. Employees must believe that effort will lead to word

According to expectancy theory vroom (1972), an employee will not strive for an attractive
reward unless it is perceived as being attainable.

For example, bank promise a higher packages or bonus if they meet a particular target. Those
who believe they could have little chance of winning will not be motivated to try harder than
usual incessant pay plan, especially merit pays, profit sharing, gain sharing need to be designed
and communicated in a way that will foster believable effort reward linkages.

3. Motivation must be linked to performance

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Management can strengthen motivation to making sure that those who give a little extra pay in
addition to sales commission or gain sharing and way linking pay performance

Lawler (1980) stated that merit pay could be used to give salaried personnel an incentive to go
that extra mile.

4. Money: As a means of Motivation

If performance could be broadly measured by the size of the cash house bonus relation to basic
salary, then the difference would have been startling. In Germany bonuses are rarely less than,
25% to 50% on top of basic salary. In America bonuses of 20% to 30% of salary are fairly
common. Some inns have a ceiling of 50% bonus on top of salary, but minorities have no limit
and bonuses can exceed salary, thought they are very rarely as high as Germany. In Britain the
majority of companies with cash bonuses for executives in fact hand out 3% to 5% of pay as
Christmas gift, not effectively related to effort or results. Even when a scheme is geared to
results, the level of bonuses is likely to be in the 12 and half% to 25% region, rarely higher.

It could, of course, be mere coincidence that, among these three countries, the one which pays
the highest bonuses in relation to salary has the best recent history of economic growth, and the
one which pay the lower bonuses has the worst recent history of growth.

Odiome, (1986) stated that money can never be over-looked as a means for effective employee
performance whether in the form of was, -piecework, or any incentive pay, bonuses or any other
thing that may be given to people for performance, money is important and as some writers have
pointed out money is often more than monetary value. It can also mean status or power.

Economists and most managers have tended to place money high on the scale of employee
motivation towards high performance. If money is to be the kind of motivation it should be,
manager must remember several things. First, money is likely to be more important to people
who are raising family, for example than to people who have “arrived” in the sense that money
needs are not so great. Money is an urgent means of achieving a minimum standard of living.
Although this minimum has a way of getting higher as people become more affluent.

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According to Kreitner (1984), assorted that for some people money would always of the most
important, while for others it may never be. Also, it is probably quite that in most kinds of
businesses and other enterprises, money is used as a means of keeping an organization
adequately staffed and not primarily as a motivator. Various enterprises make wages and salaries
competitive within their industry and their geographical area to attract hold people. If money is
to be effective motivator, people even though a similar level must be given salaries and bonuses
that reflect their individual performances. Even if a company is committed to the bound to same
practice with respect to bonuses. In fact, it appears that unless bonuses for managers are based to
major extent individual performance.

2.1.3 The Views on Motivation

 Traditional views: The tradition view of motivation is associated with Fredrick Taylor
and the scientific management school. According to this school, an important aspect of
the manager’s job was to make sure that workers performed their being, repetitive task in
the most efficient way. To motivate workers to perform their jobs successfully, managers
had at their disposal a system of wage incentives. The more workers produced, the more
they earned. This motivational tool was based on the assumption that workers were lazy
and could be motivated only with the promise of financial reward.
 Human Relation views: When it became apparent that the traditional approach to
motivation was no longer adequate, management researchers and writers began to search
for alternative explanations for employee behavior. Even mayo and other human relations
experts found that, the social contacts (informal group) which employees and at work
were important to them, and that the burden and reducing the motivation to work they
suggested that the manager could motivate employees by acknowledging their social
needs and by making them feel useful and important to the organization.
In response to this observation, organizations attempted to acknowledge the social needs
of employees and tried to motivate employees by increasing their own decisions on the
job. Greater attention was paid to the organization’s informal work group more
information was provided to employees about manager’s intentions and about the
operations of the organization.

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 However, the intentions of both views were the same and that is to have workers accept
the workers’ situation as established by the managers in return for higher wages. The
only difference is that in scientific management views.
 Human Resources views: Later theorist and researchers such as Macgregor, Maslow and
Herzberg criticized the human relation views saying that it is merely a modified
traditional approach aimed at manipulating employees. They said that many things other
than money and satisfaction motivate employees. Such things as need for achievement
meaning in the work one is doing and self-actualization. The task of managers is not to
induce workers to comply with managerial objectives by bringing them with higher
wages, as in the traditional model or even to manipulate them with considerate treatment,
as in the human relations view; instead, managers should develop shared responsibility
for achieving organizational and individual objectives.
 Systems view of motivation: According to Lyman Portar and Raymond miles the best
way to explain motivation is by taking into account the entire “system” (force) operating
on the employee in the organization that affect motivation and it is the relationship
among these variable that ultimately determines the degree of motivation an employee
receives. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the system or whole of the forces
affecting the employee before the employees’ motivation can be adequately understood,
the three variable as identified by Portar and Miles are:
 Individual characteristics: This refers to the interest, attitudes and needs that an
individual brings to the work situation. For example, an employee might desire
prestige and power, and so might be motivated by a job with an impressive title
such as General Manager, managing director. Another employee might desire
money and so might to be motivated to do a job with higher.
 Job characteristics: This refer to the requirements or attributes of the job or tasks.
Such characteristics will include the amount of responsibilities the individual is
given, the variety of tasks the individual can perform and the extent to which the
job itself is satisfying. It is assumed that the job that is intrinsically satisfying will
be more motivating for many people than a job that is not.
 Work situation characteristics: Work situation characteristics refer to what
happens to the individual in his work environment. Is he encouraged by his

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 colleagues to work hard and improve productivity or do they encourage low
productivity? Do supervisors encourage high performance through reward or do
they ignore it? Are they indifferent? The characteristics can affect motivation.

2.1.4 Importance of Motivation

Motivation is an important in the work place because motivation implies arousal and
maintenance of interest in the doing an activity. Motivation is of enormous importance with
regards to enhancing performance in any organization. Every manager strives to motivate his or
her employees to greater and higher performance towards achieving organizational mission. It is
the considered view of Moorhead and Griffin (1998) that performance is dependent on three
factors, namely, Ability, Environment and Motivation which can be expressed as follows: P = M
+ A + E.

Ability which is the employees’ skill and capacity to perform a given work can be acquired in
the case of its deficiency, through a training program or a transfer to a simpler job. Environment,
which refers to the requisite physical material resources and equipment to do the job, can also be
provided.

However, motivation that entails a worker wanting to do the job cannot be easily provided or
generalized. It requires extra effort on the part of the manager to determine what will motivate
the employee to work hard enough to meet set performance levels. Thus, motivation is important
in an organization in as much as it determines employee performance in conjunction with ability
and environment (Moorhead and Griffin, 1998).

2.1.5 Performance

According to Aguinis (2009), performance is about behavior or what employees do, and not what
employees produce or the outcomes of their work. Performance is an effort along with the ability
to put efforts supported with the organizational policies in order to achieve certain objectives.
Campbell (1990) also defines performance as behavior. It is something done by the employee.
This concept differentiates performance from outcomes. Outcomes are the result of an
individual's performance, but they are also the result of other influences.

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There are several variables that determine performance. These variables could be classified as
general determinants of performance. For instance, one’s qualification can go a long way to
enhance his performance. When one goes through education, development and training to
acquire a certain level of qualification, it will enhance his working ability all other things being
equal. Also, experience is a great asset that can improve an employee’s performance. The longer
the number of years’ experience, the higher the level of performance all other things being equal.
Again, quality and style of supervision is a key factor. The use of democratic and autocratic
styles of supervision will have varying degree of results given different behaviors of employees;
the working environment is another determinant that could pose serious threat to performance.
For example, if the working environment is hazardous, it could endanger the lives of employees.
The use of protective gadgets and clean working environment could reduce the hazards
employees are exposed to at the workplace; the single most important determinant of
performance is compensation package. In the absence of compensation, performance levels
would be very low compensation could be financial or non-financial may have different levels of
motivation and consequently its influence on performance; factors such as tools and equipment
can enhance one’s performance. Imagine the use of computers, combine harvesters, irrigation
system and teaching aids in the production system. Technology has made it possible to have
certain tools and equipment that enhance productive activities; and other determinants of
performance include support from other colleagues, production materials, health condition of
employees, job security, and retirement and other benefits, age, loyalty or commitment (Aguinis,
2009).

Campbell (1990) and Aguinis (2009) have provided their version of performance determinants to
complement the general determinants. They suggested that individual differences on
performance are a function of three main determinants: declarative knowledge, procedural
knowledge, and motivation. Declarative knowledge refers to knowledge about facts, principles,
and objects among others. It represents the knowledge of a given task's requirements. Procedural
Knowledge is having certain skills in knowing what to do and how to do it. That is, the employee
requires certain technical skills to be able to accomplish a task. Procedural knowledge also
relates to one’s intelligence level and physical ability. The third predictor of performance is
motivation, the driving force behind every human activity.

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Motivation, which refers to "a combined effect from three choice behaviors - choice to expend
effort, choice of level of effort to expend, and choice to persist in the expenditure of that level of
effort"(Campbell, 1990). All three determinants of performance must be present for performance
to reach high levels. If any of the determinants has a value of zero (0), then performance also has
a value of zero (0). Thus, Performance = Declarative knowledge x Procedural knowledge x
Motivation.

2.1.6 Impact of Motivation on Employees’ Performance

Employees are the first point of call when dealing with customers. It is important therefore that
organizations give employees the needed encouragements to motivate them do more and achieve
better performance for the organization. Motivation according to some scholars improves the
level of efficiency in the workforce (Greeno, 2002). Greeno (2002) added that, it is not just the
qualifications, experiences, or abilities of an employee that determines productivity as
motivation plays a significant role in determining the productivity of an employee. In order to fill
the gap between the ability of an employee and his willingness, the organization has to motivate
the employee so that he or she can give results according to his or her abilities. When
organizations improve the efficiency of employees through motivation, it will also improve
overall productivity, reduce costs, and increase the efficiency of the company.

Barrit, (2003) agreed with Greeno’s (2002) assertion that, motivation puts human resources into
action and improves level of efficiency of employees. He added that, every concern requires
financial and human resources to accomplish the goals. Having the employees only physically,
does not mean that the organization manages to make full use of it. Barrit, (2003) added that, the
performance of motivated employees is high, which results into: increased productivity and
reduced cost of operations. He concluded that, a motivated employee will not try to get by with
little effort; but will be more oriented on his job. If those workers, who spend most of their time
on Facebook or other pages, use their potential and keep instead themselves busy with their job,
increased productivity will be very conspicuous (Barrit, 2003)

Griffiths (2001) highlighted that, meeting personal goals help an employee stay motivated and
feel about themselves to continue to produce. He added that, motivation can facilitate a worker
reaching his/her personal goals, and can facilitate the self-development of an individual. Griffiths

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(2001) continued that, once that worker meets some initial goals, they realize the clear link
between effort and results, which will further motivate them to continue at a high level.

Chudley (2004) opined that, motivation leads to greater employee satisfaction. He added that,
worker satisfaction is important for every company, as this one factor can lead towards progress
or regress. Chudley (2004) again indicated that, in the absence of an incentive plan, employees
will not feel ready to fulfill their objectives. Thus, managers should seek to empower them
through promotion opportunities, monetary and non-monetary rewards, or disincentives in the
case of inefficient employees.

Jesop (2005) highlighted that, motivation brings employees closer to the organization. He added
that, as long as needs of employees are met through attractive rewards, promotional
opportunities, etc. employees begin to take more interest in their company. They begin to think
that there is no difference between the interests of the enterprise and their interests. This helps in
developing cordial relations between management and workers.

2.1.7 How to Motivate Employees

Ubeku, (1994), state that the key to the understanding of human behavior is an understanding of
the human needs. In order to motivate people to put in their maximum efforts, it is essential that
the various needs of individuals and human needs must be met.

BASIC NEEDS

 Wages/salaries

Although emphasis has been placed on the satisfaction of higher human needs for the motivation
of employees. The basic need has to be satisfied first. We recognize that there is never going to
be a time when the pay packet alone will determine the level of the individual or worker’s
satisfaction.

We may recall that Taylor advanced the theory of motivation through financial rewards. He said
that to motivate workers to perform, managers have at their disposal wage incentives. This
approach, based on an assumption which was later brought into focus as Theory X by McGregor

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(1960), states that workers are lazy and can be motivated only with financial rewards. Taylor’s
prescription was criticized as too narrow, that it emphasized only the economic aspects of
worker’s needs. But applying this to the Nigerian situation Ejiofor (1984) states that where the
level of aspiration of many workers remains within the range of satisfying the lower level needs,
which more often than not is economic. So the level of the criticism depends on the situation.

Freidlander (2002) asserted that, the payment of good wages and salaries is fundamental to the
productivity effort of those employees. There are a large number of workers who by the very
nature or job cannot be promoted or have their jobs improved in any way. To this group of
employee, the most important factor is the pay packet. There are no promotion prospects;
worker’s conditions cannot be substantially improved yet if the pay can be improved from time
to time and provide the working relationship are good.

Apantaku (2002) suggested that an employee in that category is likely to perform his duties well.
In any event, the use of money as a motivating factor must not be brushed aside light.

Gelleman (1976) summed it up the situation aptly; “to say that monetary omnipotence is a myth,
is not to say that money is important.” Money can motivate; this is it can influence action and
encourage extra effort, extra creativity or any other kind of non-routine performance. But it can
be done only when the increment or net gain for the employee is large enough.

 The Social Work Needs

The Human Relation Movement attempted to fill the gap in Taylor’s theory by bringing up the
social needs of the workers as a motivating factor to improve productivity. The movement
proposed that if workers are treated like human beings by management and if an environment is
created at the work, situation in which workers enjoy a sense of belonging with their mates,
productivity would improve.

 Promotion

Employees want to see a change for their place of work. A supervisor would like to head the
bank branch. Promotion brings along with it not just more money but a mark of recognition of
the individual’s performance.

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Consequently, in order to justify this recognition, the employee promoted put in more effort in
this work. Promotion put new lives in the individual and activates his knowledge, skills etc. and
he in turn strives harder to be effective to be effective in his new job. The motivating effect of
promotion is high.

 Job Enrichment

Blanchard (1993) observed that job enrichment must be distinguished from job enlargement. A
job enlarged when the tasks being performed on the job are merely increased. But job
enrichment, vertically loads the job by using more of the person’s talents and giving more
freedom in decision making when for instance, tasks are being done by the people are created
into one job so that one individual starts and ends the task, the workers can in such a situation see
his of job enrichment forts have in many instances been Gratifying Reports of increased
productivity and improved employee attitudes have been common.

 Authority and Accountability

Freeman (1998) noted that a major factor in motivating a job holder is to give him increased
authority and hold him accountable for the results. This situation will pose a challenge to which
the employee will react.

 Increased Responsibilities

Ojo (2002) state that a number of manager fear delegation of responsibilities because they
believe, very erroneously too that, their subordinates will not be able to do the jobs and so try to
down play their abilities. Any manager who finds himself in that it is time for him to retire. One
cannot tell in very many cases whether the subordinate will be able to do the or not until he has
been tried out in the interest of the company and the individual. It is better to remove a
subordinate if there are good grounds to show that he has reached the height of his competence,
rather than deny him the means of growth and development. In any event, one of the managers’
duties is to train and develop his subordinate to take over. He cannot be that effectively unless he
increases his responsibilities gradually as a part of planned development.

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2.1.8 Factors that affect Employees’ Performance in Organizations

Arnold (2005) indicated that, an effective employee is a combination of a good skill set and a
productive work environment. To him, many factors affect employee performance that managers
need to be aware of and should work to improve at all times. To get the maximum performance
from employees, Arnold (2005) opined that, one needs to provide them with the tools they need
to succeed. Anderson (2004) added that, employees don't perform in a vacuum.

To Anderson (2004), there are a variety of factors, personal, company-based and external that
affects employees’ performance. Identifying these factors can help improve recruitment,
retention and organizational results. Clark (2010) stated that, companies rely on employees to
produce and deliver high-quality products and services. Clark (2010) also added that, employees
are impacted by a variety of forces both internal and external as they attempt to perform their job
duties. Employers who are aware of these forces, and who are prepared to leverage or counteract
them, can increase productivity and loyalty. Carrol (2001) indicated that, it is logical to assume
that well-compensated employees would naturally be the most productive. However, numerous
studies have proven that while money is a motivating factor, it is not the only factor that impacts
employee productivity in a negative or positive way. Among some of the factors that affect
employees’ performance in organizations are:

 Managerial Standards

According to Krissoff (2004), managerial standards can be a factor in motivating or de-

motivating employees. Krissoff (2004) added that, managerial standards should be in line with
the job duties outlined in the job description outlined by human resources and that, managers
should keep their expectations in line with the duties assigned to the employee. Krissoff (2004)
stated additionally that, by expecting more from an employee than they were hired for, or than
their background has prepared them for, can diminish employee performance.

 Motivation

Miller (2007) opined that, to get the best performance from employees, there needs to be some
sort of motivation beyond the weekly paycheck. Miller (2007) added that, motivation can come
in the form of financial incentives, the opportunity to get involved in company projects, a career

18
path that leads to management and direct involvement from management into the daily tasks.
Effective motivation according to Miller (2007) can create a productive work force, but a lack of
motivating factors can leave employees searching for reasons to give their maximum effort.

 Commitment

Pannell (2005) highlighted that, employees that feel as though the company has made a
commitment to employee success tend to perform better. Pannell (2005) added that, commitment
means offering a competitive rate of pay and benefits package, offering assistance in paying for
employee's higher education costs, developing a regular training schedule that keeps employees
updated on company changes and given pertinent information for employees to do their jobs and
upgrading equipment to make sure that employees have the most efficient technology available
to do their work. Pannell (2005) concluded that, commitment shown by the company is returned
in the form of commitment from employees.

 Employee Evaluations

Stevens (2009) indicated that, an effective employee evaluation is an interactive process where
the manager gives his input on the employee's performance, and the employee gets the chance to
point out what she has learned throughout the year. Stevens (2009) furthered that, managers
create a plan along with the employee for the coming year on how the employee can develop and
improve their performance. Stevens (2009) concluded that, comprehensive employee evaluations
are important to the ongoing performance of employees.

 Positive Environment

Richards (2003) indicated that, a critical internal force that influences employee behavior is the
actions of colleagues. According to Richards (2003) creating an atmosphere of sharing and
helping was at the top of the list during a roundtable brainstorming session at the Metro Atlanta
Chamber of Commerce when clients were asked to identify the primary forces that improve
effective customer service. Richards (2003) furthered that, companies that can effectively build
an internal culture that is based on mutual respect, teamwork and support will notice increased
productivity and a sharper focus on service to customers.

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  Technology

Leigh (2004) highlighted that, technology is a significant factor that can have both positive and
disruptive influences on employee behavior. While technology can often help streamline
processes and make work easier for employees, learning how to use new technology while
remaining productive can be stressful (Leigh, 2004). Factor in the rapid advent of technology, in
general, and employers seem to be faced with an almost ongoing need for new training, process
improvement and documentation (Leigh, 2004).

 Locus of Control

Mazin (2007) indicated that, employees are influenced by both internal and external forces, but
the impact of these forces depends a great deal on their own levels of internal and external locus
of control. According to Mazin (2007), those who have an external locus of control are looking
for people to tell them what to do. These are the employees who need a great deal of direction
and expect managers to give clear and detailed feedback at all times. Those with an internal
locus of control to Mazin (2007) feel empowered to make decisions and act on their own; they
feel in control of their destiny rather than at the mercy of external factors. These employees may
sometimes act too independently and are not as concerned about the opinions or expectations of
others.

 Lack of Incentives

Robert (2006) commented that, companies that keep morale high with periodic incentives,
enhance their production. Robert (2006) added that, human beings thrive on appreciation and
receiving incentives sends the message that they are valued and appreciated. Whether the
incentive is something concrete, such as bonuses, a free lunch or any other tangible evidence of
appreciation, motivation will increase to an all-time high. Intangible tokens, such as an employee
of the month award will serve the same motivating purpose (Robert, 2006).

 Morale

It’s no secret according to Angelus (2011) that unhappy employees often don’t perform well and
often share their negative opinions with their co-workers. Angelus (2011) added that, if one

20
suspects that morale is the cause of the decrease in productivity, it’s time to find out why the
employees are unhappy. To Angelus (2011), long hours, insufficient training, management
issues, low pay, lack of recognition and poor working conditions can lead to morale problems.
Involving employees in the solution can help ensure that one has developed a workable plan that
will increase both morale and productivity (Angelus, 2011).

 Comfort Level

Clark (2010) opined that, it is hard to be productive when one is physically uncomfortable. He
added that, anything that makes employees uncomfortable, including chairs, desks, workstations,
lighting, temperature and noise levels, can affect productivity. A study conducted by Sam (2009)
on office design discovered that a comfortable and ergonomic office design motivates employees
and substantially increases performance.

 Poor Management

Robert (2006) indicated that, management can be a contributing factor to low productivity.
Robert (2006) continued that, productivity suffers when managers don’t keep promises, give
appropriate credit or blame others for their mistakes. Managers who are too controlling can
unwittingly slow down work flow by requiring even the simplest task to have a manager
approval. Robert (2006) added that, a hands-off management style can also be a problem. When
managers are uninvolved or unavailable, employees have no one to turn to for direction or
guidance. Managers also set the tone for the department. Managers who adopt a positive attitude
help foster the same attitude in their employees (Robert, 2006).

2.1.9 Types of Motivation

Booth (2004) indicated that, motivation is the force that compels us to action. It drives us to
work hard and pushes us to succeed. Booth (2004) added that, motivation influences our
behavior and our ability to accomplish goals. Curvin (2004) opined that, motivation is directly
proportional to productivity. He added that, unless employees are highly disciplined they won’t
be productive if they were not motivated. Curvin (2004) continued that, there are many different
forms of motivation and each one influences behavior in its own unique way. He explained

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further that, no single type of motivation works for everyone and that, people’s personalities vary
and so accordingly does the type of motivation, that is most effective at inspiring their conduct.
The following are some of the types of motivation:

 Achievement

This is the motivation of a person to attain goals (Bouma, 2003). The longing for achievement is
inherent in every man, but not all persons look to achievement as their motivation. They are
motivated by a goal. In order to attain that goal, they are willing to go as far as possible (Bouma,
2003). The complexity of the goal is determined by a person's perception. To us, the terms
"simple" and "complex" are purely relative. What one person thinks is an easy goal to
accomplish may seem to be impossible to another person. However, if your motivation is
achievement, you will find that your goals will grow increasingly complex as time goes by
(Bouma, 2003).

 Socialization

Carr (2005) indicated that, some people consider socialization to be their main motivation for
actions. This is especially evident in the situation of peer pressure. Some people are willing to do
anything to be treated as an equal within a group structure. The idea of being accepted among a
group of people is their motivation for doing certain things (Carr, 2005).

 Incentive Motivation

This motivation involves rewards (Carsely, 2000). People who believe that they will receive
rewards for doing something are motivated to do everything they can to reach a certain goal
(Carsely, 2000). While achievement motivation is focused on the goal itself, incentive
motivation is driven by the fact that the goal will give people benefits. Incentive motivation is
used in companies through bonuses and other types of compensation for additional work
(Carsely, 2000).

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  Leadership Opportunities

Riel (2010) indicated that, if organizations cannot offer raises to top-performing employees, they
can still give them compensation in the form of leadership opportunities. He added that,
promoting best employees to positions of higher authority can inspire them to continue their
excellent work. Riel (2010) stated again that, this could help retain great employees by
presenting them with new challenges. Those who get bored in their current positions might soon
look elsewhere for more dynamic work opportunities (Riel, 2010).

 Recognition

Babbie (2004) highlighted that, recognition of a job well-done is a great way to inspire
employees. Recognition costs managers nothing and, to employees that feel under-appreciated,
can mean everything. Babbie (2004) added that, praise doesn't need to be lavish or excessive, but
one should keep track of employee achievement and publicly recognize it.

 Properly assigned tasks

Babbie (2004) commented that, if the human resources department did a poor job in assigning
the right person to the right place then employees may lose motivation. He added that, after all
someone who is over qualified for a job or who feels that he deserves better than his current
position will not be motivated to work.

 Employee Appraisals

Smith (2010) on his part indicated that, employee appraisal is very important, it anchors the
reward the employee gets to his good performance and so it motivates him or her to do his or her
best. Smith (2010) added that, appraisal should be done according to the employee's needs and
not according to the company policy.

 Meeting Employees Expectations

Baker (2005) stated that, if the employee did something good and expected something in return
and then got less than what he expected he may lose motivation. Baker (2005) added that,

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organizations should make sure to assess the expectations of their employees in order to satisfy
them.

Ivy (2001) on her part summarized that, appreciation or recognition for a job well done, being in
the know about company matters, an understanding attitude from the management, job security,
good wages, interesting work, career advancement opportunities, loyalty from management,
good working conditions and tactful discipline were factors that motivated employees in
organizations.

2.1.10 Motivation and Money

Money, in the form of pay or some other sort of remuneration, is the most obvious extrinsic
reward. Money seems to provide the carrot most people want. Doubts were cast on the
effectiveness of money by Herzberg et al (1957) because, they claimed, while the lack of it can
cause dissatisfaction, its provision does not result in lasting satisfaction.

There is something in this, especially for people on fixed salaries or rates of pay who do not
benefit directly from an incentive scheme. They may feel good when they get an increase; apart
from the extra money, it is a highly tangible form of recognition and an effective means of
helping people to feel that they are valued. But this feeling of euphoria can rapidly die away.

Other dissatisfactions from Herzberg’s list of hygiene factors, such as working conditions or the
quality of management, can loom larger in some people’s minds when they fail to get the
satisfaction they need from the work itself. However, it must be re-emphasized that different
people have different needs and wants. Some will be much more motivated by money than
others. What cannot be assumed is that money motivates everyone in the same way and to the
same extent. Thus it is naïve to think that the introduction of a performance-related pay scheme
will miraculously transform everyone overnight into well-motivated, high-performing
individuals. Nevertheless, money is a powerful force because it is linked directly or indirectly to
the satisfaction of many needs. Money may in itself have no intrinsic meaning, but it acquires
significant motivating power because it comes to symbolize so many intangible goals. It acts as a
symbol in different ways for different people, and for the same person at different times.

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But do financial incentives motivate people? The answer is yes, for those people who are
strongly motivated by money and whose expectations that they will receive a financial reward
are high. But less confident employees may not respond to incentives that they do not expect to
achieve. It can also be argued that extrinsic rewards may erode intrinsic interest – people who
work just for money could find their tasks less pleasurable and may not, therefore, do them so
well. What we do know is that a multiplicity of factors is involved in performance improvements
and many of those factors are interdependent.

Money can therefore provide positive motivation in the right circumstances not only because
people need and want money but also because it serves as a highly tangible means of
recognition. But badly designed and managed pay systems can demotivate. Another researcher in
this area was Jaques (1961), who emphasized the need for such systems to be perceived as being
fair and equitable. In other words, the reward should be clearly related to effort or level of
responsibility and people should not receive less money than they deserve compared with their
fellow workers. Jaques called this the ‘felt-fair’ principle.

2.2 THEORERICAL FRAMEWORK

2.2.1 Motivation Theories

Motivation theories fall into two main categories:

Content theories and Process theories

Content theories of motivation: It explain the dynamics of employee needs, such as why people
have different needs at different times. By understanding an employee’s needs, we can discover
what motivates that person. The main contain theories are: Maslow’s needs hierarchy, Alderfer’s
ERG theory, McClelland’s achievement motivation and Herzberg.

Process theories of motivation: It describes the process through which needs are translated into
behavior. Specifically, process theories explain why someone with a particular need engage in a
particular direction, intensity, and persistence of effort to reduce the need tension.

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2.2.2 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

The need hierarchy illustrates Maslow’s conception of people satisfying their needs in a
specified order, from bottom to top.

According to Maslow, people are motivated to satisfy the lower needs before they try to satisfy
lower needs. Also, once a need is satisfied, it is no longer a powerful motivator. It is only after
the physiological and safety needs are reasonably satisfied do the higher level needs, social
esteem and self-actualization become dominant concerns.

Below is a diagrammatic representation of Professor Abraham Maslow’s need hierarchy theory.

1. Physiological Needs: These needs are basic to human life and, hence, include food,
clothing, shelter, air, water and necessities of life. These needs relate to the survival and
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 maintenance of human life. They exert tremendous influence on human behavior. These
needs are to meet first at least partly before higher level needs emerge. Once
physiological needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate the man.
2. Safety Needs: After satisfying the physiological needs, the next needs felt are called
safety and security needs. These needs find expression in such desires as economic
security and protection from physical dangers. Meeting these need needs requires more
money and, hence, the individual is prompted to work more. Like physiological needs,
these become inactive once they are satisfied.
3. Social Needs: Man is a social being. He is, therefore, interested in social interaction,
companionship, belongingness, etc. It is this socializing and belongingness why
individuals prefer to work in groups and especially order people go to work.
4. Esteem Needs: These needs refer to self-esteem and self-respect. They include such
needs which indicate self-confidence, achievement, competence, knowledge and
independence. The fulfillment of esteem needs leads to self-confidence, strength and
capability of being useful in the organization. However, inability to fulfill these needs
results in feeling like inferiority, weakness and helplessness.
5. Self-Actualization Needs: This level represents the culmination of all the lower,
intermediate, and higher needs of human beings. In other words, the final step under the
need hierarchy model is the need for self-actualization. This refers to fulfillment.

The term self-actualization was coined by Kurt Goldstein and means to become
actualized in what one is potentially good at. In effect, self- actualization is the person’s
motivation to transform perception of self into reality.

According to Maslow, the human needs follow a definite sequence of domination. The
second need does not arise until the first is reasonably satisfied, and the third need does
not emerge until the first two needs have been reasonably satisfied and it goes on. The
other side of the need hierarchy is that human needs are unlimited. However, Maslow’s
need hierarchy-theory is not without its detractors.

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The main criticisms of the theory include the following:

1. The needs may or may not follow a definite hierarchical order. So to say, there may be
overlapping in need hierarchy. For example, even if safety need is not satisfied, the social need
may emerge.

2. The need priority model may not apply at all times in all places.

3. Researches show that man’s behavior at any time is mostly guided by multiplicity of behavior.
Hence, Maslow’s preposition that one need is satisfied at one time is also of doubtful validity.

4. In case of some people, the level of motivation may be permanently lower. For example, a
person suffering from chronic unemployment may remain satisfied for the rest of his life if only
he/she can get enough food.

2.2.3 McClelland’s Need Theory:

Another well-known need-based theory of motivation, as opposed to hierarchy of needs of

satisfaction-dissatisfaction, is the theory developed by McClelland and his associates’.

McClelland developed his theory based on Henry Murray’s developed long list of motives and
manifest needs used in his early studies of personality. McClelland’s need-theory is closely
associated with learning theory, because he believed that needs are learned or acquired by the
kinds of events people experienced in their environment and culture.

He found that people who acquire a particular need behave differently from those who do not
have. His theory focuses on Murray’s three needs; achievement, power and affiliation.

In the literature, these three needs are abbreviated “n Ach”, “n Pow”, and “n Aff” respectively’.

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They are defined as follows:

 Need for Achievement:

This is the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standard, and to strive to succeed. In
other words, need for achievement is a behavior directed toward competition with a standard of
excellence. McClelland found that people with a high need for achievement perform better than
those with a moderate or low need for achievement, and noted regional / national differences in
achievement motivation.

Through his research, McClelland identified the following three characteristics of high-
need achievers:

1. High-need achievers have a strong desire to assume personal responsibility for performing a
task for finding a solution to a problem.

2. High-need achievers tend to set moderately difficult goals and take calculated risks.

3. High-need achievers have a strong desire for performance feedback.

The need for power is concerned with making an impact on others, the desire to influence others,
the urge to change people, and the desire to make a difference in life. People with a high need for
power are people who like to be in control of people and events. This results in ultimate
satisfaction to man.

People who have a high need for power are characterized by:

1. A desire to influence and direct somebody else.

2. A desire to exercise control over others.

3. A concern for maintaining leader-follower relations.

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  Need for Affiliation:

The need for affiliation is defined as a desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm
relations with other people’. The need for affiliation, in many ways, is similar to Maslow’s social
needs.

The people with high need for affiliation have these characteristics:

1. They have a strong desire for acceptance and approval from others.

2. They tend to conform to the wishes of those people whose friendship and companionship they
value.

3. They value the feelings of others.

2.2.4 Herzberg’s Motivator – Hygiene Theory

Herzberg proposes that employees are primarily motivated by growth and esteem needs, such as
recognition, responsibility, advancement, achievement, and personal growth. These factors are
called motivators because employees experience job satisfaction when they are received and
therefore motivated to obtain them.

In contrast, factors extrinsic to the work, called hygiene, affect the extent that employees feel job
dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors include job security, working condition, money, status, company
policies, co-worker relations, and supervisor relations. Improving hygiene will reduce job
dissatisfaction, but they will have almost no effect on job satisfaction or employee motivation.

A unique characteristic of motivator-hygiene theory is that it does not view job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction as opposites: improving motivators increase job satisfaction, but it does not
decrease job dissatisfaction. Improving hygiene reduces job dissatisfaction but it does not
increase job satisfaction. (Mcshane and Glinow: 2000). Both hygiene and motivator factors must
be present in order for true motivation to occur (Rue and Byars: 2000)

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2.2.5 Alderfer’s Erg Theory

The ERG theory was propounded by Clayton Alderfer in 1972 as a quick response to the lack of

empirical evidence for the hierarchy of motives presented by Maslow in 1970. His objective was

to align it more closely with empirical research. Notwithstanding, Alderfer version of the needs

theory was built on the ideas of Maslow. Many attempts have been made to classify needs

because of the long standing debate as to how many categories of needs exist. Some claim there

are only two needs while others say there are seven. ERG is a well-known simplification.

Clayton Alderfer reorganizes Maslow’s needs hierarchy into three levels: existence

(Physiological and safety), Relatedness (social) and Growth (esteem and self-actualization).

Alderfer maintains the higher and the lower order needs who agrees with Maslow that unsatisfied

needs motivate individuals. The ERG he defined as; Existence, Relatedness and Growth.

Existence Needs:

Clayton Alderfer defined as including all basic material existence requirements (Maslow’s
physiological and safety needs).

Relatedness Needs:

Clayton Alderfer referred to as the quest of people to maintain interpersonal relationship with
other people-family members, colleagues, bosses and subordinates. He explains further by saying
people satisfy this need by sharing thoughts and feelings (Maslow’s social/love need and the
external component of his esteem need).

Growth Needs:

Clayton Alderfer referred to as what impels a person to be creative or have an impact on his/her
environment thus, the desire for personal development. He was of the opinion that this level of
needs can be catered for by engaging in challenges that demands that you use your skills or
require that you initiate new ones (Maslow’s esteem need and self-actualization).

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Therefore, based on Maslow’s work managers or leaders are expected to meet the lower-level
needs of their employees so that they will not dominate the employee’s motivational process.
Management should get to know the people’s needs and to meet them as a means of increasing
performance. According to Maslow an individual would stay at a certain need level until that
need was satisfied but ERG theory demonstrates that more than one need may be operative at the
same time. Maslow’s theory has been supportive in the field of research but there is little
evidence for Maslow’s ranking of these needs and even less evidence that these needs are in a
hierarchical order and his definition of self-actualization is difficult to test scientifically.

In Alderfer ERG model, focusing exclusively on one need at a time will not motivate your
people. The frustration-regression principle impacts workplace motivation. For example, if
growth opportunities are not provided to employees, they may regress to relatedness needs, and
socialize more with co-workers. If you can recognize these conditions early, steps can be taken
to satisfy the frustrated needs until the employee is able to pursue growth again. Maslow’s need
hierarchy theory can be fulfilled one by one but Alderfer says these can be fulfilled
simultaneously.

2.2.6 McGregor’s Theory X and Y

Douglas McGregor (1960) produced his analysis of the different views about people and how
they should be motivated. Theory X is the traditional view that the average human dislikes work
and wishes to avoid responsibility and that, therefore, ‘most people must be coerced, controlled,
directed, threatened with punishment to get them to put forward adequate effort towards
organizational objectives’.

The specific philosophical assumption of theory X leaders are:

 By their very nature, people do not like to work and will avoid it whenever possible.
 Workers have little ambition, try to avoid responsibility, and like to be directed.
 The primary need of employees is job security.

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  To get people to attain organizational objectives, it is necessary to use coercion, control,
and threats of punishment.

In contrast, theory Y emphasizes that under the right condition people will not only work hard
but will seek increased responsibility and challenge. In addition, a great deal of creative potential
basically goes untapped, believes Theory Y, and if these abilities can be tapped, workers will
provide much higher quantity and quality of output. The specific philosophical assumptions of
Theory Y leaders are:

 The expenditure of physical and mental effort at work is as natural to people as resting or
playing.
 External control and threats of punishment are not the only ways of getting people to
work toward organizational objective. If people are committed to the goals, they will
exercise self-direction and self-control.
 Commitment to objectives is determined by the rewards that are association with their
achievement.
 Under proper conditions, the average human being learns not only to accept but to seek
responsibility.
 The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity
in the solution of the organizational problems is widely distributed throughout the
population.
 Under conditions of modern industrial life, intellectual life, the intellectual potential of
the average human being is only partially tapped.

2.2.7 Vroom Expectancy theory of motivation

The expectancy approach to motivation was developed by victor H. vroom. The expectancy
approach postulates that an employee’s level of motivation depends on three basic beliefs:
expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.

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  Expectancy

Employees perception of the likelihood that their efforts will enable them to attain their
desirable performance goals.

 Instrumentality

The perceived likelihood that performance will be followed by a particular favorable outcome.

 Valence:

The value an outcome holds for the employee contemplating it.

Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory

 Increase expectancies: provide a work environment that facilitates good performance, and
set realistically attainable performance goals provide training, support, and
encouragement so that people are confident they can perform at the levels expected to
them.
 Identify positively valent outcomes: Understand what people want to get out of work.
Think about what their jobs provide them and what does not provide but could be
provided.
 Make performance instrumental toward positive outcomes: Make sure that good
performance is followed by personal recognition and praise, favorable performance
reviews, pay increases, and other positive results

Impact of Expectancy Theory on Motivation

For motivation to be high, expectancy, instrumentalities, and total valence of all outcomes must
be high. An employee will not be highly motivated if

 He believes he can’t perform well enough to achieve the positive outcomes that he knows
the organization provides to good performers (high valence and high instrumentality but
low expectancy).

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  He knows he can do the job, and want the favorable outcome: But he believes that no
matter how well he performs, the outcomes will not be forthcoming (high expectancy,
and positive valences but low instrumentality).
 He knows he can do the job, and is fairly certain what the ultimate outcomes will be:
However, he doesn’t want those outcomes (high expectancy and high instrumentality but
low valence) (Bateman and snell, 2004).

2.2.8 Goal Setting Theory of Motivation

Goal theory as developed by Latham and Locke (1979) states that motivation and performance
are higher when individuals are set specific goals, when goals are difficult but accepted, and
when there is feedback on performance. Participation in goal setting is important as a means of
getting agreement to the setting of higher goals. Difficult goals must be agreed and their
achievement reinforced by guidance and advice. Finally, feedback is vital in maintaining
motivation, particularly towards the achievement of even higher goals.

Goal theory is in line with the 1960s concept of management by objectives (a process of
managing, motivating and appraising people by setting objectives or goals and measuring
performance against those objectives). But management by objectives or MBO fell into disrepute
because it was tackled bureaucratically without gaining the real support of those involved and,
importantly, without ensuring that managers were aware of the significance of the processes of
agreement, reinforcement and feedback, and were skilled in practising them.

2.2.9 Equity Theory

Another group of process theories - equity theories, are related to the distribution of resources.
There are three main aspects that are common for all equity theories.

Firstly, they suggest that employee perceive a fair return for his/her contribution at work.
Secondly, they imply that employees compare the return they received to the return received by
other employees for the same job. Finally, they assume that employees who are in inequitable
position comparing to others will try to do something to reduce the difference (Carrell &
Dittrich,1978). The most influential and often cited in the literature of motivation is the Equity
theory, which was put forward in 1963 by Adams. The theory distinguishes between employee’s

35
inputs and outputs. Inputs are understood as the number and value of contributions that person
make to his or her work. On the other hand, outputs are described as the nature and quantity of
received rewards for doing the job (Pinder,1998). According to Adam’s theory different
employees stress different inputs and outcomes as the most important for them.

However, all people evaluate their outcomes in a relation to their inputs and judge a fairness of
this relation. The theory that people not only evaluate the equity by comparing the amount of
their inputs and outputs but they also make social comparisons with other people. They feel that
they are not treated fairly if other people receive better outputs for the same job. Thus,
employees who encounter inequity try to do something to reduce it. The equity theory presents
the most common consequences of perceived inequity. The first and the most common behaviour
is changing employee’s own effort to increase or reduce performance. If it is not possible to
solve the problem of unfairness by changing effort, then employee try to cognitively re-evaluate
outcomes and inputs. That means for example reconsideration of own credentials or effort in a
comparison to credentials or effort of a person who was chosen as a referent. The inequity may
lead to some dysfunctional reactions such as stealing from employer. Finally, employee may
simply decide to withdraw from a company (Pinder, 1998). Other motivation theories are.

2.2.9 Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory as developed by Bandura (1977) combines aspects of both behavioural
and expectancy theory. It recognizes the significance of the basic behavioural concept of
reinforcement as a determinant of future behaviour but also emphasizes the importance of
internal psychological factors, especially expectancies about the value of goals and the
individual’s ability to reach them. The term ‘reciprocal determinism’ is used to denote the
concept that while the situation will affect individual behaviour, individuals will simultaneously
influence the situation. Robertson and Cooper (1983) have pointed out that ‘there are many
similarities between social learning theory and expectancy theory in their joint emphasis on
expectancies, individual goals and values and the influence of both person and situational
factors’.

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2.2.10 Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

The Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by B.F skinner and his associates. This
theory posits that behaviour is the function of its consequences, which means an individual
develops a behaviour after performing certain actions.

The reinforcement theory of motivation is based on the “Law of Effect” concept, i.e. an
individual is likely to repeat those actions having the positive consequences, and will avoid those
behaviours that result in negative or unpleasant outcomes. The behaviours that elicit
consequences is called as operant behaviours and reinforcement theory work on the relationship
between the operant behaviour and the associated consequences and, therefore, is often called as
operant conditioning. Operant conditioning means, the change in the behaviour caused due to the
reinforcement (positive reward or punishment) given after the response. The reinforcement
theory lay emphasis on the environmental factors that shape the behaviours and thus, skinner
believed that environment external to the organisation must be designed effectively so as to
increase the motivation among the employees.

Thus, the reinforcement theory of motivation mainly focuses on what happens when an
individual takes some action. It is observed, that people tend to repeat those activities which
gives them pleasure and avoid the activities with negative consequences.

2.2.11 Intrinsic Motivation Theory

Intrinsic motivation can arise from the self-generated factors that influence people’s behaviour.
Intrinsic motivation theory was propounded by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci. It is not created
by external incentives. It can take the form of motivation by the work itself when individuals feel
that their work is important, interesting and challenging and provides them with a reasonable
degree of autonomy (freedom to act), opportunities to achieve and advance, and scope to use and
develop their skills and abilities.

Deci and Ryan (1985) suggested that intrinsic motivation is based on the needs to be competent
and self-determining (that is, to have a choice). Intrinsic motivation can be enhanced by job or
role design. According to an early writer on the significance of the motivational impact of job
design (Katz, 1964): ‘The job itself must provide sufficient variety, sufficient complexity,

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sufficient challenge and sufficient skill to engage the abilities of the worker.’ In their job
characteristics model, Hackman and Oldham (1974) emphasized the importance of the core job
dimensions as motivators, namely skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and
feedback.

2.2.12 Extrinsic Motivation Theory

Extrinsic motivation occurs when things are done to or for people to motivate them. These
include rewards, such as incentives, increased pay, praise, or promotion; and punishments,

such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or criticism. Extrinsic motivation theory was
propounded by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci.

Extrinsic motivators can have an immediate and powerful effect, but will not necessarily last
long. The intrinsic motivators, which are concerned with the ‘quality of working life’ (a phrase
and movement that emerged from this concept), are likely to have a deeper and longer-term
effect because they are inherent in individuals and their work and not imposed from outside in
such forms as incentive pay.

2.2.13 The Carrot and Stick Theory of Motivation

In talking about motivational theories and motivators, one rarely hear reference to “the carrot and
stick” approach. This is due to the approach’s inefficiently in the present industries. The carrot
and stick approach of motivation is based on the principles of reinforcement and is given by
philosopher Jeremy Bentham, during the industrial revolution.

In all theories of motivation, the inducement brought by some kind of “carrot” are recognized.
Often this money in form of pay or bonuses, however, money is now considered not to be the
strongest motivator, though it is still an important factor. The major problem with this approach
is that everyone gets carrot regardless of performance through such practices as salary increases,
promotion by seniority, automatic “merit” increases, and executive bonuses not based on

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individual manager performance. The “stick” in form of fear, be it of loss of job, income,
reduction of bonuses, demotion etc. has been and will continue to be a strong motivator.

However, it is accepted not to be the best kind. It often promotes unionism, poor quality
workmanship, failure of managers to take risk in decision making, dishonesty etc. as a form of
retaliator or defensive behaviour. But then, penalty cannot be overloaded. Most managers still
adopt the “stick” by withholding rewards and imposing penalties of different kinds in order to
exercise control, to a great extent, the social and economic well-being of their subordinates.

2.2.15 Instrumentality Theory

Instrumentality is the belief that if we do one thing it will lead to another. In its crudest form,
instrumentality theory states that people only work for money.

The theory emerged in the second half of the 19th century with its emphasis on the need to
rationalize work and on economic outcomes. It assumes that people will be motivated to work if
rewards and penalties are tied directly to their performance; thus the awards are contingent upon
effective performance. Instrumentality theory has its roots in the scientific management methods of
Taylor (1911), who wrote: ‘It is impossible, through any long period of time, to get workmen to work
much harder than the average men around them unless they are assured a large and permanent
increase in their pay.

This theory provides a rationale for incentive pay, albeit a dubious one. It is based on the principle of
reinforcement. Motivation using this approach has been and still is widely adopted and can be
successful in some circumstances. But it is based exclusively on a system of external controls and
fails to recognize a number of other human needs. It also fails to appreciate the fact that the formal
control system can be seriously affected by the informal relationship existing between workers.

2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Several researchers have examined factors that motivate workers and their subsequent impact
their work performance. This section presents a review of some most recent empirical studies on
motivation and job performance in various industries including education.

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Aiyetan and Oltuah (2006) conducted a research on the relationship between motivation and
performance of workers in the Nigerian construction industry. The purpose was to identify a
number of motivational schemes that enhance the performance of two types of workers:
construction workers and office workers. The study used two sets of questionnaires: one set was
administered on management staff and the other on non-management staff (operatives). The
study revealed that salaries paid to operatives in the study were below the stipulations of the
Nigerian National Joint Industry Council. It further showed that operatives are rarely promoted,
and operatives prefer financial incentives to non-financial incentives. The study recommended
that increases in salary via promotion, overtime allowances and holidays with pay should be used
as motivators (financial incentives) for increase in performance of construction workers
(operatives).

A study on motivation was undertaken in Sweden by Edlund and Nilsson (2007) and focused on
the factors managers use to motivate employees and differences regarding gender and age in
medium-sized Swedish enterprises. A qualitative case study methodology was used to interview
managers in two companies in Northern Sweden. The findings showed that motivation was an
individual thing and managers have a hard task motivating their employees. It also found that
employees of today are more motivated by intrinsic factors rather than extrinsic factors which
were dominant in the past. However, none of the two sets of factors should be overlooked by
managers when motivating employees. The most unusual finding in that study concerning gender
and age was that managers do not motivate their employees differently with reference to gender
and age.

Calista (2009) examined motivation through incentive programs in Singapore on 380 white
collar workers, using questionnaire administered online. The results of the showed that
incentives had a very strong motivational potential influence on employees’ willingness work
harder. The three motivating factors were interpersonal relationship, workplace environment and
interesting work, all of which have the potential to motivate employees at higher levels. For
long-term motivation, job related factors such as meaningful work, flexible working hours, and
friendly social gestures were found to be effective motivators, while monetary, social gathering,
tangible items such as awards, certificates and gifts were most effective motivators for short-
term.

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A Ghanaian study was conducted on motivation by Kwasi (2010). The purpose of the study was
to examine factors of motivation that will lead to employees being highly motivated for
increased performance at the workplace with particular reference to the Building and Road
Research Institute (BRRI). It surveyed a sample of workers using a questionnaire and data was
analysed using SPPS package. The results of the study indicated that elements such as
empowering employees and involving workers’ in decision making played an important role in
motivating employees.

Both financial and non-financial incentives were seen to influence motivation. However, the
study found the main motivating factors were community recognition/appreciation, fairness in
performance assessment, reward system and education. Akah (2010) conducted study of
motivation in Ultimate Companion Limited, Douala, Cameroon. Its purpose was to examine
factors that motivate employee’s in order to have increased performance within the company. It
surveyed a sample of 74 employees in the company and data analysed using descriptive
statistics. The study found that employees at Ultimate companion limited had an overall fair job
satisfaction. The employees are not satisfied with their current salary situation at the company
which illustrate that financial motivation was important within a company.

The findings equally showed that majority of the employees are motivated most to perform when
they receive non-financial rewards. Also, majority of the employees showed a great intrinsic
value for higher performance. Finally, the study recommended that the management at Ultimate
companion limited should use multiple motivational strategy in order to achieve greater
performance from the employees.

Nadim et al. (2012), conducted a research on Effects of Motivational Factors on Teachers’ Job
Satisfaction in public sector degree colleges of Punjab, Pakistan. The objective of this study is to
analyse the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors on teacher job satisfaction in
public sector degree colleges of Punjab, Pakistan. Data was collected from 406 respondents from
public sector colleges in the Punjab. SEM was used to test the hypotheses using AMOS package.

The results of the study revealed that there is significant positive relationship between intrinsic
motivational factors and teacher job satisfaction. Similarly, statistically significant positive
relationship is also found between extrinsic motivational factors and teacher job satisfaction. It

41
also found that extrinsic and intrinsic factors have a positive impact on teachers’ performance at
public colleges has however, it is found that teacher job satisfaction in largely caused by intrinsic
motivational factors as compare to extrinsic motivational factors Kiruja and Mukuru (2012)
conducted seeking to establish the effect of motivation on employee performance in the Public
Middle Level Technical Training Institutions in Kenya. The study used structured questionnaire
and interview to collect data. It found that employees are not satisfied with their pay and work
environment.

Limitations: the study was conducted in one county and therefore cannot be generalized in other
public and private institutions.

Afful-Broni et al. (2012) conducted study about the relationship between motivation factors and
employee performance in the education sector in Nigeria. Their study pointed out that income
level in the organisation impact positively on the employee performance.

Abdulsalam et al. (2012) further found both positive and negative relationship between
motivation and performance among academic staff in Pakistan universities.

Lamptey, Lamptey and Atwini (2013) carried out a study on motivation and Performance of
Librarians in Public Universities in Ghana. The study using a questionnaire surveyed seventy-
two librarians in six public universities in Ghana.

The study revealed that the motivational level of librarians in public universities in Ghana is high
and that the motivational level affects majority of librarians positively. That is, both intrinsic and
extrinsic factors that motivate librarians in public universities in Ghana.

2.4 SUMMARY OF THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter attempts to review the relevant contribution made by notable theorists, scholars, and
researcher towards the understanding of the concept of motivation. The relevant issue raised in
the Maslow’s Need Hierarchy is that needs are arranged in a hierarchical form and once a need is
satisfied, it loses its potency as a motivating force until it again becomes manifest. He identified
5 categories of good people pursue, which are, physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness
needs, esteem needs, and self-actualisation needs.

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Adam’s Equity Theory suggests that an employee compares his pay and other job outcomes to
those of other employees with a similar job or with similar qualification. He suggests that a
person can reduce inequity as far as possible in a manner that will yield him greater outcomes.

Vroom’s Expectancy theory suggests that a person’s motivation to perform in a particular way
will be influenced by his expectances of the outcomes associated with performing at that level
and the attractiveness of the expected outcomes. The model predicts that people will choose to
behave in whatever way they receive the highest motivating force for them.

According to Aldefer’s theory, unlike Maslow’s model, the ERG theory which means existence,
relatedness and growth, does not assumed the satisfaction of lower level needs as a prerequisite
for the initiation of higher-level needs.

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