Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure

of Constructivist Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching.

Kirschner, Sweller and Clark (2006) have argued, pedagogy that involves minimal guidance is

not the most effective way of maximizing student learning. Students who do not have

prerequisite knowledge and are taught using minimal guidance, are more likely to resort to

seeking out information and constructing their own solutions to problems; potentially acting as

a distraction from the original goals set by the lesson. Kirschner et al., (2016) have defined

learning as, “a change in long-term memory” (p. 75). Changes in long term memory are less

likely to occur if working memory has been overloaded by an individual seeking out their own

understandings and information (Kirschner et al., 2016). My Key Learning Area (KLA) is

music, for students to gain the most from my lessons, I must consider that problem-based

pedagogical approaches with minimal instruction, might lead to an overload in working

memory. This essay will discuss the article and appraise its pedagogical approaches that use

guided instruction to reduce cognitive load. However, if learning is defined as a change in long

term memory, there needs to be a balance between guided and minimal instruction. Using an

activity from New South Wales Education Standards Authority (NESA), this essay will

demonstrate how a teacher needs to create a balance between guided and minimal instruction,

to encourage students to be more creative and musically independent.

This article uses an analysis on problem-based pedagogical approaches in North American

medical schools. Twenty years prior to this article, medical schools adopted problem-based

learning approaches, with minimal guidance as the primary form of teaching. For the students

in the medical schools, minimal guidance led to “lower basic science exam scores, no

difference in residency selections, and more study hours each day” (p. 82). If students are

producing lower test scores and requiring longer times for study, then it is highly likely that
there is an overload in students working memory. The article uses evidence involving cognition

to support this study. When learning new information, the mind must navigate its way through

a complex environment, often creating heavy working memory loads (Kirschner et al., 2006).

The working memory is limited and cannot store enormous amounts of information. For the

medical students, if there is no prerequisite knowledge of content, minimal guidance was

ineffective because students were not using limited working memory on learning. Tsai (2011)

reinforces this argument by suggesting, minimal instruction requires students to develop self-

management skills in addition to learning new tasks.

The article suggests the most effective way of developing a schema for new information is

“guiding the selection of relevant information and screening out of irrelevant information”

(Kirschner et al., 2006, p. 83). This can be achieved through worked examples and process

worksheets. Worked examples direct students through a series of instructions, allowing them

to come to conclusions. Kirschner et al., (2006) highlight the advantages of using worked

examples, suggesting that it directs the student’s attention and removes irrelevant information.

The worked example has a similar approach to chunking. Cowan (2016) describes chunking as

grouping together ideas in linear patterns, making a reduction on the amount, and variety the

working memory retains. Cowan (2016) states, “new chunks that form in working memory …

may be potent precisely because they are quickly stored in long-term memory” (p. 70). This

quote suggests that working memory wants to bundle information together to reduce cognitive

load. The article appraises the concept of process worksheets. A process worksheet is like a

worked example however, it gives students hints and clues for completing the task. Hummel,

Paas & Koper (2004) reinforce this approach, stating that the use of hints “serve as cues to

chunk a set of steps together and encourage a learner to explain why the steps are grouped

together” (p. 389). Based on the research the article has provided, worked examples and process
worksheets are more effective than minimal instruction approaches because they focus the

working memory on a few select tasks.

I have chosen to discuss a lesson activity from, ‘Music Years 7–10 Life Skills unit: Australian

Music’. The activity is, “Teacher assists students to play chordal accompaniment or bass line

to selected songs, eg ‘Click go the shears’ (A D E) or ‘Botany Bay’ (C F G)” (Education

Standards, 2018, p. 6). In addition to this activity, students may be allowed to sing the vocal

melodies to the example songs, as well as experiment with percussion. Students may also be

allowed to “dramatize the song, using instruments/vocals to add meaning” (Education

Standards, 2018, p. 6). This activity is for students in years 7–10. For some students in years

7–8 they might struggle to play chordal accompaniment and/or a bass line. This is because

music is not a compulsory subject for years 7-8 and some students may not have had prior

musical experience. For students in years 9–10, there is a higher expectation that students have

prior musical experience. This is because music is an elective and a pathway course to stage 6

music. Some students in years 9-10 might have limited knowledge of chord construction and

bass accompaniment, both of which serve as harmonic accompaniment to songs. Students who

play instruments that only use one melody i.e. vocals, trumpet, saxophone, might have a limited

understanding of harmonic accompaniment. Playing a chordal accompaniment or bass line for

some students, might create a high cognitive load. This is because the student is, “translating

the product into corresponding motor commands” (Nutley, Darki & Klingberg, 2014, p. 2).

How a teacher chooses to instruct their students will have an impact on how effectively the

classroom learns.

Using information from the article, this activity would be more effective if the teacher uses a

guided instructor approach. One addition to the activity that I believe is important is providing
students with notated musical scores. However, a teacher simply providing the musical score

with no guidance and instructions will hinder the learning process. It was suggested in the

article that the pedagogical approaches of worked examples and process worksheets are an

effective form of guided instruction. Kirschner et al., (2006) state for worked examples, “the

effect relies on controlled experiments” (p. 80). To reduce cognitive load, I would begin by

separating the activity into a combination of learning exercises. Kirshner et al., (2006) have

suggested process worksheets can provide hints, clues and descriptions on how to solve

difficult problems. Combining worked examples and process worksheets will act as a way of

separating the cognitive load into smaller exercises. The song ‘Click Go the Sheers’ uses the

chords A, D and E. I would first have to explain the chords, show how to play them on piano

and guitar, then show the students how to read a chord diagram. For novice students who are

new to chord construction, there would be a worksheet with incomplete diagrams of guitar and

piano chords, using information provided by myself and the worksheet. The student would

have to fill in the notes to complete the chords. The worksheet can be used as a chord chart

with the completed diagrams filled in. The same principal applies for bass, I would have to

show the students how to play the bass line, followed by an exercise sheet. With this idea in

mind I could have a worksheet with musical bars completed and musical bars that are

incomplete, the students must fill in the musical notes using the information provided by the

worksheet. Bokosmaty, Sweller and Kalyuga (2015) have also suggested, gradually increasing

the difficulty by removing guided instruction could stimulate learning. In my worksheets, I

could gradually swap incomplete information for proper unguided music questions.

By the end of the year 7-10 syllabus for music, students must meet the outcome, “5.3 performs

music selected for study with appropriate stylistic features demonstrating solo and ensemble

awareness” (Education standards, 2003, p. 51). By having the students perform the song, the
students would be working towards the final outcomes required in year 10. To build a song to

a confident performance level, I would use the work sheet to separate the song into sections.

Allowing the students to isolate and practice each section. The article has stated that learning

is altering a person’s long-term memory. In addition to instruction students need time to

independently learn and practice, Kirschner et al., (2006) suggest learning is reorganising

thinking, through acquiring the appropriate schema. Students playing confidently and

memorising the musical score could be considered reorganised and altered information. Before

getting my students to perform the song as an ensemble, they are going to need to practice

chord changes, bass lines and vocal melodies. Students would also have to practice playing the

music with accuracy and a good sense of timing. I need to allocate time for the students to

practice. I can use guided instruction however, it is the student who independently needs to

learn the song. Neuroplasticity is the scientific belief that the human brain can reorganize the

way it thinks by strengthening neural pathways. This requires independent learning, the student

must create and strengthen their own neural pathways, allowing them to play with automation.

This idea is reinforced with Maino, (2009) he argued, “Repetition matters, Plasticity that results

in functional change requires repetition” (p. 64). During this activity it is important that I make

myself available to students who need help, but it is important not to spoon-feed students with

too much information. To make changes to neuroplasticity guided instruction needs to be

reinforced with individual repetition of exercises. Hill, Cromartie and McGinnis (2014)

reinforce this idea, “when repetition stops or when a neural pathway ceases to be frequented,

plasticity results in the pruning away of unused connections” (p. 42). Guidance is important

however, to change long-term memory I need to allocate time for independent learning.

The activity also wanted the students to experiment with percussion and dramatize the song.

By the time students finish stage five, there is an expectation that they have met the outcome,
“5.4 demonstrates an understanding of the musical concepts through improvising, arranging

and composing in the styles or genres of music selected for study” (Educational Standards,

2003, p. 51). Experimenting and dramatizing can be viewed as forms of divergent thinking.

Divergent thinking involves many ways of solving one problem. Divergent thinking is different

to worked examples and process worksheets because it encourages multiple solutions to one

problem. I believe as a teacher, I can facilitate and guide exercises to encourage creative

thinking, but students should be encouraged to think for themselves. Kamp et al., (20140

reinforce this idea stating students “should be able to perceive that they themselves can use

these strategies in actual creative and divergent processes” (p. 56). Sietske et al., (2016) have

discussed an exercise used to engage students in divergent thinking, “Alternative Uses Task

(AUT) where individuals are asked to think of as many possible ways to use an object” (p.

353). I could facilitate an activity where students list the many ways of dramatizing and

experimenting with the song. It is important not to use worked examples as it might lead to

students coming to one solution to a problem. I must give students freedom to come up with

their own creative ways of experimenting and dramatizing a song, this might lead to better

outcomes then using worked examples.

In conclusion, this essay has been an evaluation on using minimal guidance when teaching

students. The article has lead me to consider how to instruct my students, if they have no

prerequisite knowledge of the musical concepts. Kirschner et al., (2006) state, as a teacher, “the

goal is to give learners specific guidance about how to cognitively manipulate information in

ways that are consistent with a learning goal” (p. 77). Breaking up the information through

chunking and worked examples reduces the cognitive load. Allowing more opportunity for

specific, filtered information to engage students. In an article by Gunn (2017) he made

comments regarding approaches that involve minimal guidance, “it would be an overreaction

to completely reject, or uncritically accept, either constructivist or didactic approaches” (p.

250). I believe that there will be times where it is appropriate to use minimal instruction. Guided

instruction can only take a student so far. When altering a person’s long-term memory, we need

to consider the act of repetition. A teacher can show a student what is required but the student

needs to be independent and practice. I also believe that minimal instruction might be a better

approach than worked examples when it comes to divergent thinking. As part of the life skills

curriculum for music I need to “offer creative opportunities for self-expression and personal

choice” (Education Standards, 2018, p. 14). Divergent thinking has multiple ways of solving

problems. As a teacher I can facilitate an exercise, but I would also need to promote a balance

between working towards one solution and suggesting that there can be multiple solutions.

References

Bokosmaty, S., Sweller, J., & Kalyuga, S. (2015). Learning Geometry Problem Solving by
Studying Worked Examples. American Educational Research Journal 52(2), 307-333. doi
10.1177/0144739417708837

Cowan, N. (2016) Working memory capacity: classic edition. Retrieved from

https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uwsau/detail.action?docID=4505635

Gunn, A. (2017). Critical debates in teaching research methods in the social sciences. Teaching
Public Administration 35(3), 241–259. doi
10.1177/0144739417708837

Hill, M., Cromartie, J., & McGinnis, J. (2016) Applying neuroplasticity t educating agile-thing
managers. The International Journal of Management Education 14(1), 39-49. doi
https://doi.or/10.1016/j.ijme.2016.01.003

Hummel, H., Paas, F., & Koper, E. (2004) Cueing for transfer in multimedia programmes:
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10.1111/j.1365-2729.2004.00098.x
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10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1

Maino, D., (2009). Neuroplasticity teaching an old brain new tricks: research shows that adults
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New South Wales Education Standards Authority. (2018, May). Music Years 7-10 Life Skills
unit: Australian music. Retrieved from
http://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/wcm/connect/51205c95-fcae-4da6-9407-
9093e9dac426/music_life_skills_su.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CVID=

New South Wales Education Standards Authority. (2018, May). Music Years 11-12 Syllabus.
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http://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/11-12/stage-6-learning-areas/stage-6-
creative-arts/music-life-skills

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