Accepted Manuscript

Effect of aggregate size and inclusion of polypropylene and steel fibers on explosive
spalling and pore pressure in ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) at elevated
temperature

Ye Li, Pierre Pimienta, Nicolas Pinoteau, Kang Hai Tan

PII: S0958-9465(18)30650-4
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.02.016
Reference: CECO 3254

To appear in: Cement and Concrete Composites

Received Date: 24 June 2018

Revised Date: 31 January 2019
Accepted Date: 20 February 2019

Please cite this article as: Y. Li, P. Pimienta, N. Pinoteau, K.H. Tan, Effect of aggregate size and
inclusion of polypropylene and steel fibers on explosive spalling and pore pressure in ultra-high-
performance concrete (UHPC) at elevated temperature, Cement and Concrete Composites (2019), doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.02.016.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Effect of aggregate size and inclusion of polypropylene and steel fibers on

explosive spalling and pore pressure in ultra-high-performance concrete

(UHPC) at elevated temperature

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Ye Lia, Pierre Pimientab, Nicolas Pinoteaub, Kang Hai Tana,*

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a
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

639798, Singapore

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b
CSTB, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment, Marne la Vallée, France

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +65 6790 5285

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Email addresses: LIYE0006@e.ntu.edu.sg (Ye Li), pierre.pimienta@cstb.fr (Pierre Pimienta),

Nicolas.PINOTEAU@cstb.fr (Nicolas Pinoteau), CKHTAN@ntu.edu.sg (Kang Hai Tan)

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Abstract
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This paper investigates the individual and combined effects of polypropylene (PP) fibers, steel

fibers, and aggregate size on spalling behavior and pore pressure build-up of ultra-high-
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performance concrete (UHPC) exposed to elevated temperature. Simultaneous measurements of

pore pressure and temperature were conducted at different depths in UHPC specimens under
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one-sided heating with a heating rate of 2 °C/min. Compressive, tensile, and permeability tests
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were performed to analyze spalling behavior. Addition of PP fibers fully prevented spalling and

they are much more effective in increasing permeability than steel fibers and larger aggregates.

The combined use of PP and steel fibers, and PP fibers and larger aggregates showed strong

synergistic effect on increasing permeability. The higher the permeability, the lower was the

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maximum pore pressure measured in the samples. Two plateaus were observed from the

temperature history due to vaporization of liquid water (between 115 and 125 °C inside the

specimens) and release of water vapor (starting from 180 °C), respectively. The second plateau

was identified as the functional temperature of PP fibers. Maximum pore pressures in spalled

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specimens were much lower than their tensile strengths, which could imply the contribution of

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hydraulic pressure in the region of moisture clog on spalling.

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Keywords

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Explosive spalling; ultra-high-performance concrete; pore pressure; elevated temperature;
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polypropylene fiber, steel fiber; large size aggregate

1. Introduction
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Fire is one of the most serious risks for tunnels, high-rise buildings, and underground structures

[1]. Explosive spalling of concrete at elevated temperature is a complicated phenomenon that

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causes cracking of concrete, spalling of concrete cover, and subsequent exposure of steel
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reinforcement to fire, which compromise the load-carrying capacity of affected members [2-5].
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Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) has high strength (f’c≥150 MPa), high ductility, and
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enhanced durability [6, 7]. It has been increasingly utilized in improving structural resistance of

buildings and bridges [8-12]. However, it is particularly vulnerable to explosive spalling under

fire condition due to its densely packed microstructure and very low permeability compared to

normal strength concrete [13, 14]. Therefore, it is important to study governing factors on

explosive spalling of UHPC. For example, the French standard NF P 18-710 [15] states that

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spalling control is generally based on the introduction of polypropylene fibers in the mixes.

However, spalling phenomenon is not a material intrinsic property. Spalling is influenced by

many factors such as mechanical and moisture and vapor transport properties of concrete,

admixtures in concrete, heating rate, dimensions of samples, and detailing of structural

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components, etc. Currently, there is no widely-held mechanism that can predict explosive

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spalling accurately.

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Addition of polypropylene (PP) fibers is the mostly accepted method to mitigate explosive

spalling [16-19]. Aggregate size was also found to have significant influence on spalling

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behavior of concrete [1, 20], and it has strong interaction with PP fibers [21]. It is generally
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believed that larger aggregates introduce porous interface transition zones (ITZ) in normal and

high strength concretes. It was proposed by Dale Bentz [22] that the ITZ can be linked by PP
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fiber tunnels and create pathways for release of water vapor at elevated temperature close to the
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melting point of the PP fibers. In UHPC, however, no significant porous ITZ is observed due to
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the use of silica fume and low water-to-binder ratio [7, 23]. It was found that inclusion of steel

fibers could reduce explosive spalling and enhance fire endurance of HSC columns [3, 19].
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However, they may not be very effective in preventing spalling of UHPC with very dense

microstructure [24, 25]. The combined use of PP and steel fibers to prevent spalling of fiber-
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reinforced self-consolidating concrete (FRSCC) and HSC was investigated [16, 17], but their
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effect on moisture migration and connectivity at micro-scale in UHPC has not been well studied.

It is noteworthy that pore pressure is a critical factor leading to spalling because it can generate

large tensile stresses in heated samples, which may exceed tensile strength of concrete [26].

Build-up of pore pressure is directly related to migration of moisture, which in turn is controlled

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by permeability of concrete [2, 3, 20, 27]. However, quantitative analysis of build-up of pore

pressure is one of the difficulties in investigation of spalling. Monitoring of pore pressure in

UHPC specimens during fire exposure is even more challenging. This paper studies the

individual and combined effects of PP fibers, steel fibers, and aggregate size on explosive

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spalling and pore pressure build-up of UHPC at elevated temperature. Six UHPC mix designs

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with the size of 300×300×120 mm3 were prepared and subjected to a unidirectional heat source

to measure temperature and pore pressure simultaneously. Compressive strength, tensile strength,

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and residual permeability at ambient temperature were measured to analyze spalling and pore

pressure of the UHPC mixes.

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2. Experimental program
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2.1. Mix proportions and specimen preparation

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Portland cement (ASIA@ CEM I 52.5 N), natural river sands sieved to 600 µm (reference mixes)

or to 5 mm (AG mixes), micro silica sands (median particle size of 130 µm), a highly reactive
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silica fume (Grade 940 from Elkem Microsilica@), the 3rd generation polycarboxylate-based
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superplasticizer (Sika@ ViscoCrete@-2044), steel fibers of 13 mm length and 0.22 mm diameter

supplied from Dramix@, and monofilament cylindrical PP fibers of 12 mm length and 30 µm

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diameter supplied by DFL were used to prepare the UHPC mixes. Properties of cement, silica
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fume, and fibers are provided in Table 1 and Table 2. Water-to-binder ratio was 0.22 to achieve

dense packing microstructure.

Table 1. Chemical composition of cement and silica fume

Compositions (wt.%) CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 SO3 LOI

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Cement 67.17 22.14 3.12 2.51 2.13 1.68

Silica fume >90.0

Table 2. Properties of PP and steel fibers

Diameter Length Tensile Elastic Density

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(µm) (mm) strength (MPa) modulus (GPa) (kg/m3)
PP fiber 30 12 >500 >5 910
Steel fiber 220 13 >2800 200 7850

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Six mix proportions were prepared as shown in Table 3. A plain UHPC mix was used as a

control mix design. Water-to-binder ratio (W/B), silica fume, silica sand, and superplasticizer

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content were kept constant for all the six mix designs. PP fibers, steel fibers, and aggregate size
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were the only variables to be investigated. The mix designs were named as Control, PP (PP

fibers), ST (steel fibers), AG (larger aggregate), PPST (PP+steel fibers), and PPAG (PP
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fibers+larger aggregates). PP mix contains 3.0 kg/m3 (0.33% by volume) of PP fibers while ST
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mix has 196.3 kg/m3 (2.5% by volume) of steel fibers. The maximum aggregate size of AG was
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5.0 mm. PPST samples contained combined PP and steel fibers, while PPAG consisted of PP

fibers and larger aggregates of maximum size of 5 mm. The other mixes only had 600 µm of
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aggregates.
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Table 3. Mixture proportion of the specimens

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Mix PP fiber Steel fiber Relative weight ratio to cement

Design (kg/m3) (kg/m3) C AG SF SS∆ SP W/B
C 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.1^ 0.25 0.25 0.04 0.22
PP 3.0 0.0 1.0 1.1^ 0.25 0.25 0.04 0.22
AG 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.1* 0.25 0.25 0.04 0.22
PPAG 3.0 0.0 1.0 1.1* 0.25 0.25 0.04 0.22
ST 0.0 196.3 1.0 1.1^ 0.25 0.25 0.04 0.22
PPST 3.0 196.3 1.0 1.1^ 0.25 0.25 0.04 0.22

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C: cement, AG: aggregates (sieved from river sand), SF: silica fume, SS: silica sand, SP:
superplasticizer, W/B: water-to-binder ratio. ^ denotes aggregates with maximum size of 600 µm,
* denotes aggregates with maximum size of 5 mm, ∆ denotes median particle size of 130 µm

Raw materials were mixed in a Hobart@ planetary mixer. Binders (cement and silica fume) and

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fillers (silica sand and sieved river sand) were dry-mixed for 2-3 min to ensure good dispersion

during mixing. Thereafter, premixed water and superplasticizer were added and mixed for

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another 3 to 5 minutes until the fresh mortar was homogenous and consistent. Fibers were

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gradually added in 3-5 min and mixed for another 2 min. The fresh UHPC mixtures were then

cast into cubical (50×50×50 mm3), dog-bone shaped (36×18 mm2 cross section), cylindrical

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(∅150 mm×48 mm), and cuboid (300×300×120 mm3) molds for compressive strength, uniaxial
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tensile, permeability, and spalling tests, respectively. Pore pressure gages and thermocouples

were located on a steel support and inserted into the specimens during casting for all the samples.
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The depths of the sensors were 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 50 mm from the bottom surface of the

specimens. During casting, the molds were compacted with a mechanical vibrator. After
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gradually pouring UHPC into the molds, vibration was continued for 1-2 min. No segregation of
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mixture was observed during casting. Specimens were covered with a plastic sheet at room
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temperature for the first 24 h. Afterwards, they were demolded and stored in lime-saturated

water at room temperature for 2 weeks. Then the specimens were stored in air for another 2
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weeks (28 days after casting) for compressive and tensile tests and 2.5 months (3 months after
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casting) for spalling tests. Spalling tests have been carried out in CSTB in France. Samples were

transported between 4 weeks to 8 weeks after casting.

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2.2. Temperature and pore pressure measurement

As a joint study, the experimental device for measuring pore pressure and temperature was

developed by Kalifa et al. [28] and modified by the authors in CSTB, France. The mechanical

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and permeability tests of UHPC were conducted at NTU, Singapore. Fig. 1a and Fig. 1b show

the schematic experimental setup. The specimens were placed at the opening of the electric

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furnace. Five gages which could measure pore pressure and temperature simultaneously were

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placed in all the specimens at the central area of the specimens at 5, 10, 20, 30, and 50 mm

depths from the heated surface, respectively. A tube without a metal cup was located at 2 mm

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from the heated surface for measuring temperature. Fig. 1c shows the configuration of the pore
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pressure gages. The gages were made of round sintered metal plates (∅12×1 mm), which were

encapsulated into metal cups and were welded to thin metal tubes with 1.6 mm inner diameter.
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The sintered metal with evenly distributed micro pores can collect moisture vapor in an evenly

manner, which leads to stable pressure measurements [14]. The tubes emerged from the rear face
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of the specimens. During testing, connectors were placed at the free end of the tubes. The first
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exit of the connectors connected the gages to a piezoelectric pressure transducer through flexible

tubes partially filled with silicone oil. Thermocouples (∅1.5 mm) were inserted from the second
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exit of the connectors to the metal plate and were sealed up. As the inner tube diameter is 1.6
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mm, the accessible volume to the fluids is very low. It is to be emphasized that as the sintered
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metal are not filled with oil, these sensors allow to measure gas pressures but not liquid pressures.

Liquid water may expand and vaporized when it contacts with the gage head. Two tests were

carried out for six UHPC mixes (Table 3) except only one test was conducted on the PP mix

design due to an accident. Thermal load was applied on one face (300×300 mm2) of the UHPC

specimens at a heating rate of 2 °C/min. The target temperature was 600 °C.

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Fig. 1. (a) schematic experimental setup (b) locations of gages (c) configuration of gages (d)

photo of experimental setup.

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2.3. Permeability measurement

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After curing, cylindrical samples with diameter of ∅150 mm were grinded from two ends to

achieve a disc thickness of 40 mm. Surfaces of the discs were finely polished to ensure good

contact with the permeability measuring device. Apparent gas permeability was determined by

means of RILEM-CEMBUREAU method [29]. The apparent permeability was determined based

on Darcy’s law which was later modified by the Hagen-Poiseuille relationship [30]:

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Q 2µLpatm
ka = (1)
A ( pi2 − patm
2
)

where ka [m2] is the apparent gas permeability, Q [m3/s] is the gas flow rate, A [m2] is the cross-

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sectional area of the specimen, L [m] is the thickness of the specimen, µ [Pa∙s] is the dynamic

viscosity of air, pi [Pa] is the inlet pressure, and patm [Pa] is the outlet pressure which is at

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atmospheric pressure.

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In case of UHPC with a very dense microstructure, the apparent gas permeability is influenced

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by the applied inlet pressure due to slip flow (Knudsen diffusion) [31]. Intrinsic gas permeability
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was adopted because it is independent from the inlet pressure to correct the apparent gas

permeability [32].
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 b 
k a = kint  1 +  (2)
 pm 
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where kint [m2] is the intrinsic permeability (equal to ka when mean pressure pm approaches

infinity), b [Pa] is the Klinkenberg constant, and pm = ( pi + patm ) / 2 [Pa] is the average value of
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the inlet and outlet pressures on two faces of the heated specimen.
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One of the purposes of the present study is to unravel the effects of PP fibers addition and

change of permeability on migration of water vapor. It has been reported that characterization of

permeability of concrete subjected to 200 °C is pivotal to understanding spalling mechanism of

concrete materials [33] since permeability of UHPC with PP fibers changed much more

significantly below 200 °C and in pore pressure measurement, evaporation of water vapor

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mainly happened below 200 °C. Therefore, to perform the permeability test, the specimens were

first heated to 200 °C. They were kept for 48 hours to remove free water from the specimens.

The heating rate was lower than 1 °C/min to prevent undesirable temperature gradients within

the specimens. After heating, the specimens were cooled down naturally within the furnace.

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Three pressure levels were applied, i.e. 2, 3, and 5 bars (1 bar = 1 atmospheric pressure) to

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determine intrinsic permeability.

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Fig. 2 shows the experimental setup for measuring permeability [34]. The specimen was secured

in a pipe segment sandwiched between two symmetric lids. Silicone was applied on the lateral

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surface of the specimen and in between the sealing rings and the specimen. The two lids were
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clamped by twelve bolts around the flange. Compressed air was supplied into the upper chamber

by a compressor and the pressure was adjusted via a gas pressure regulator varying between 2
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and 5 bars. The air flow rate through the specimen was measured from the outlet.
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Fig. 2. Device used for permeability tests in NTU

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2.4. Compressive and tensile tests

Three cubes (50×50×50 mm3) and three dog-bone shaped samples (36×18 mm2 cross section)

were prepared to conduct compressive and tensile tests for each mix design, respectively.

According to An et al. [35], cubes with 50 mm length, may have around 10% higher compressive

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strength than cubes with 100 mm length. Smaller sample will also result in higher tensile

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strength because fibers may be aligned by smaller mold [36]. Compressive strength

measurements were conducted at ambient temperature following ASTM C109/C109M-11 [37].

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The hydraulic compression machine had a capacity of 3,000 kN. A constant loading rate of 100

kN/min was adopted and the maximum force was recorded automatically. Uniaxial tensile

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strength tests were carried out by means of an electro-mechanical testing machine with a tensile
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capacity of 30 kN. A personal computer was connected to the testing machine to acquire the test

data. The tests were displacement-controlled at a rate of 0.2 mm/min.

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3. Results and discussions

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3.1. Mechanical properties and permeability of UHPC

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To study the influence of PP fiber, steel fiber, and aggregate size on mechanical properties of

UHPC, compressive strength and uniaxial tensile strength tests were conducted on three samples,
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respectively. As shown in Table 4, the control mix had a compressive strength of 149.6 MPa and
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a tensile strength of 8.9 MPa. These values were used as a comparison basis for the other mix

designs. Adding PP fibers only had marginal effect on compressive strength (159.7 MPa versus

149.6 MPa) and tensile strength (8.5 MPa versus 8.9 MPa). This is due to the fraction of PP

fibers (0.3% by volume) which is much lower compared to that of normal fiber reinforced

concrete (1% to several percent by volume) [38]. AG samples showed a slight reduction on

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compressive and tensile strength because larger aggregates may introduce defects into UHPC.

However, the reduction is not significant due to the river sands used as larger aggregates were

strong and no distinct porosity can be found in the interfacial transition zone (ITZ). A

homogenous morphology of the paste structure and the compact ITZ structure lead to high-

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strength mortar [23]. However, due to the introduced heterogeneity, tensile strength actually

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decreased by 10%. PP fibers and larger aggregates did not change the strength of UHPC

independently; thus, their combined effect on compressive strength of UHPC is not significant as

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well. Addition of steel fibers significantly increased compressive strength by 15% (172.1 MPa)

and tensile strength by 41% (12.4 MPa) because steel fibers restrict internal material

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deterioration and crack propagation by absorbing developed stresses at the fiber’s tip and
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consequently enhanced compressive strength of the samples [39]. Combined PP and steel fibers

increased both compressive and tensile strength of UHPC, but the enhancement was not as much
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as adding steel fibers only. One plausible reason is that more air voids trapped by higher fraction
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of mixed fibers reduced the mechanical properties of UHPC matrix, thereby weakening the
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bonding between the matrix and the fibers [40].

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Table 4. Mechanical properties and permeability of UHPCs

Intrinsic Permeability Normalized to

Mix Design fc (MPa) ft (MPa)
(10-18 m2) permeability of C
C

C 149.6±4.8 8.9±0.7 0.733±0.493 1

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PP 159.7±5.7 8.5±0.7 13.8±7.0 18.8

AG 145.0±4.1 8.0±0.9 1.60±0.37 2.18
PPAG 147.7±1.5 8.2±0.6 1090±70 1490
ST 172.1±3.7 12.4±0.3 0.152±0.073 0.207
PPST 154.8±2.3 11.1±0.5 758±173 1040
fc: Compressive strength; ft: Uniaxial tensile strength; Permeability: Intrinsic permeability after

preheating exposure at 200 °C

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For permeability, C showed a very low intrinsic permeability and a relatively large standard

deviation due to the limitation of the experimental set up. Sole addition of 3 kg/m3 PP fibers

significantly increased the residual permeability of UHPC from 0.733×10-18 to 13.8×10-18 m2, i.e.

a 19-fold increase, due to creation of microcracks caused by thermal mismatch between the PP

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fibers and the matrix and melting of PP fibers [41, 42]. Increasing aggregate size only increased

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permeability of UHPC by about 2-fold because thermal expansion coefficient between

aggregates and UHPC matrix are not so significant and cracks caused by aggregates were finer

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compared to those created by PP fibers. Combined use of PP and larger aggregates showed

synergistic effect and significantly increased permeability by about 1500-fold with respect to the

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control mix (1490×10-18 m2 vs. 0.73×10-18 m2). Addition of steel fibers alone slightly reduced the
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intrinsic permeability, which may be due to a reduction of shrinkage-induced cracking during the
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curing stage of UHPC specimens [43, 44]. A 1040-fold increase in permeability was observed in

PPST mix with combined use of PP fibers and steel fibers. From the ongoing research, the very
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high permeability of PPAG and PPST is attributed to enhanced connectivity of PP fiber tunnels
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by multiple microcracks generated from thermal expansion and strain incompatibility between

steel fibers or larger aggregates with the UHPC matrix.

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3.2. Observations of spalling behavior

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Fig. 3 shows the heated faces of UHPC specimens after the spalling tests. It can be seen that C,
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AG, and ST specimens with very low permeability (Table 4) spalled severely, but PP, PPST, and

PPAG specimens with PP fibers did not spall at all. This clearly showed the effect of PP fibers in

preventing spalling. For C and AG samples, intermittent loud explosive sounds of spalling were

heard during the tests accompanied with intermittent popcorn-cooking like sounds. The debris

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were thin disk-shaped, less than 5 mm thick and diameter ranging from 10 to 150 mm. This

should imply that high stresses, moisture accumulated and/or high pore pressure happened at

very shallow depth. Moreover, even after the initial spalling, progressive spalling (layer by layer)

propagated into the deeper, cooler regions of the specimen. Steel fibers helped to improve

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mechanical properties of UHPC, but spalling could not be prevented. Unlike C and AG

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specimens, only several loud sounds were heard when testing ST specimens. The spalled areas

were non-uniform, partly due to non-homogeneous distribution and random orientation of steel

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fibers in the concrete. Due to enhanced mechanical properties, ST specimens spalled after a

longer heating duration and at higher temperature. This will be discussed in detail in Sections 3.3

and 3.4.
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Fig. 3. Spalling behavior of UHPC specimens.

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3.3. Results of temperature and pore pressure measurements

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Fig. 4 presents temperature and pore pressure history of UHPC mix designs. Two samples were
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tested for each mix design, but due to the limited space, only one result of each UHPC mix is
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presented here. The maximum pressure and temperature of all the samples will be presented in

the following sections. In the figures, T and P stand for temperature and vapor pressure,

respectively. The numbers after them show the locations of the sensors. From the temperature

history, plateaus between 115 °C and 125 °C can be observed in all the UHPC mix designs due

to phase change of liquid water which is an endothermic reaction. It is worth noting that with

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vaporizing of water, pore pressure kept increasing, which shows that water vapor was not totally

released from the specimens. Mindeguia et al. concluded that the higher vaporization

temperature than 100 °C is due to the presence of high capillary pressure induced by small pores

at the interface between liquid water, gas phase (vapor and dry air) and concrete matrix [1].

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For the un-spalled specimens PP, PPST, and PPAG, a second plateau between 180 °C and

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220 °C can be observed (as marked in Fig. 4b). This has not been reported in previous literature

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[1, 16, 17, 27, 28, 33]. The second plateaus are due to release of water vapor caused by

expansion and melting of PP fibers (with melting point of 167 °C). When the rate of vapor

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release (due to outward vapor flow) exceeded the rate of vapor flowing into the cooler regions
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(due to dehydration and transport), pore pressure started to drop [1, 14]. Therefore, the second

plateau was accompanied by peaks of pore pressure, which were bell-shaped with smooth
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transitions between the ascending and the descending branches.

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As shown in Fig. 4a, c and e, for the spalled UHPC mixes (C, AG, and ST), a sharp drop of
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temperature and pore pressure to zero indicates the occurrence of spalling. This is due to severe

breaking-off of concrete from the heated surface exposing embedded pressure gages.
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Immediately, compressed water vapor was suddenly released [28]. For C and AG (Fig. 4a and c),
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the first spalling time was 204 and 210 min, respectively. However, due to enhanced mechanical
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properties, ST specimens withstood a higher temperature and spalling took place at 238 min.

After spalling had occurred, the temperature curves increased rapidly and showed perturbations

since some of the thermocouples were directly exposed to the heating elements in the furnace.

The difference in temperature and pore pressure history between spalled and un-spalled UHPC

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mixes suggests that the migration of water inside UHPC specimens is chiefly responsible for

build-up of pore pressure.

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Fig. 4. Temperature and pore pressure as a function of heating time.

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3.4. Discussion on pore pressure and temperature results

Fig. 5 shows the temperature gradients of UHPC mixes when the temperature at 2 mm deep

reached 105 °C. Temperature at a later stage could not be compared because spalling and

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vaporization of water strongly affected the temperature distribution in the spalled samples. It can

be seen that, all the specimens had similar thermal gradients. This implies that thermal properties

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of UHPC mix designs were not significantly influenced by the inclusion of PP fibers, steel fibers,

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and larger aggregates. According to literature, thermal diffusivity of concrete is mainly

controlled by the fraction and nature of aggregates [45], which were maintained constant in the

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current study. Although steel fibers have higher conductivity (around 50 W/m/°C) than that of
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concrete (less than 2 W/m/°C), since the steel fibers are not percolated, heat conductivity of

specimens is governed by concrete matrix [46]. It is worth noting that, thermal stresses also
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depend on thermal dilation, Young modulus and transient thermal strain, etc. Since the thermal

gradients are similar, it is believed that the different spalling behavior can mainly be attributed to
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differences in measured pore pressures between the UHPC mix designs (Fig. 4).
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C EP
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Fig. 5. Temperature gradients of UHPC mixes.
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Fig. 6 summarizes the mean maximum pore pressures of each mix design at different locations.
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The maximum pore pressures of the spalled UHPC mixes (C, AG, and ST) concentrated in
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shallower regions (less than 20 mm from the heated face). This is because the very low

permeability of these mixes (<1.60×10-18 m2) hindered water vapor from migrating into cooler
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deeper regions of the specimens. Spalling occurred in a shallow depth and created a new spalled

surface, which allowed release of trapped water vapor. The maximum pore pressure of 5.2 MPa
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was observed in the ST specimen at 10 mm from the heated surface, while the lowest maximum
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pore pressure of 1.4 MPa was observed in the AG specimen at the same location. This is

probably due to the inclusion of steel fibers in the ST sample (12.4 MPa in tension at ambient

temperature), which helped to resist a greater pore pressure. However, the AG mix had the

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lowest tensile strength of 8.0 MPa and the expansion of larger aggregates induced microcracks

(Table 4). But this effect pales in comparison with PP samples.

The un-spalled UHPC mixes (PP, PPST, and PPAG) had higher permeability (>13.8×10-18 m2),

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so moisture further penetrated into the deeper regions and the maximum pore pressure took place

in deeper layers (30 mm from the heated surface). It can be seen from Fig. 6, among PP, PPST,

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and PPAG, the higher the permeability, the lower was the maximum pore pressure measured,

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since water vapor could be more easily released to the outer surface. Among all the 6 UHPC mix

designs, PPAG showed the lowest measured maximum pore pressure of 1.1 MPa, in accordance

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with its highest permeability (Table 4). This highlights the effect of permeability on thermo-
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hydral behavior, in particular, on the build-up of pore pressure. It has been shown in the authors’

ongoing study and Heo et al.’s [21] research that PP fibers and larger aggregates have synergistic
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effect on increasing permeability due to melting of PP fibers and formation of microcracks. The
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combined use of PP and steel fibers reduced the maximum pore pressure (2.8 MPa for PPST
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versus 3.3 MPa for PP). Based on Bangi and Horiguchi’s study [17], more fibers can introduce

more discrete air bubbles during the mixing process, which may act as discontinuous reservoirs
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for trapped vapor and condensed water. However, the new introduced pore volume may not be

large enough to affect vapor pressure significantly. Moreover, under high pressure, water vapor
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can pass through pressure-induced tangential space (PITS) between the steel fibers and the
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UHPC matrix. Microcracks caused by expansion of steel fibers can also help to release water

vapor.

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7.0
C PP
6.0 AG PPAG

Maximum pressure (MPa)

ST PPST
5.0

4.0

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3.0

2.0

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1.0

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0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Depth (mm)

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Fig. 6. Maximum pore pressure of UHPC mix designs versus depth.
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Fig. 7 plots temperature Tpmax, which corresponding to the maximum pore pressure measured
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(Pmax). For the spalled samples C, AG, and ST, Tpmax indicates the temperature at which spalling

occurred. Tpmax of C and ST samples occurred around 250 °C, while Tpmax of AG was lower than
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those of C and ST because the lower tensile strength caused by its heterogeneous microstructure
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(Table 4). For PP, PPAG, and PPST, most of the maximum pore pressure occurred in a relatively
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narrow range of temperature between 180 and 220 °C. This can be identified as the functional

temperature of PP fibers. With an increase of temperature, permeability also increased due to

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formation of microcracks and the PP fibers melting [41]. As a result, water vapor can be released
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from the UHPC specimens.

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300

Temperature at Pmax (MPa)

250

PT
200

RI
150 C PP
AG PPAG
ST PPST

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100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Depth (mm)

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Fig. 7. Temperature at maximum pressure versus depth.
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Fig. 8 presents the evolution of pore pressure as a function of temperature. Pore pressure profiles
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are compared to saturated vapor pressure line (Pvsat) to analyze the moisture state and

contribution of water vapor to total pore pressure. For most spalled specimens (C, AG, and ST),
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pore pressure increased with elevated temperature, but the measured pressures were lower than
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the Pvsat curve since the initial moisture content of UHPC was lower than the saturated state.
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Moreover, low permeability of C, AG, and ST specimens hindered migration and accumulation

of water vapor inside UHPC specimens. After spalling took place, the pore pressure dropped to
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nearly 0 MPa accompanied with a sudden decrease of temperature. With addition of PP fibers,
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water vapor could migrate inward towards the cooler layers of the specimens and reach the

pressure gages. Therefore, the pore pressure of PP (Fig. 8b) and PPST (Fig. 8f) at 20 mm depth

caught up with the Pvsat curve. The measured pressure for PP even exceeded the Pvsat at 30 mm.

This could be due to limited space inside a capillary pore, with a high degree of saturation, liquid

water occupied a part of the space, so the free volume available for dry air to expand is lower. As

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a consequence, partial pressure of the dry air enclosed in the specimens contributed to total

pressure [28].

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RI
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D
TE
C EP
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Fig. 8. Pressures as a function of temperature plotted with the saturated vapor pressure curve.

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Fig. 9 summarizes the maximum vapor pressure of UHPC mix designs at different locations as a

function of temperature. It can be seen that, most of the maximum pore pressure measurements

of the spalled specimens were much lower than the Pvsat (Fig. 9 solid blue circle). This may be

because moisture accumulated in the shallower regions of the spalled specimens (C, ST, and

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AG), but their low permeability hindered the moisture from reaching the pressure gages as

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shown in Fig. 10a. For some locations of the ST specimens (Fig. 9 dotted blue circle), the

maximum pore pressures were very high and close to the Pvsat curve. This can be explained by

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the formation of microcracks due to high vapor pressure and expansion of steel fibers helped to

transfer moisture to the pressure gages (Fig. 10b). On the other hand, the un-spalled specimens

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with PP fibers had maximum pore pressures closer to the Pvsat curve (Fig. 9 red circle). From the
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authors’ previous study [41], PP fibers melted at elevated temperature, thus water vapor can pass

through the fiber tunnels. Moreover, microcracks will be formed in the radial direction of the
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fiber tunnel due to expansion of polypropylene at elevated temperature. The fiber tunnels (due to
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melting of PP fibers) were well connected by multiple microcracks. The enhanced connectivity
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of fiber tunnel by multiple microcracks significantly increased permeability of UHPC. Through

the interconnected network moisture can be transferred to the embedded plates of pressure gages
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(Fig. 10c). In addition, it can be observed in Fig. 7 that for all PP fiber-reinforced mixes, most of

the maximum pore pressure occurred at temperature close to 200 °C. This can be attributed to the
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functional temperature of PP fibers described just above.

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PT
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Fig. 9. Maximum vapor pressure as a function of temperature.
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D
TE
C EP

Fig. 10. Possible mechanism around pressure gages during heating (a) without fibers (b) with
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steel fibers, and (c) with PP fibers.

Fig. 11 compares the maximum measured pore pressures to the tensile strength of the UHPC mix

designs. Based on Eurocode 2, a reduction factor of 0.8 for tensile strength at 200 °C was applied

[47]. For the spalled samples (C, AG, and ST), it is obvious that the pore pressures were far

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lower than their respective tensile strength. Moreover, Felicetti et. al. found that only 0.24 times

of pore pressure contributed to reduced apparent tensile strength of HPC with 90 MPa

compressive strength (i.e. 1.0 MPa pore pressure reduces 0.24 MPa of tensile strength) due to

less interconnected porosity of high grade concrete [48]. Therefore, it is questionable if spalling

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could be triggered by pore pressure alone [48] and if tensile strength is at all a reasonable failure

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criterion for explosive spalling. One possible explanation is that pore pressure is not the only

factor leading to spalling since thermal stresses cannot be neglected. However, from Fig. 5, the

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specimens in this study had similar thermal gradients. Another explanation is that spalling was

caused by build-up of hydraulic pressure in the saturated zone (moisture clog). However, the

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used gages could not measure liquid pressure (see section 2.2). In fully saturated pores, thermal
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pressurization coefficient of the pore fluid is equal to 0.6 MPa/°C. Thus, discrepancy between

thermal expansion of pore fluid and concrete matrix can lead to a very high build-up of hydraulic
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pressure [49]. The hydraulic pressure can lead to progressive breakdown of microstructure [50,
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51]. However, as shown in Fig. 10a, due to very low permeability of UHPC matrix, the high
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pressure in the region of saturated water in the shallower regions might not be transferred to the

pressure gage. This explanation is especially reasonable for UHPC with very dense
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microstructure. On the contrary, for PP, PPST, and PPAG, PP fibers created an interconnected

network at elevated temperature. The pressure in the surrounding area can be transferred to the
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gage (Fig. 10c). The measured pore pressure is actually the vapor pressure of the area in front of
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the pressure gage.

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RI
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Fig. 11. Maximum pore pressure and tensile strength of UHPC mix designs
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4. Conclusion and outlook

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Individual and combined effects of polypropylene (PP) fibers, steel fibers, and aggregate size on
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development of pore pressure and temperature in UHPC during heating were investigated in the

current study. Simultaneous measurements of pressure and temperature at the same location were
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conducted at different depths of specimens. Mechanical properties and permeability of UHPC

mixes were measured. Results showed that C, ST, and AG specimens had very low permeability
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and consequently suffered severe explosive spalling due to their very compact microstructure.
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Addition of PP fibers significantly increased permeability and suppressed explosive spalling

since thermal mismatch created micro-cracks network and melting PP fibers that helped to

release trapped water vapor at elevated temperature. Combined use of PP and steel fibers, or PP

fibers and larger aggregates synergistically increased permeability and completely prevented

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explosive spalling due to enhanced connectivity of PP fiber tunnels by micro-crack network

caused by strain incompatibility between steel fibers or larger aggregates with the UHPC matrix.

For pore pressure and temperature results, plateaus in the temperature curve were observed in all

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the UHPC mixes between 115 °C and 125 °C since vaporization of liquid water is an

endothermic reaction. For PP, PPST, and PPAG, second plateau in the temperature curve

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accompanied with maximum pore pressure was observed between 180 and 220 °C due to release

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of trapped water vapor through interconnecting micro-crack network and fiber tunnels.

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The maximum pore pressure of the spalled specimens was much lower than the Pvsat curve
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because the initial moisture content of UHPC was lower than the saturated state and the pressure

gages cannot detect liquid pressure in the region of saturated zone. With addition of PP fibers,
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moisture could penetrate into the deeper regions of the specimens and accumulate. Therefore, the

maximum pore pressure of PP, PPST, and PPAG occurred in deeper region of the specimens and
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caught up with the Pvsat curve.

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The maximum pore pressure measured was much lower than tensile strength of corresponding
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UHPC mix designs, so that tensile strength may not be an adequate reasonable failure criterion

for explosive spalling. One possible reason is that spalling is caused by a build-up of hydraulic
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pressure in the region of moisture clog, or within closed pores. The UHPC matrix between the
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closed pores with super-heated water and the open pores can be destroyed by a step pressure

difference, which may lead to progressive spalling of concrete layers.

The method used in the present study is the most widely accepted approach to measure pore

pressure in heated concrete [1, 14, 16, 17, 28, 33, 48, 52-55]. However, limitation of the current

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device is that it can only measure gas pressure in connected porous media, but hydraulic pressure

caused by liquid water cannot be measured. Moreover, the maximum pore pressure might

happen between two pressure gages. To better study explosive spalling, more accurate testing

methods are needed to detect liquid pore pressure during spalling test.

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Acknowledgements

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This material is based on research/work supported by the Land and Liveability National

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Innovation Challenge under L2 NIC Award No. L2NICCFP1-2013-4. The authors thankfully

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acknowledge the support received from Dr. Jihad MIAH, Dr. Romain MEGE, and Mr. Pierre-
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Jean DEGIOVANNI during the experiments at CSTB.

Disclaimer
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Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those

of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the L2 NIC
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