Definitions in Engineering

Measure the area of premises.
Calculate area = Length X width
Lets have a practical example of how many led lights are required in a bed room or drawing room.
If we consider a room of 12 feet x 12 feet size, then area will be 144 sq.ft.
Now we need area in sq.meter so you need to multiply with 0.093
We have now area = 144×0.093 = 13.39 sq.meter
Every premise needs different light level requirements. A showroom requires more light than
library. Living room needs more light than bedroom. You can find many sample data for your
premises on internet. Here are some data.
 Halls and conference rooms – 500 lx
 Classrooms – 300lx
 Stairs in public buildings – 75 lx
 Bedroom – 150Lx
 Stadium – 750 Lx
Now consider bed room of size 13.39 sq. meter. We want 150Lx, so we need to multiply.
Lumens = 150(Lux) x 13.39(area) = Around 2000 Lumens

Now choosing lights: A typical well built LED downlight provide 80-110 Lumens per watt, let’s
consider 100 lumens.
So we need total of 20W LED light to get 2000 lumens and 150 Lux for our sample bed room.
That means number of LED lights = 20w( total light)/5W(single light) = 4.
If you consider florescent tube or CFLs, they provide 60 lumens per watt, but in all
Types of Lighting
You'll find that you have several options to consider when selecting what type of lighting you should use in
your home.
When selecting energy-efficient lighting, it's a good idea to understand basic lighting terms and
principles. Also, it helps to explore your lighting options for indoors and/oroutdoors if you haven't
already. This will help narrow your selection.
Types of lighting include:
 Fluorescent lighting
 High-intensity discharge lighting
 Incandescent lighting
 Low-pressure sodium lighting
 Outdoor solar lighting
You can use the chart below to compare the different types of lighting.
Lighting Comparison Chart

Efficacy Lifetime Color Rendition Index Color Temperature
Lighting Type Indoors/Outdoors
(lumens/watt) (hours) (CRI) (K)
Incandescent
Standard "A" bulb 10–17 750–2500 98–100 (excellent) 2700–2800 (warm) Indoors/outdoors
Tungsten halogen 12–22 2000–4000 98–100 (excellent) 2900–3200 (warm to neutral) Indoors/outdoors
Reflector 12–19 2000–3000 98–100 (excellent) 2800 (warm) Indoors/outdoors
Fluorescent
Straight tube 30–110 7000–24,000 50–90 (fair to good) 2700–6500 (warm to cold) Indoors/outdoors
Compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) 50–70 10,000 65–88 (good) 2700–6500 (warm to cold) Indoors/outdoors
Circline 40–50 12,000 Indoors
High-Intensity Discharge
Mercury vapor 25–60 16,000–24,000 50 (poor to fair) 3200–7000 (warm to cold) Outdoors
Metal halide 70–115 5000–20,000 70 (fair) 3700 (cold) Indoors/outdoors
High-pressure sodium 50–140 16,000–24,000 25 (poor) 2100 (warm) Outdoors
Low-Pressure Sodium 60–150 12,000–18,000 -44 (very poor) Outdoors
IP Code
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with IP address.
The IP Code (or International Protection Rating[1], sometimes also interpreted as Ingress Protection Rating) consists
of the letters IPfollowed by two digits and an optional letter. As defined in international standard IEC 60529, it classifies
the degrees of protection provided against the intrusion of solid objects (including body parts like hands and fingers), dust,
accidental contact, and water in electrical enclosures.[2] The standard aims to provide users more detailed information
than vague marketing terms such as waterproof.
The digits (characteristic numerals) indicate conformity with the conditions summarized in the tables below. Where there is
no protection rating with regard to one of the criteria, the digit is replaced with the letter X.
For example, an electrical socket rated IP22 is protected against insertion of fingers and will not be damaged or become
unsafe during a specified test in which it is exposed to vertic ally
or nearly vertically dripping water. IP22 or IP2X are
typical minimum requirements for the design of electrical accessories for indoor use.
Contents
[hide]
1 First digit
2 Second digit
3 Additional letters
4 Mechanical impact
resistance
5 IP69K
6 NEMA Rating
7 References
8 See also
9 External links
[edit]First digit
The first digit indicates the level of protection that the enclosure provides against access to hazardous parts (e.g.,
electrical conductors, moving parts) and the ingress of solid foreign objects.
Object size protected

Level Effective against
against
0 — No protection against contact and ingress of objects
Any large surface of the body, such as the back of a hand, but no protection against deliberate contact
1 >50 mm
with a body part
2 >12.5 mm Fingers or similar objects
3 >2.5 mm
Tools, thick wires, etc.
4 >1 mm
Most wires, screws, etc.
5 dust protected Ingress of dust is not entirely prevented, but it must not enter in sufficient quantity to interfere with the
satisfactory operation of the equipment; complete protection against contact
6 dust tight
No ingress of dust; complete protection against contact
[edit]Second digit
Protection of the equipment inside the enclosure against harmful ingress of water.
Level Protected against Details
0 not protected —
1 dripping water Dripping water (vertically falling drops) shall have no harmful effect.
dripping water when

2 Vertically dripping water shall have no harmful effect when the enclosure is tilted at an angle up to 15°
tilted up to 15°
from its normal position.
3 spraying water
Water falling as a spray at any angle up to 60° from the vertical shall have no harmful effect.
4 splashing water
Water splashing against the enclosure from any direction shall have no harmful effect.
5 water jets
Water projected by a nozzle against enclosure from any direction shall have no harmful effects.
6 powerful water jets

Water projected in powerful jets against the enclosure from any direction shall have no harmful effects.
7 immersion up to 1 m Ingress of water in harmful quantity shall not be possible when the enclosure is immersed in water under
defined conditions of pressure and time (up to 1 m of submersion).
The equipment is suitable for continuous immersion in water under conditions which shall be specified
by the manufacturer.
8 immersion beyond 1 m
NOTE: Normally, this will mean that the equipment is hermetically sealed. However, with certain types
of equipment, it can mean that water can enter but only in such a manner that produces no harmful
effects.
[edit]Additional letters
The standard defines additional letters that can be appended to classify only the level of protection against
access to hazardous parts by persons:
Level Protected against access to hazardous parts with

A back of hand
B finger
C tool
D wire
Further letters can be appended to provide additional information related to the protection of the device:
Letter Meaning
H high voltage device
M device moving during water test
S device standing still during water test
W weather conditions
[edit]Mechanical impact resistance

An additional number has sometimes been used to specify the resistance of equipment to mechanical impact. This
mechanical impact is identified by the energy needed to qualify a specified resistance level, which is measured in joules
(J). This has now been superseded by the separate IK number specified in EN 50102.
Although dropped from the 3rd edition of IEC 60529 onwards, and not present in the EN version, older enclosure
specifications will sometimes be seen with an optional third
IP digit denoting impact resistance. Newer products are
likely to be given an IK rating instead. However there is not an exact correspondence of values between the old
and new standards.
OLD IP Level Impact energy Equivalent drop mass and height
0 — —
1 0.225 J 150 g dropped from 15 cm
2 0.375 J
250 g dropped from 15 cm
3 0.5 J
5 2J
7 6J
1.5 kg dropped from 40 cm
9 20.0 J
5.0 kg dropped from 40 cm
Impact
IK
energy Equivalent impact
number
(joules)
00 unprotected no test
01 0.150 drop of 200 gram object from 7.5 cm height
02 0.200 drop of 200 gram object from 10 cm height
03 0.350 drop of 200 gram object from 17.5 cm height
08 5.00 drop of 1.7 kg object from 29.5 cm height
09 10.0 drop of 5 kg object from 20 cm height

10 20.0 drop of 5 kg object from 40 cm height
[edit]IP69K
German standard DIN 40050-9 extends the IEC 60529 rating system described above with an IP69K rating for
high-pressure, high-temperature wash-down applications. [3] Such enclosures must not only be dust tight
(IP6X), but also able to withstand high-pressure and steam cleaning. The test specifies a spray nozzle that is
fed with 80°C water at 8–10 MPa (80–100 bar) and a flow rate of 14–16 L/min. The nozzle is held 10–15 cm
from the tested device at angles of 0°, 30°, 60° and 90° for 30 s each. The test device sits on a turntable that
rotates once every 12 s (5 rpm).
The IP69K test specification was initially developed for road vehicles, especially those that need regular
intensive cleaning (dump trucks, cement mixers, etc.), but also finds use in other areas (e.g., food industry).
[edit]NEMA
Rating IP Code Min NEMA Enclosure rating to satisfy IP Code
The National IP20 1
Electrical
IP54 3
Manufacturers
Association (NE IP65 4, 4X
MA) in the
IP67 6
United States
also publishes IP68 6P
protection
ratings for
enclosures similar to the IP rating system published by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
NEMA however also dictates other product features not addressed by IP codes, such
ascorrosion resistance, gasket aging, and construction practices. For this reason while it is possible to map IP
Codes to NEMA ratings that satisfy or exceed the IP Code criteria, it is not possible to map NEMA ratings to IP
codes, as the IP Code does not mandate the additional requirements. The table to the right indicates the
minimum NEMA rating that satisfies a given IP code, but can only be used in that way, not to map IP to NEMA.
[4]
.
North American enclosure rating systems are defined in NEMA 250, UL 50, UL 508, and CSA C22.2 No. 94.
Term Definition
A measurement of airflow that indicates how many cubic feet of air pass by a stationary
actual cubic feet per
point in one minute. Actual cubic feet per minute is also called cubic feet per minute and
minute
is abbreviated acfm.
actual output The amount of power a pneumatic power system actually delivers.
A component such as a cylinder, motor, or rotary device that directly helps convert
actuator
pneumatic energy into mechanical energy.
A component that cools compressed air coming from a compressor. An aftercooler is a

aftercooler
type of heat exchanger that also removes moisture.
A-weighted decibel A decibel scale that reflects the exclusion of frequencies that humans do not normally
scale hear.
bar A unit of pressure equal to 100,000 pascals or 14.504 psi.
bleed out To remove condensed water from the receiver area of a pneumatic system.
The pressure rating that indicates the pressure at which a component failed during a
burst pressure
pressure rating test.
A pneumatic variable that indicates the volume of fluid a component can contain.
capacity
Capacity is also used occasionally to indicate flow rate.
centimeters per In the metric or SI system, the number of centimeters that a pneumatic component such
minute as a piston actuator travels in one minute. Centimeters per minute is abbreviated cpm.
centimeters per In the metric or SI system, the number of centimeters that a pneumatic component such
second as a linear actuator travels in one second. Centimeters per second is abbreviated cm/s.
The act of applying pressure to a gas in order to increase density and lower volume.
compression
Compression also raises the temperature in pneumatic systems.
compressor A component that pressurizes ambient air and directs it into a pneumatic system.
A component such as a pipe, tube, or hose that conveys gases throughout a pneumatic
conductor
system.
cubic centimeters A measurement of volume that is abbreviated cm³.
cubic feet per minute
point in one minute. Cubic feet per minute is abbreviated cfm.
cubic inches A measurement of volume that is abbreviated cu in or in³.

A measurement of airflow that indicates how many cubic meters of air pass by a
cubic meters per hour
stationary point in one hour. Cubic meters per hour is abbreviated m³/hr.
cubic meters per A measurement of airflow that indicates how many cubic meters of air pass by a
minute stationary point in one minute. Cubic meters per minute is abbreviated m³/min.
One complete revolution or rotation of a rotary pneumatic component, or one complete

cycle
extension and retraction of a linear pneumatic component.
decibel A unit of measurement that describes the intensity of a sound wave.
A pneumatic power variable that indicates how much air is moved by a pneumatic
displacement compressor in one cycle. Displacement is measured in cubic inches per revolution or
cubic centimeters per revolution.
effective volume The flow rate that a pneumatic power system actually delivers during operation.
The amount of power output by a fluid power system compared to the amount of power
efficiency
input.
The directional movement of air in a pneumatic system. Flow in a fluid system can be
flow
laminar or turbulent.
A pneumatic power variable that describes how much air is being moved and how much
flow capacity work is being performed. Flow capacity, or flow rate, is usually measured in gallons per
minute (gpm) or liters per minute (lpm).
flow rate work is being performed. Flow rate is usually measured in gallons per minute (gpm) or
liters per minute (lpm).
Power derived from the motion and pressure of a fluid, such as water, oil, or air.
fluid power
Hydraulics and pneumatics are sources of fluid power.
A measurement of force indicating the amount of energy needed to move one pound a
foot-pound
distance of one foot.
force The push or pull that gives energy to an object.
The exponential increase in available power usually associated with tools and power
force multiplication
transmission systems.
frequency The number of sound wave oscillations or vibrations in a unit of time. Measured in Hertz
(HZ), high frequencies involve more wave cycles than low frequencies in the same
amount of time.
A unit of power used to describe the strength of a pneumatic component. One

horsepower
horsepower equals 746 watts.
In the English system, the number of linear inches that a pneumatic component such as
inches per minute
a linear actuator travels in one minute. Inches per minute is abbreviated ipm.
In the English system, the number of linear inches that a pneumatic component such as
inches per second
a linear actuator travels in one second. Inches per second is abbreviated ips.
A component that cools air inside a compressor. An intercooler is a type of heat

intercooler
exchanger that also removes moisture.
Parallel streams or layers of fluid that flow together and are indicative of laminar flow in a
laminae
fluid system. The presence of laminae is desirable.
The type of flow in a fluid system characterized by the presence of laminae, or parallel
laminar flow layers of fluid. Also called streamline flow, laminar flow is desirable because of its
efficiency.
linear motion Motion that takes place along a straight line.
maximum allowable MAWP. The pressure rating that indicates the maximum pressure a conductor should
working pressure experience in service. MAWP is called working pressure.
mechanical power Power created by the physical interaction and motion of tools and components.
megapascal A unit of pressure equal to one million pascals.
millimeters per In the metric or SI system, the number of millimeters that a pneumatic component such
second as a linear actuator travels in one second. Millimeters per second is abbreviated mm/s.
In the metric system, the unit used to measure power and torque. The Newton-meter is
Newton-meter
abbreviated as N-m.
newtons per square A unit of pressure. A newton per square meter is also known as a pascal, which is
meter derived from the International System of Units (SI).
noise Any unwanted sound. Noise at high decibels is a hearing hazard.
A pneumatic system that draws air from the surrounding environment, compresses and
open system
uses it to perform work, and then vents it back into the atmosphere.
output work is being performed. Output, or flow rate, is usually measured in gallons per minute
(gpm) or liters per minute (lpm).
The point at which horsepower and torque are highest. As speeds increase after the
peak value
peak values, horsepower and torque decrease.
pneumatic power Power derived from the motion and pressure of a gas, such as air.
pneumatic power A characteristic of a pneumatic system or component that can be measured and
variable quantified.
positive displacement A type of compressor that moves a fixed amount of air during each cycle.
pounds per square

A unit of pressure. Pounds per square inch is abbreviated psi.
inch
power The rate of doing work in a specified period of time.
The amount of force applied upon an object. Pressure is calculated by dividing force by
pressure
an area.
pressure rating An indication of the amount of pressure a fluid conductor can withstand.
prime mover The component of a pneumatic system that powers the compressor.
productivity rate The amount of work that can be accomplished in a given time period.
A component that stores compressed gas and helps stockpile a constant supply of
receiver
pressurized gas.
recovery time The time it takes for a compressor to replace the pressure in a receiver during operation.
revolutions per A unit of measurement that indicates the number of revolutions a pneumatic component
minute makes in one minute. Revolutions per minute is abbreviated rpm.
rotary motion Motion that takes place around a point. Rotary motion is circular.
A figure that establishes the relationship between the burst pressure and working
safety ratio pressure. A component with a safety ratio of 4-to-1 will likely fail if the operating pressure
reaches a level 4 times the normal level.
Society of Petroleum An organization of engineers that sets industry standards concerning the exploration,
Engineers development, and production of oil and gas resources.
The amount of distance an object travels in a given period of time. Speed is used to
speed
measure both linear and rotational movement.
standard cubic feet
point in one minute under standard conditions of temperature, pressure, and humidity.
per minute
Standard cubic feet per minute is abbreviated scfm.
standard temperature A standard set of conditions for measurement. STP is set by industry standards
and pressure authorities and allows uniform comparisons between sets of data.
The type of flow in a fluid system characterized by the presence of laminate, or parallel
streamline flow streams of fluid. Also called laminar flow, streamline flow is desirable because of its
efficiency.
An indication of the displacement of a pneumatic component that is equal to the volume

swept volume
of the component actually covered by a rotor or piston.
The amount of pressure at the output end of a compressor or receiver. System delivery
system delivery
pressure is used to specify the capability of compressors and is also known as the
pressure
system working pressure.
The amount of pressure nearest the point of performing work at the output end of a
system operating
pneumatic system. The system operating pressure is used to specify the capabilty of
pressure
valves and actuators.
The amount of pressure at the output end of a compressor or receiver. System working
system working
pressure is used to specify the capability of compressors and is also known as the
pressure
system delivery pressure.
theoretical output The amount of power a pneumatic power system is expected to deliver.
theoretical volume The flow rate that a pneumatic power system is expected to deliver.
torque The force exerted in rotation.
The type of flow in a fluid system characterized by fluid moving in a random and chaotic
turbulent flow
manner. Turbulent flow is not desirable.
A mechanism that controls the flow of compressed air in a pneumatic power system.
valve
Valves direct air movement and regulate the amount of pressure in a pneumatic system.
A pneumatic compressor that consists of a rotor mounted off-center in a circular cavity.

vane compressor
As the rotor spins, vanes trap and compress air.
volume A pneumatic power variable that describes both the quantity of gas and the capacity of a
component.
watt A unit used to measure power. 746 watts is equal to one horsepower.
work The result of force applied to an object over a distance.
The pressure rating that indicates the maximum pressure a conductor should experience
working pressure in service. Working pressure is often called maximum allowable working pressure
(MAWP).
Chillers (Figures 3 and 4) are large central systems, which use the primary refrigerant to chill
water. The chilled water is then circulated through the building and serves as a “secondary
refrigerant” to cool the building air. Some chiller systems have “air cooled” condensers, but
many have water-cooled condensers coupled with a cooling tower to cool the condenser water.
Chillers are sold in sizes from about 12 tons to hundreds of tons, but, in contrast to unitary equipment, few units
are sold in the small sizes.
Also provided is a portable document format version of How to Buy an Energy-Efficient Air-Cooled Electric
Chiller (PDF 74 KB, 2 pp). Download Adobe Reader.
Efficiency Recommendationa
Part Load Optimized Chillers
Compressor Type and Capacity

Recommendedb Best Availableb
IPLVc (kW/ton) IPLVc (kW/ton)
Scroll (30 - 60 tons) 0.86 or less 0.83
Reciprocating (30 - 150 tons) 0.90 or less 0.80
Screw (70 - 200 tons) 0.98 or less 0.83
Full Load Optimized Chillers

Compressor Type and Capacity
Recommended Best Available
Full Load (kW/ton) Full Load (kW/ton)
Scroll (30 - 60 tons) 1.23 or less 1.10
Reciprocating (30 - 150 tons) 1.23 or less 1.00
Screw (70 - 200 tons) 1.23 or less 0.94
a
Depending on the application, buyers should specify chiller efficiency using either full-
load or integrated part-load values as shown (see text).
b
Values are based on standard rating conditions specified in AR-I Standard 550/590-98.
Only packaged chillers (i.e., none with remote condensers) are covered.
 So the easy method is;
 calculate the room volume, length times width times ceiling height,
 divide room volume by 10 by shifting the decimal point one place to the left,
 get the size machine your room really needs (for 6 changes hourly), in cubic feet per minute.
____________________________________________________________________________________
STEP 1 - Calculate the volume of the area to be cleaned in cubic feet.
Length x Width x Height of area = Cubic Volume
STEP 2 - Divide the volume by 60 which represents minutes/hour.
Volume of Area ÷ 60 minutes in an hour = Cubic Feet Per Required for
ONE AIR CHANGE/HOUR
STEP 3 - Multiply the number of cfm's required in step #2 by the number of air changes desired from the chart
above.
Cubic Feet per Minute (#2) x #of Air Changes/hour (from chart above) =
Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM) required for this application
STEP 4 - Compare the Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM) required with the cfm rating of the units you are
considering. If the cfm required is more than any of the cfm ratings on an individual unit, you will need more
than one unit for that application.
CFM required for One Air Change/Hour x Air Changes/Hour Needed =
CFM's Needed for Your Application
For a faxed or mailed quotation, please send us the measurements of the area you wish to clean and the
number of air changes/hour you wish to accomplish. We'll do the work for you...just send us an e-mail.
EXAMPLE SPACE CALCULATION
Room dimensions: 50' x 100' x 10' ceiling
Type of area: Restaurant or Lounge
Air Changes Desired: 16 Air Changes/Hour (heavy pollution level)
Step 1 - Volume
50' x 100' x 10' = 50,000 cubic feet
Step 2 - Find Out CFM Required for One Air Change/Hour
50,000 Cu. Ft.÷ 60 Minutes in an Hour = 833 cubic feet/Minute = ONE Air Change in an Hour
Step 3 - Total Volume Per Minute To Be Cleaned
833cfm x 16 air changes = 13,328 cfm
Step 4 - Number of Units Needed
13,328 cfm ÷ cfm of chosen unit = Number of Units Needed
(Model LA-2000): 13,328 cfm ÷ 2,100 cfm = 6.34 or 6-7 units
(Model LA-1400): 13,333 cfm ÷ 1,100 cfm = 12.09 or 12-13 units
The recommended ventilation rate for homes is 0.35 air changes per hour (ACH) or 15
cubic feet per minute per person. For example, a 1,200 square foot home with 8-foot
walls has an air volume of 9,600 cubic feet. Obtaining an air changeof 0.35 per hour
requires exchanging 0.35 x 9,600 = 3,360 cubic feet of air per hour. This is an airflow
rate of 3,360 ÷ 60 minutes per hour = 56cubic feet per minute.
Millions of people spend 90% of their day inside, so it's important that the buildings they occupy have a substantial amount of fresh,
outside air. ASHRAE 62 ventilation standards recommend that 15 to 60 cubic feet per minute (CFM) of outside air should be supplied
for every person within a building. Although this is just a recommendation,
Total Volume of Air in the Room ÷ 5 = Minimum Recommended CFM
The "magic number 5" in this formula is based on 12 changes per hour, divided by 60 minutes/hour to give us
the number of changes per minute. To apply this to your bathroom, multiply the width by the length by the
height to determine the total cubic feet...
Width x Length x Height = 6ft. x 8ft. x8ft. = 384 cubic feet
Divide the volume of your bathroom by 5 to find out the recommended CFM...
384 cubic feet ÷ 5 = 76.8 CFM or Cubic Feet per Minute
The first step when sizing for a ventilating fan is to determine the application. Decide whether you are
sizing for intermittent or continuous ventilation (see pages 6 and 7). If intermittent, determine which
application, (i.e. bathroom, kitchen or other). Use the following industry recommendations to
determine Air Changes per Hour (ACH) for your specific application.
Intermittent (spot) ventilation:

The Home Ventilating Institute (HVI) recommends the following Air Changes per Hour (ACH).
I. Bathrooms - 8 ACH or 1 CFM/sq ft
II. Kitchens - 15 ACH or 2 CFM/sq ft
Other Rooms - 6 ACH or .75 CFM/sq ft
Continuous (Whole House) Ventilation:
Most building codes have adopted the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 62. The most current version, ASHRAE 62.2-2004, calls
for continuous mechanical ventilation as shown below.
I. House or apartment - 7.5 CFM per person plus 1 CFM per 100 square feet
To calculate how many CFM of airflow is required to properly ventilate any room in your home, use the following
calculation.
 For an 8 foot ceiling take the square footage of the room and multiply it by 1.1.
(Example – 10' x 10' room with 8' ceilings:

10' x 10' = 100 square feet x 1.1 = 110 CFM’s)
 For any ceiling over 8 feet, take the height of the ceiling and multiply by .1375. Take this figure and multiply by the
square footage of the room. This will equal the recommended CFMs.
(Example – 10' x 12' room with 9' ceilings:

9' x .1375 =1.24 x 120 square feet = 149 CFMs.)
What does air change mean?

One air change occurs in a room when a quantity of air equal to the volume of the room
is supplied and/or exhausted.
Air change rates are units of ventilation that compare the amount of air moving
through a
space to the volume of the space. Air change rates are calculated to determine how well
a
space is ventilated compared to published standards, codes, or recommendations.
Air changes per hour (ACH) is the most common unit used. This is the volume of air
(usually expressed in cubic feet) exhausted or supplied every hour divided by the room
volume (also usually expressed in cubic feet).
Airflow is usually measured in cubic feet per minute (CFM). This is multiplied by 60
minutes
to determine the volume of air delivered per hour (in cubic feet).
To calculate room volume (in cubic feet), multiply room height (in feet) by the room
area
(in square feet). Room area is the room width (in feet) times the room length (in feet).
ACH = airflow per hour = CFM X 60 minutes
room volume cubic feet
A room may have two airflow values, one for supply and another for exhaust. (The
airflow
difference between these two values is called the offset.) To calculate the air change
rate,
use the greater of the two airflow values.
Example of air change per hour calculation
An isolation room is 200 square feet in area and has a ceiling height of 9 feet. Airflow
measurements indicate a supply airflow of 360 CFM and an exhaust airflow of 480 CFM.
Does this room comply with the CDC recommendation that isolation rooms have a
minimum
airflow rate:of 12 ACH for new construction?
Air change rate: 480 CFM X 60 = 16 ACH
200 ft2 X 9 ft
Exhaust air offset: 480 CFM – 360 CFM = 120 CFM
In conclusion, this room exceeds the CDC minimum requirement. The offset of 120 CFM
is made up by air from outside the room.
This information
SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
Activated Sludge Process: A process used for purification and Stabilization of wastewater by return of solids
concentrate formed during prior contact. The organism rich concentrate speeds biochemical activity in the
presence of excess oxygen.
Advanced waste treatment: A term including any treatment process applied for renovation of wastewater that
goes beyond the usual 90-99% oxygen demand and organic solids removal of secondary treatment.
Aeration: The operation adding oxygen to, removing volatile constituents from, or mixing a liquid by intimate
contact with air.
Aerobic bacteria: Organisms that require dissolved oxygen in the aquatic environment to enable them to
metabolize or to grow.
Algae: Primitive plant, one or many celled, usually aquatic and capable of growth on mineral materials via
energy from the sun and the green coloring material, chlorophyll. Generally considered as the source of food for
other organisms.
Anaerobic: a condition in which dissolved oxygen is undetectable in the aquatic environment.
Anaerobic Bacteria: Organisms that can metabolize and grow in the absence of dissolve oxygen.
Bacteria: Primitive organisms having some of the features of plants and animals.
Biodegradation: The stabilization of wastewater contaminants by biological conversion of pollutants into
separable materials at a higher oxidation state.
Biological Processes: Activities of living organisms to sustain life, growth and reproduction.
BOD: Biological oxygen demand. A test for estimation of wastewater polluting effects in terms of the oxygen
requirements for bio-chemical stabilization under specified conditions and time.
CEHI: Caribbean Health Institute.
Chamber: A general term applied to a space enclosed by walls or to a compartment, often prefixed by
descriptive word, such as Agrit chamber@, screen Chamber@, discharge chamber@, etc.
Chlorine: A greenish yellow gaseous element having strong disinfecting and oxidizing properties in water
solution.
Chlorination: The application of chlorine to water or wastewater for the purposes of disinfection, oxidation,
odor control or others effects.
Clarifier: A basin or tank serving as an enlargement of a channel to permit separation of floating or settling
materials from the clarified water (sedimentation basin).
COD: A test for the estimation of the polluting effects of a wastewater in terms of oxygen requirements from a
strong chemical oxidant under specific conditions.
Comminutor: A device for cutting sewage solids until they pass an acceptable screen opening to improve
pumping and wastewater processing.
Concentration: The act of increasing mass per unit volume or mass such as concentrating a sludge from 3 to 6
% solids, or a means of designating the amount of material per unit volume or mass. Commonly mg of
substance per liter of volume or percentage in wastewater technology.
Contamination: A general term referring to the introduction of materials into water that makes the water less
desirable for its intended use.
Detention time: The time required for a given unit of liquid to flow through the tank or process unit.
DO: Dissolved molecular oxygen usually expressed in mg DO /l or percent in true solution form.
Drying: The removal of water.
Efficiency: The ratio of materials out of a process to those into that process, usually expressed as a percentage.
Effluent: A liquid flowing out of a chamber, treatment operation, or basin. For wastewater treatment primary,
secondary or finals effluents are commonly designated.
Filter: A porous media through which a liquid may be passed to effect removal of suspended materials.
Flotation: Raising suspended matter to the surface of the liquid in a tank as scum by aeration or other means.
Gravity: System flowing without pumping
Grit: The heavy material in water or sewage such as sand, gravel, etc.
Lagoon: A relatively shallow basin or natural depression used for storage and stabilization of water, wastewater
or sludge.
Mixed liquor: A mixture of return sludge and wastewater in the aerator of an activated sludge plant.
PAHO: Pan- America Health Organization.
pH: The logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen-ion concentration.
Recirculation: The return of effluent to the influent of a process unit to reduce influent concentration, stabilize
the system maintain high hydraulic flow, to process or for other beneficial reasons.
Screening: Materials removed by screen.
Scum: A mass of sewage matter which floats on the surface of sewage.
Skimmer: A device for removing floating grease or scum from the surface of sewage in a tank.
Sludge: Accumulated or concentrated solids from sedimentation or clarification of wastewater.
In the mechanical treatment, larger waste particles, gravel and fats are removed from the wastewater. At the biological
treatment, the organic matter, and in some cases also nitrogen and phosphorus are removed from the wastewater. If
phosphorus is not removed biologically, it will be removed by sedimentation after the addition of chemicals. This is called
chemical treatment.
Not all treatment plants have all the steps in the process listed above. The number of letters characterizes the treatment
level at a treatment plant.
M=mechanical
B=biological
N=nitrification - nitrogen removal
D=denitrification - ammonium removal
K=chemical removal
The more letters - the higher degree of treatment.
In Denmark about 20% of the treatment plants are MBNDK-plants, which means they have a high degree of treatment.
85% of the total amount of wastewater in Denmark is treated at the municipal treatment plants.
Air-conditioning Basics
Most people think that air conditioners lower the temperature in their homes simply by pumping cool air in. What's really
happening is the warm air from your house is being removed and cycled back in as cooler air. This cycle continues until
your thermostat reaches the desired temperature.
An air conditioner is basically a refrigerator without the insulated box. It uses the evaporation of a refrigerant, like Freon,
to provide cooling. The mechanics of the Freon evaporation cycle are the same in a refrigerator as in an air conditioner.
According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online, the term Freon is generically "used for any of various
nonflammable fluorocarbons used as refrigerants and as propellants for aerosols."
Diagram of a typical air conditioner.
This is how the evaporation cycle in an air conditioner works (See How Refrigerators Work for complete details on this
cycle):
1. The compressor compresses cool Freon gas, causing it to become hot, high-pressure Freon gas (red in the
diagram above).
2. This hot gas runs through a set of coils so it can dissipate its heat, and it condenses into a liquid.
3. The Freon liquid runs through an expansion valve, and in the process it evaporates to become cold, low-
pressure Freon gas (light blue in the diagram above).
4. This cold gas runs through a set of coils that allow the gas to absorb heat and cool down the air inside the
building.
Mixed in with the Freon is a small amount of lightweight oil. This oil lubricates the compressor.
Air conditioners help clean your home's air as well. Most indoor units have filters that catch dust, pollen, mold spores and
other allergens as well as smoke and everyday dirt found in the air. Most air conditioners also function as dehumidifiers.
They take excess water from the air and use it to help cool the unit before getting rid of the water through a hose to the
outside. Other units use the condensed moisture to improve efficiency by routing the cooled water back into the system to
be reused.
So this is the general concept involved in air conditioning. In the next section, we'll take a look at window and split-system
units.
Window and Split-system AC Units

A window air conditioner unit implements a complete air conditioner in a small space. The units are made small enough to
fit into a standard window frame. You close the window down on the unit, plug it in and turn it on to get cool air. If you take
the cover off of an unplugged window unit, you'll find that it contains:
 A compressor
 An expansion valve
 A hot coil (on the outside)
 A chilled coil (on the inside)
 Two fans
 A control unit
The fans blow air over the coils to improve their ability to dissipate heat (to the outside air) and cold (to the room being
cooled).
When you get into larger air-conditioning applications, its time to start looking at split-system units. A split-system air
conditioner splits the hot side from the cold side of the system, like this:
The cold side, consisting of the expansion valve and the cold coil, is generally placed into a furnace or some other air
handler. The air handler blows air through the coil and routes the air throughout the building using a series of ducts. The
hot side, known as the condensing unit, lives outside the building.
The unit consists of a long, spiral coil shaped like a cylinder. Inside the coil is a fan, to blow air through the coil, along with
a weather-resistant compressor and some control logic. This approach has evolved over the years because it's low-cost,
and also because it normally results in reduced noise inside the house (at the expense of increased noise outside the
house). Other than the fact that the hot and cold sides are split apart and the capacity is higher (making the coils and
compressor larger), there's no difference between a split-system and a window air conditioner.
In warehouses, large business offices, malls, big department stores and other sizeable buildings, the condensing unit
normally lives on the roof and can be quite massive. Alternatively, there may be many smaller units on the roof, each
attached inside to a small air handler that cools a specific zone in the building.
In larger buildings and particularly in multi-story buildings, the split-system approach begins to run into problems. Either
running the pipe between the condenser and the air handler exceeds distance limitations (runs that are too long start to
cause lubrication difficulties in the compressor), or the amount of duct work and the length of ducts becomes
unmanageable. At this point, it's time to think about a chilled-water system.
Chilled-water and Cooling-tower AC Units

In a chilled-water system, the entire air conditioner lives on the roof or behind the building. It cools water to between 40
and 45 degrees Fahrenheit (4.4 and 7.2 degrees Celsius). This chilled water is then piped throughout the building and
connected to air handlers as needed. There's no practical limit to the length of a chilled-water pipe if it's well-insulated.
You can see in this diagram that the air conditioner (on the left) is completely standard. The heat exchanger lets the cold
Freon chill the water that runs throughout the building.
In all of the systems described earlier, air is used to dissipate the heat from the outside coil. In large systems, the
efficiency can be improved significantly by using a cooling tower. The cooling tower creates a stream of lower-temperature
water. This water runs through a heat exchanger and cools the hot coils of the air conditioner unit. It costs more to buy the
system initially, but the energy savings can be significant over time (especially in areas with low humidity), so the system
pays for itself fairly quickly.
1. Cooling towers come in all shapes and sizes. They all work on the same principle:
2. A cooling tower blows air through a stream of water so that some of the water evaporates.
3. Generally, the water trickles through a thick sheet of open plastic mesh.
4. Air blows through the mesh at right angles to the water flow.
5. The evaporation cools the stream of water.
6. Because some of the water is lost to evaporation, the cooling tower constantly adds water to the system to
make up the difference.
Cooling Towers
The amount of cooling that you get from a cooling tower depends on the relative humidity of the air and thebarometric
pressure.
For example, assuming a 95-degree Fahrenheit (35-degree Celsius) day, barometric pressure of 29.92 inches (sea-level
normal pressure) and 80-percent humidity, the temperature of the water in the cooling tower will drop about 6 degrees to
89 degrees Fahrenheit (3.36 degrees to 31.7 degrees Celsius). If the humidity is 50 percent, then the water temperature
will drop perhaps 15 degrees to 80 degrees Fahrenheit (8.4 degrees to 26.7 degrees Celsius). And, if the humidity is 20
percent, then the water temperature will drop about 28 degrees to 67 degrees Fahrenheit (15.7 degrees to 19.4 degrees
Celsius). Even small temperature drops can have a significant effect on energy consumption.
Whenever you walk behind a building and find a unit that has large quantities of water running through a thick sheet of
plastic mesh, you will know you have found a cooling tower!
In many office complexes and college campuses, cooling towers and air conditioning equipment are centralized, and
chilled water is routed to all of the buildings through miles of underground pipes.
In the next section, we'll look at how much all this cooling power costs.
BTU and EER

Most air conditioners have their capacity rated in British thermal units (BTU). Generally speaking, a BTU is the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one pound (0.45 kg) of water 1 degree Fahrenheit (0.56 degrees Celsius).
Specifically, 1 BTU equals 1,055 joules. In heating and cooling terms, 1 "ton" equals 12,000 BTU.
A typical window air conditioner might be rated at 10,000 BTU. For comparison, a typical 2,000-square-foot (185.8 m 2)
house might have a 5-ton (60,000-BTU) air conditioning system, implying that you might need perhaps 30 BTU per square
foot. (Keep in mind that these are rough estimates. To size an air conditioner for your specific needs, contact an HVAC
contractor.)
The energy efficiency rating (EER) of an air conditioner is its BTU rating over its wattage. For example, if a 10,000-BTU air
conditioner consumes 1,200 watts, its EER is 8.3 (10,000 BTU/1,200 watts). Obviously, you would like the EER to be as
high as possible, but normally a higher EER is accompanied by a higher price.
Let's say that you have a choice between two 10,000-BTU units. One has an EER of 8.3 and consumes 1,200 watts, and
the other has an EER of 10 and consumes 1,000 watts. Let's also say that the price difference is $100. To understand
what the payback period is on the more expensive unit, you need to know approximately how many hours per year you
will be operating the unit and How much a kilowatt-hour (kWh) costs in your area
Let's say that you plan to use the air conditioner in the summer (four months a year) and it will be operating about six
hours a day. Let's also imagine that the cost in your area is $0.10/kWh. The difference in energy consumption between the
two units is 200 watts, which means that every five hours the less expensive unit will consume 1 additional kWh (and
therefore $0.10 more) than the more expensive unit.
Assuming that there are 30 days in a month, you find that during the summer you're operating the air conditioner:
4 mo. x 30 days/mo. x 6 hr/day = 720 hours
[(720 hrs x 200 watts) / (1000 watts/kW)] x $0.10/kWh = $14.40
The more expensive unit costs $100 more, which means that it will take about seven years for the more expensive unit to
break even.
See Climate Magic for a great explanation of seasonal energy efficiency rating (SEER).
In the next section, we'll look at cutting these costs with some new, energy-efficient cooling systems.
Energy Efficient Cooling Systems

Passive Cooling
Some people go to the extreme and get rid of their

AC units entirely. Passive cooling is the greenest of
trends and a great way to save money. Passive
cooling revolves around the concept of removing
warm air from your home using the interaction
between the house and its surroundings. There are
several ways to block and remove heat, including
shading through landscaping, using a dark exterior
paint, installing a radiant barrier in the roof rafters
and good old- fashioned insulation. Another way is
through thermal siphoning, the process of removing
heat through controlled airflow. Opening the lower
windows on the breezy side of your house and the
upper windows on the opposite side creates a
vacuum that draws out the hot air. Ceiling fans and
roof vents are other ways to direct heat out at low
cost [source: Earth Easy].
Because of the rising costs of electricity and a growing trend to "go green," more people are turning to alternative cooling
methods to spare their pocketbooks and the environment. Big businesses are even jumping on board in an effort to
improve their public image and lower their overhead.
Ice cooling systems are one way that businesses are combating high electricity costs during the summer. Ice cooling is as
simple as it sounds. Large tanks of water freeze into ice at night, when energy demands are lower. The next day, a system
much like a conventional air conditioner pumps the cool air from the ice into the building. Ice cooling saves money, cuts
pollution, eases the strain on the power grid and can be used alongside traditional systems. The downside of ice cooling is
that the systems are expensive to install and require a lot of space. Even with the high startup costs, more than 3,000
systems are in use worldwide [source: CNN]. You can read more about ice cooling in Are Ice Blocks Better than Air
Conditioning?
An ice cooling system is a great way to save money and conserve energy, but its price tag and space requirements limit it
to large buildings. One way that homeowners can save on energy costs is by installing geo-thermal heating and cooling
systems, also known as ground source heat pumps (GSHP). The Environmental Protection Agency recently named geo-
thermal units "the most energy-efficient and environmentally sensitive of all space conditioning systems" [source: EPA].
Although it varies, at six feet underground the Earth's temperatures range from 45 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit. The basic
principle behind geo-thermal cooling is to use this constant temperature as a heat source instead of generating heat with
electricity.
The most common type of geo-thermal unit for homes is the closed-loop system. Polyethylene pipes are buried under the
ground, either vertically like a well or horizontally in three- to six-foot trenches. They can also be buried under ponds.
Water or an anti-freeze/water mixture is pumped through the pipes. During the winter, the fluid collects heat from the earth
and carries it through the system and into the building. During the summer, the system reverses itself to cool the building
by pulling heat from the building, carrying it through the system and placing it in the ground [source: Geo Heating].
Homeowners can save 30 to 50 percent on their cooling bills by replacing their traditional HVAC systems with ground
source heat pumps. The initial costs can be up to 30 percent more, but that money can be recouped in three to five years,
and most states offer financial purchase incentives. Another benefit is that the system lasts longer than traditional units
because it's protected from the elements and immune to theft [source: Geo Exchange].
You can learn more about air conditioners and related topics on the next page.
THERMOSTAT
You've probably seen or used a thermostat a thousand times. This device controls the heating and air-conditioning systems
in your house -- the two pieces of equipment that use the most energy. In these days of rising energy prices, you might be
interested to see how your thermostat works. It is surprisingly simple and contains some pretty neat technology.
In this article, we'll take apart a household thermostat and learn how it works. We'll also learn a little about digital
thermostats, talking thermostats, telephone thermostats and system zoning. Let's start by taking a look at the parts of a
basic thermostat.
The top layer houses the mercury switch and the thermometer coil. The bottom layer houses the circuit card,
the mode switchand the fan switch.
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The mercury switch is a glass vial with a small amount of mercury in it. Mercury is a liquid metal -- it
conducts electricity and flows like water. Inside the glass vial are three wires. One wire goes all the way across the bottom
of the vial, so the mercury is always in contact with it. One wire ends on the left side of the vial, so when the vial tilts to the
left, the mercury contacts it -- making contact between this wire and the one on the bottom of the vial. The third wire
ends on the right side of the vial, so when the vial tilts to the right, the mercury makes contact between this wire
and the bottom wire.
The mercury switch
There are two thermometers in this thermostat. The one in the cover displays the temperature. The other, in the top layer of
the thermostat, controls the heating and cooling systems. These thermometers are nothing more than coiled bimetallic
strips. We'll look at them in more detail next.
Thermometers and Switches

A bimetallic strip is a piece of metal made by laminating two different types of metal together. The metals that make up
the strip expand and contract when they are heated or cooled. Each type of metal has its own particular rate of expansion,
and the two metals that make up the strip are chosen so that the rates of expansion and contraction are different. When
this coiled strip is heated, the metal on the inside o f the coil expands more and the strip tends to unwind.
A thermometer coil with bimetallic strips attached
The center of the coil is connected to the temperature-adjustment lever, and the mercury switch is mounted to the end of
the coil so that when the coil winds or unwinds, it tips the mercury switch one way or the other.
Circuit Card and Switches

This thermostat contains two switches. The switches move small metal balls that make contact between different traces
on the circuit card inside the thermostat. One of the switches controls the mode (heat or cool), while the other switch
controls the circulation fan.
The two switches: The fan switch moves one metal ball,
and the mode switch moves two.
On the next page, we'll see how these parts work together to make the thermostat work.
Inner Workings
When you move the lever on the thermostat to turn up the heat, this rotates the thermometer coil andmercury switch,
tipping them to the left.
Inside the thermostat, there are two layers of controls.

The top layer houses the mercury switch and thermometer coil.
As soon as the switch tips to the left, current flows through the mercury in the mercury switch. This current energizes
a relay that starts the heater and circulation fan in your home. As the room gradually heats up, the thermometer coil
gradually unwinds until it tips the mercury switch back to the right, breaking the circuit and turning off the heat.
When the mercury switch tips to the right, a relay starts the air conditioner. As the room cools, the thermometer coil
winds up until the mercury switch tips back to the left.
Heat Anticipator
Thermostats have a neat device called a heat anticipator. The heat anticipator shuts off the heater before the air inside
the thermostat actually reaches the set temperature. Often, some parts of the house will reach the set temperature
before the part of the house containing the thermostat does. The anticipator shuts the heater off a little early to
give the heat time to reach the thermostat.
The anticipator is a ring of resistive wire on the dial.
The loop of wire above is actually a resistor. When the heater is running, the current that controls the heater travels from
the mercury switch, through the yellow wire to the resistive loop. It travels around the loop until it gets to the wiper, and
from there it travels through the hub of the anticipator ring and down to the circuit board on the bottom layer of the
thermostat. The farther the wiper is positioned (moving clockwise) from the yellow wire, the more of the resistive wire the
current has to pass through. Like any resistor, this one generates heat when current passes through it. The farther around
the loop the wiper is placed, the more heat is generated by the resistor. This heat warms the thermometer coil, causing it
to unwind and tip the mercury switch to the right so that the heater shuts off.
Next, we'll take a more detailed look at the electrical circuits in the thermostat.
Wired
This thermostat is designed for a system with five wires -- the wire terminations are marked as follows:
 RH - This wire comes from the 24VAC transformer on the heating system.
 RC - This wire comes from the 24VAC transformer on the air-conditioning system.
 W - This wire comes from the relay that turns on the heating system.
 Y - This wire comes from the relay that turns on the cooling system.
 G - This wire comes from the relay that turns on the fan.
This circuit board is located in the base of the thermostat.
The five wires from the house hook up to the five screws.
The two transformers provide the power the thermostat uses to switch on the various relays. The relays in turn switch on
the power to the fan and the air conditioner or furnace. Let's see how this power flows through the thermostat when the air
conditioner is running.
Power from the air-conditioning transformer comes into the terminal labeled RC. The ball controlled by the mode switch
jumps the current onto a trace that leads to the terminal in the lower-right corner of the circuit board.
This terminal connects to the top layer of the thermostat through a screw. It connects to the pink wire, which leads to the
bottom wire in the mercury switch. If the switch is tilted to the right (as it would be if the air-conditioning were
on), the current travels through the mercury into the blue wire.
This is the top layer of the thermostat. The three screws

visible in this photo connect to the circuit card
in the bottom layer of the thermostat.
Through a screw, the blue wire (see above) connects to a lug in the lower- left corner of the circuit card.
From there, it goes through a trace on the circuit card to the other branch of the mode switch. The ball in the mode switch
jumps the current onto a trace that connects to the terminal marked G, which energizes the fan, and the terminal marked
Y, which energizes the air-conditioning.
Digital thermostats use a simple device called a thermistor to measure temperature. A thermistor is a resistor
whose electrical resistance changes with temperature. The microcontroller in a digital thermostat can measure the
resistance and convert that number to a temperature reading.
A digital thermostat can do a few things that our mechanical thermostat cannot. One of the most useful features of a
digital thermostat is programmable settings. In the winter, you can program it to automatically turn up the heat for an hour
or two in the morning while you get ready for work, turn down the heat until you get home, turn up the heat in the evening
and then turn down the heat while you sleep. This feature can save you money by turning down the heat when it isn't
needed.
Talking Thermostats
Talking thermostats may seem like one of those unnecessary futuristic inventions straight out of an episode of "The
Jetsons," but they are actually quite practical for senior citizens, people who are visually impaired or blind, and other
people with special needs. Talking thermostats announce the time, day, temperature setting and room temperature, plus
they have audio instructions for setup.
Even though talking thermostats are most helpful to people with vision impairments, they can also be useful to the
general population.
It is often difficult to know when there is a problem in your heating and cooling system, and major problems can cost
thousands of dollars to repair. Even minor problem can lead to far more serious and costly repairs if not diagnosed in a
timely manner. Talking thermostats can end up saving you lots of time, money and stress because they alert you when
you need to have your system serviced. They also let you know when you need to change the system filter. Promptly
replacing the filter lowers the cost of heating and cooling your home and also helps people control allergies and asthma.
Some talking thermostats even recognize and respond to voice commands. You simply say an activation word, such as
"thermostat," followed by a command like "raise" or "lower," and the rest is automated. Talking thermostats are able to do
this because they use DSP, or digital signal processors, to process audio and speech. First, the DSP filters out real-
world analog signals. Then, the microprocessor changes them into digital signals. After the signals have been converted,
they're sent through application-specific integrated circuits, or ASICS, and the thermostat reacts in real time.
Because talking thermostats are high-end, cutting-edge accessories to heating and cooling systems, they come equipped
with all of the user-friendly functions that other quality thermostats boast. A built-in time-delay function keeps your system
from immediately starting or stopping if it is accidentally adjusted. Stopping and starting HVAC systems puts a lot of wear
and tear on the compressor, which is the most expensive part of the system, so the delay function is quite important.
Talking thermostats are also programmable, which allows you to heat or cool your home only when it is
necessary.
Cutting Costs
If you turn down the heat 1 degree Fahrenheit (0.6 degrees
Celsius) for eight hours a day, you can save about 1 percent of
your heating energy costs. Turn it down 10 degrees Fahrenheit (6
degrees Celsius) to save about 10 percent. The same goes with
the air-conditioning: Turn the temperature up 10 degrees
Fahrenheit for eight hours a day to save approximately 10 percent
on your bill.
How Humidifiers Work
One thing that makes winter uncomfortable for humans, even inside a nice warm building, is low humidity. People need a
certain level of humidity to be comfortable. In the winter, indoor humidity can be extremely low and the lack of humidity
can dry out your skin and mucous membranes. Low humidity also makes the air feel colder than it actually is. Dry air can
also dry out the wood in the walls and floors of our houses. As the drying wood shrinks, it can cause creaks in floors and
cracks in drywall and plaster.
Humidifier Image Gallery
Photo courtesy Amazon.com

Humidifiers can make your home more comfortable. See
more humidifier images.
In this article, you'll learn how a humidifier can help make things more comfortable, and even save a little wear and tear on
your house by adding moisture to the air. It's surprising how big a difference a little water can make!
Relative Humidity
The relative humidity of the air affects how comfortable we feel. But what is humidity, and what is "relative humidity"
relative to?
Humidity is defined as the amount of moisture in the air. If you are standing in the bathroom after a hot shower and can
see the steam hanging in the air, or if you are outside after a heavy rain, then you are in an area of high humidity. If you
are standing in the middle of a desert that has not seen rainfall for two months, or if you are breathing air out of a SCUBA
tank, then you are experiencing low humidity.
Air contains a certain amount of water vapor. The amount of water vapor any mass of air can contain depends on the
temperature of that air: The warmer the air is, the more water it can hold. A low relative humidity means that the air is dry
and could hold a lot more moisture at that temperature.
For example, at 20 degrees C (68 degrees F), a cubic meter of air can hold a maximum of 18 grams of water. At 25
degrees C (77 degrees F), it can hold 22 grams of water. If the temperature is 25 degrees C and a cubic meter of air
contains 22 grams of water, then the relative humidity is 100 percent. If it contains 11 grams of water, the relative humidity
is 50 percent. If it contains zero grams of water, relative humidity is zero percent.
The relative humidity plays a large role in determining our comfort level. If the relative humidity is 100 percent, it means
that water will not evaporate -- the air is already saturated with moisture. Our bodies rely on the evaporation of moisture
from our skin for cooling. The lower the relative humidity, the easier it is for moisture to evaporate from our skin and the
cooler we feel.
You may have heard of the heat index. The chart below lists how hot a given temperature will feel to us in various
relative-humidity levels.
If the relative humidity is 100 percent, we feel much hotter than the actual temperature indicates because our sweat does
not evaporate at all. If the relative humidity is low, we feel cooler than the actual temperature because our sweat
evaporates easily; we can also feel extremely dry.
Low humidity has at least three effects on human beings:
 It dries out your skin and mucous membranes. If your home has low humidity, you will notice things like
chapped lips, dry and itchy skin, and a dry sore throat when you wake up in the morning. (Low humidity also
dries out plants and furniture.)
 It increases static electricity, and most people dislike getting sparked every time they touch something
metallic.
 It makes it seem colder than it actually is. In the summer, high humidity makes it seem warmer than it is
because sweat cannot evaporate from your body. In the winter, low humidity has the opposite effect. If you take
a look at the chart above, you'll see that if it is 70 degrees F (21 degrees C) inside your home and the humidity
is 10 percent, it feels like it is 65 degrees F (18 degrees C). Simply by bringing the humidity up to 70 percent,
you can make it feel 5 degrees F (3 degrees C) warmer in your home.
Since it costs a lot less to humidify the air than to heat it, a humidifier can save you a lot of money!
For best indoor comfort and health, a relative humidity of about 45 percent is ideal. At temperatures typically found
indoors, this humidity level makes the air feels approximately what the temperature indicates, and your skin and lungs do
not dry out and become irritated.
Most buildings can not maintain this level of humidity without help. In the winter, relative humidity is often much lower than
45 percent, and in the summer it is sometimes higher. Let's see why this is.
Weather and Humidity

Here's what happens in winter to make it feel so dry in our houses. Let's say that the outdoor temperature is 0 degrees C,
or 32 degrees F. The maximum amount of water that a cubic meter of air can hold at this temperature is 5 grams. Now you
bring this cubic meter of air inside and heat it to 25 degrees C or 77 degrees F. The relative humidity is only 23 percent:
5 grams of water in the air / 22 grams possible

= 23 percent relative humidity
It gets worse as the temperature outside

falls lower. This is why the air inside any heated building in the winter
feels so dry. Any time the temperature outside is below freezing, relative humidity inside will be below 20
percent unless you do something to increase the humidity.
The outside air might have a comfortable level of humidity, but when
that air is heated, the relative humidity drops, causing the air to be
very dry inside the house.
During the dry months, a humidifier can help maintain a comfortable level of humidity. Let's take a look at a simple
humidifier.
Inside a Humidifier
The most common type of humidifier is called an evaporative humidifier. This type of humidifier is actually quite simple
and, for the most part, self-regulating. A reservoir holds cold water and dispenses it into a basin. A wicking filter absorbs
the water from the basin. A fan then blows air through the moistened filter.
As the air passes through the filter, it evaporates some of the water there. The higher the relative humidity, the harder it is
to evaporate water from the filter, which is why a humidifier is self-regulating -- as humidity increases, the humidifier's
water-vapor output naturally decreases.
Sometimes an evaporative humidifier will be hooked up to the heating and cooling system of a house or building. These
systems work in a similar way: A metal mesh or screen is located in the duct coming from the furnace and/or air
conditioner; water from the building's pipes flows down the screen; as air coming from the duct blows across the screen, it
picks up moisture.
Next we'll take a look at a few other types of humidifiers.
Types of Humidifiers
There are many different ways to raise the humidity in your home. For example, you can put a pan of water on the stove
or on the radiator, or you hang wet towels near a heater duct. But most people use amechanical humidifier to do the job.
Here are the four most popular technologies:
 Steam
KAZ V150 steam vaporizer
Often referred to as a "vaporizer," a steam humidifier boils water and releases the warm steam into the room.
This is the simplest, and therefore the least expensive, technology for adding moisture to the air. You can find
inexpensive impeller models for less than $10 at discount stores. Another advantage of this technology is that
you can use a medicated inhalant with the unit to help reduce coughs.
 Impeller
KAZ V400 impeller humidifier
In this humidifier, a rotating disc flings water at a comb-like diffuser. The diffuser breaks the water into fine
droplets that float into the air. You normally see these droplets as a cool fog exiting the humidifier.
 Ultrasonic
KAZ 5520 ultrasonic humidifier
An ultrasonic humidifier uses a metal diaphragm vibrating at an ultrasonic frequency, much like the element in
a high-frequency speaker, to create water droplets. An ultrasonic humidifier is usually silent, and also produces
a cool fog.
 Wick/Evaporative System
KAZ V3500 evaporative humidifier
The wick system uses a paper, cloth or foam wick or sheet to draw water out of the reservoir. A fan blowing
over the wick lets the air absorb moisture. The higher the relative humidity, the harder it is to evaporate water
from the filter, which is why this type of humidifier is self-regulating -- as humidity increases, the humidifier's
water-vapor output naturally decreases.
Here are some things to keep in mind as you are weighing the advantages and disadvantages of the different
technologies:
 Steam vaporizers can be dangerous around children because they can cause burns. They also have the
highest energy costs. However, there are no bacterial or mineral concerns with this technology.
 Impeller and ultrasonic designs have low energy costs but raise two concerns. First, if the water gets stagnant,
these designs will spray the stagnant water, and any bacteria it contains, into your home. This is why it is
important to clean the tank regularly and refill it with clean water when you haven't been running it. Many high-
end ultrasonic units therefore have antibacterial features built in. For example, some units use ultraviolet light
to kill bacteria.
The second concern is minerals in the water. Impeller and ultrasonic designs send these minerals into the air. If
the water in your area contains a lot of minerals, you will notice them as dust. The EPA does not issue health
warnings about minerals in the air, but does recommend using low-mineral water (such as distilled water) in
your humidifier. Many ultrasonic models feature a demineralization cartridge that filters minerals out of the
water to prevent the dust.
 Some humidifiers monitor the relative humidity of the air and will turn on and off as appropriate to maintain a
preset level.
 Humidifiers can be installed as small portable room units, or they can be integrated into your furnace for full-
house humidity control.
If you are interested in tracking your home's humidity, an inexpensive hygrometer will show you the relative humidity in
your house. You may be surprised to learn how low it is!
For more information on humidifiers and related topics, check out the links on the next page.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ozone
The weather report on the radio orTV tells you that it is going to be sunny and hot and that an orange ozone alert has
been issued. What is ozone? What does an orange alert mean? Why should you be concerned about it?
In this article, we will examine what ozone is, how it is produced, what health hazards it poses and what you can do to
reduce ozone pollution.
Ozone is a molecule of three oxygen atoms bound together (O3). It is unstable and highly reactive. Ozone is used as
bleach, a deodorizing agent, and a sterilization agent for air and drinking water. At low concentrations, it is toxic.
Related Articles
 Worst Effects of Global

Warming
 Ozone Pollution Quiz
 Treehugger: Indoor Air
Quality
Ozone is found naturally in small concentrations in the stratosphere, a layer of Earth's upper atmosphere. In this upper
atmosphere, ozone is made when ultraviolet light from the sun splits an oxygen molecule (O2), forming two single
oxygen atoms. If a freed atom collides with an oxogen molecule, it becomes ozone.Stratospheric ozone has been called
"good" ozone because it protects the Earth's surface from dangerous ultraviolet light.
Photo courtesy NASA
Worldwide seasonal changes in tropospheric ozone: Tropospheric
ozone increases during summers in the northern and southern
hemispheres when the climate is hot. The most tropospheric
ozone is observed during summer in the northern hemisphere.
Although ozone pollution is formed mainly in urban and suburban areas, it ends up in rural areas as well, carried by
prevailing winds or resulting from cars and trucks that travel into rural areas. Significant levels of o zone pollution can be
detected in rural areas as far as 250 miles (402 kilometers) downwind from urban industrial zones.
Ozone exposure can aggravate existing respiratory conditions such as asthma, reduce your lung function and capacity for
exercise and cause chest pains and coughing. Young children, adults who are active outdoors and people with respiratory
diseases are most susceptible to the high levels of ozone encountered during the summer.
In addition to effects on humans, the corrosive nature of ozone can damage plants and trees. High levels of
ozone can destroy agricultural crops and forest vegetation.
Photo courtesy NARA, photographer Gene Daniels/U.S. EPA
Ozone-damaged plant (left) and normal plant (right)
Avoiding Ozone Exposure

To protect yourself from ozone exposure, you should be aware of the Air Quality Index (AQI) in your area everyday -- you
can usually find it in the newspaper or on a morning weather forecast on TV or radio. You should also be familiar with
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guide for ozone-alert values.
What do the numbers in the AQI mean? The AQI measures concentrations of five air pollutants: ozone, sulfur dioxide,
particulate matter, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide. The EPA has chosen these pollutants as criteria pollutants, but
these are not all of the pollutants in the air. These concentrations are compared to a standard set out in federal law. An
index value of 100 means that all of the criteria pollutants are at the ma ximum level that is considered safe for the
majority of the population -- a yellow alert on the chart below. Numbers above 100 indicate higher
concentrations and therefore a greater risk to most individuals.
U.S. EPA Air Quality Guide for Ozone
Air
Quality Color Air Quality Prediction
Index
0 to 50 Green Good No health impacts are expected.
Unusually sensitive people

51 to 100 Yellow Moderate should limit prolonged outdoor
activity.
Unhealthy for Active people and those with

101 to
Orange sensitive respiratory disease should limit
150
groups prolonged outdoor activity.
Active people and those with

respiratory disease should avoid
151 to
Red Unhealthy prolonged outdoor activity; all
200
others should limit prolonged
outdoor activity.
Active people and those with

201 to Very respiratory disease should avoid
Purple
300 unhealthy all outdoor activity; all others
should limit outdoor activity.
To reduce your exposure to ozone, you should avoid exercising during afternoon and early evening hours in the summer.
Reducing Ozone Pollution

There are several ways you can help to decrease ozone pollution:
 Limit using your automobile during afternoon and early evening hours in the late spring, summer and early fall.
 Do not use gasoline-powered lawn equipment during these times.
 Do not fuel your car during these times.
 Do not light fires or outdoor grills during these times.
 Keep the engine of your car or boat tuned.
 Make sure that your tires are properly inflated.
 Use environmentally safe paints, cleaning and office products (some of these chemicals are sources of VOC).
 Conserve energy.
Besides personal attempts to reduce ozone pollution, the EPA has initiated more stringent air-quality standards (such as
the Clean Air Act and its modifications) to reduce air pollution. Compliance with these standards by industries,
manufacturers and state and local governments has significantly reduced the levels of many common air pollutants.
Photo courtesy U.S. EPA

Changes in air-pollution emissions in the United States
Ozone concentration in the troposphere has also decreased in the past 10 years.
Photo courtesy U.S. EPA

Changes in ozone concentration in the United States (black
line represents air-quality standard)
With continued conservation and reduction practices, adherence to ozone-pollution warnings, research and government
regulation, ozone-pollution levels should continue to fall. Perhaps future generations will not be threatened by this
environmental pollutant.
For more information on ozone pollution and related topics, check out the links on the next page.
Rotating biological contactors (RBCs) are mechanical secondary treatment systems, which are robust and
capable of withstanding surges in organic load. RBCs were first installed in Germany in 1960 and have since
been developed and refined into a reliable operating unit. The rotating disks support the growth of bacteria and
micro-organisms present in the sewage, which breakdown and stabilise organic pollutants. To be successful,
micro-organisms need both oxygen to live and food to grow. Oxygen is obtained from the atmosphere as the
disks rotate. As the micro-organisms grow, they build up on the media until they are sloughed off due to shear
forces provided by the rotating discs in the sewage. Effluent from the RBC is then passed through final clarifiers
where the micro-organisms in suspension settle as a sludge. The sludge is withdrawn from the clarifier for
further treatment.
The membrane bioreactor (MBR) is the combination of a membrane process like microfiltration or
ultrafiltration with a suspended growth bioreactor, and is now widely used for municipal and industrial
wastewater treatment with plant sizes up to 80,000 population equivalent (i.e. 48 MLD) [1].
When used with domestic wastewater, MBR processes could produce effluent of high quality enough to be
discharged to coastal, surface or brackish waterways or to be reclaimed for urban irrigation. Other advantages of
MBRs over conventional processes include small footprint, easy retrofit and upgrade of old wastewater
treatment plants. Two MBR configurations exist: internal, where the membranes are immersed in and integral to
the biological reactor; and external/sidestream, where membranes are a separate unit process requiring an
intermediate pumping step.
chematic of conventional activated sludge process (top) and membrane bioreactor (bottom)
Recent technical innovation and significant membrane cost reduction have pushed MBRs to become an
established process option to treat wastewaters [1]. As a result, the MBR process has now become an attractive
option for the treatment and reuse of industrial and municipal wastewaters, as evidenced by their constantly
rising numbers and capacity. The current MBR market has been estimated to value around US$216 million in
2006 and to rise to US$363 million by 2010 [2].
Schematic of a submerged MBR
A fluidized bed is formed when a quantity of a solid particulate substance (usually present in a holding vessel)
is forced to behave as a fluid; usually by the forced introduction of pressurised fluid, often a gas through the
particulate medium. This results in the medium then having many properties and characteristics of normal
fluids; such as the ability to free-flow under gravity, or to be pumped using fluid type technologies. It reduces
the density of the medium; without affecting its elemental nature. The resulting phenomenon is called
fluidization. Fluidized beds are used for several purposes, such as fluidized bed reactors (types of chemical
reactors), fluid catalytic cracking, fluidized bed combustion, fluidized bed biofilter (used for biological
treatment of polluted waters) or applying a coating on solid items. Precautions must be taken against producing
explosive vapours by combination with this process.
Typically, pressurized gas or liquid enters the fluidized bed vessel through numerous holes in a distributor
plate at the bottom af the fluidized bed. The fluid flows upward through the bed, causing the solid particles to
be suspended. This process can be made to take place at elevated temperature such as the case of Coffee
roasting using a fluidized bed.
A fluidized bed is a bed of solid particles with a stream of air or gas passing upward through the particles at a
rate great enough to set them in motion. An expanded bed is formed when the gas or airflow rate increases and
particles move apart. A few visibly vibrate and move about in restricted regions. At still higher velocities of
airflow, all the particles become suspended. At this point, the frictional force between a particle and air balances
the weight of the particles, the vertical component of the compressive force between adjacent particles
disappears, and the pressure drop through any section of the bed approximates the weight of air and particles in
that section. The bed is referred to as an incipiently fluidized bed or a bed at minimum fluidization. With an
increase in airflow rates beyond minimum fluidization, large instabilities with bubbling and channeling of air
create different types of beds.
A slugging bed is a fluid bed in which air bubbles occupy entire cross sections of the vessel and divide the bed
into layers. A boiling bed is a fluid bed in which the air or gas bubbles are approximately the same size as the
solid particles. A channeling bed is a fluid bed in which the air (or gas) forms channels in the bed through
which most of the air passes. A spouting bed is a fluid bed in which the air forms a single opening through
which some particles flow and fall to the outside. At higher airflow rates, agitation becomes more violent and
the movement of solids becomes more vigorous. Additionally, the bed does not expand much beyond its volume
at minimum fluidization. Such a bed is called an aggregative or bubbling fluidized bed.
A fluidized bed dryer (also fluidised bed) is a form of dryer using Fluidized bed technology.
Activated sludge is a process dealing with the treatment of sewage and industrial wastewaters.[1] Atmospheric
air or pure oxygen is bubbled through primary treated sewage (or industrial wastewater) combined with
organisms to develop a biological floc which reduces the organic content of the sewage. The combination of
raw sewage (or industrial wastewater) and biological mass is commonly known as Mixed Liquor. In all
activated sludge plants, once the sewage (or industrial wastewater) has received sufficient treatment, excess
mixed liquor is discharged into settling tanks and the treated supernatant is run off to undergo further treatment
before discharge. Part of the settled material, the sludge, is returned to the head of the aeration system to re-seed
the new sewage (or industrial wastewater) entering the tank. This fraction of the floc is called Return Activated
Sludge (R.A.S.). Excess sludge which eventually accumulates beyond what is returned is called Waste Activated
Sludge (W.A.S.). W.A.S is removed from the treatment process to keep the ratio of biomass to food supplied
(sewage or wastewater) in balance. This is called the F:M ratio. W.A.S is stored away from the main treatment
process in storage tanks and is further treated by digestion, either under anaerobic or aerobic conditions prior to
disposal.
Activated sludge is also the name given to the active biological material produced by activated sludge plants
and which affects all the purification processes. This material, which in healthy sludge is a brown floc, is largely
composed off saprotrophic bacteria but also has an important protozoan flora mainly composed of amoebae,
Spirotrichs, Peritrichs including Vorticellids and a range of other filter feeding species. Other important
constituents include motile and sedentary Rotifers. In poorly managed activated sludge, a range of mucilaginous
filamentous bacteria can develop including Sphaerotilus natans which produces a sludge that is difficult to
settle and can result in the sludge blanket decanting over the weirs in the settlement tank to severely
contaminate the final effluent quality. This material is often described as sewage fungus but true fungal
communities are relatively uncommon.
The STP is based on physicochemical treatment for laundry and anaerobic biological treatment for kitchen
wastewater.
Activated Sludge: - Flocculent sludge produced by the growth of bacteria and other organisms in raw or settled sewage,
when it is continuously aerated.
Activated Sludge Process:- A biological treatment process in which a mixture of sewage and activated sludge is agitated
and aerated. The activated sludge is subsequently separated from the treated sewage by settlement and may be re-used.
Aerobic action:- A biological process promoted by action of bacteria in the presence of dissolved oxygen.
Anaerobic action: - A biological process promoted by the action of bacteria in the absence of dissolved oxygen.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD):- The amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by micro-biological action when a
sample is incubated, usually for 5 days at 20 deg. C. (in the UK expressed as BOD5 ). In some countries the BOD test is
carried out over differing periods such as 7 days (BOD7), and 10 days (BOD10).
Sewage:- The water-borne wastes of a house or community.
Sludge: - A mixture of solids and water produced during the treatment of waste water or sewage. This will frequently have
to be removed from the treatment system by de-sludging.
Thumbs rule for calculating the civil value of tank.: - Total Area X 8000 = Value of civil work.
Definition:
1. glowing with heat: emitting light as a consequence of being heated to a high temperature
2. glowing brightly: shining or glowing brightly
3. showing intense emotion: feeling or displaying intense emotion such as anger or romantic
passion
incandescent lamp (plural incandescent lamps)
Definition:
lamp with heated filament: an electric lamp that produces light from an electrically heated
filament
illumination
1. act of illuminating: the provision of light to make something visible or bright, or the fact of
being lit up
2. usable light: the amount or strength of light available in a place or for a purpose
3. clarification of something: the process of making something easier to understand
4. enlightenment: intellectual or spiritual enlightenment
Useful Formulas:
 Total Heat (BTU/hr) = 4.5 x cfm x ∆h (std. air)

 Sensible Heat (BTU/hr) = 1.1 x cfm x ∆t
 Latent Heat (BTU/hr) = 0.69 x cfm x ∆gr. (std. air)
 Total Heat (BTU/hr) = 500 x gpm x ∆t (water)
 BTU/hr = 3.413 x watts = HP x 2546 = Kg Cal x 3.97
 TONS = 24 x gpm x ∆t (water)
 GPM cooler = (24 x TONS) / ∆t (water)
 Fluid Mixture Tm = (Xt1 + Yt2) / X + Y (this works for air or water)
 Lb. = 453.6 grams = 7000 grains
 psi = ft. water/2.31 = in. hg/2.03 = in. water/27.7 = 0.145 x kPa
 Ton = 12,000 BTU/hr = 0.2843 x KW
 HP (air) = cfm x ∆p (in.H2O)/6350 x Eff.

 HP (water) = gpm x ∆p (ft.)/3960 x Eff.
 Gal. = FT3/7.48 = 3.785 Liters = 8.33 lb. (water) = 231 in. 3
 gpm= 15.85xL/S
 cfm = 2.119 x L/S
 Liter = 3.785 x gal = 0.946 x quart = 28.32 x ft 3
 Therm = 100,000 BTU = MJ/105.5
 Watt/sq. ft. = 0.0926 x W/M2
 yd. = 1.094 x M
 ft. = 3.281 x M
 ft2 = 10.76 x M2
 ft3 = 35.31 x M3
 ft/min = 196.9 x M/S
 PPM (by mass) = mg/kg
Definitions
A BTU is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of liquid water
by one degree Fahrenheit. As is the case with the calorie, several different definitions of the BTU exist,
which are based on different water temperatures and therefore vary by up to 0.5%:
Conversions
One BTU is approximately:
1 054 – 1 060 J (joules)

252 – 253 cal (calories)
25 031 – 25 160 ft·pdl (foot-poundal)
778 – 782 ft·lbf (foot-pounds-force)
Other conversions:
In natural gas, by convention 1 MMBtu (1 million BTU, sometimes written "mmBTU") =

1.054615 GJ. Conversely, 1 gigajoule is equivalent to 26.8 m3 of natural gas at defined
temperature and pressure. So, 1 MMBtu = 28.263682 m3 of natural gas at defined
temperature and pressure.
1 standard cubic foot of natural gas yields ≈ 1030 BTU (between 1010 BTU and 1070 BTU,
depending on quality when burned)
[edit] Associated units
The BTU per hour (BTU/h) is the unit of power most commonly associated with the BTU.
1 watt is approximately 3.41 BTU/h

1000 BTU/h is approximately 293 W
1 horsepower is approximately 2,544 BTU/h
1 "ton of cooling", a common unit in North American refrigeration and air conditioning
applications, is 12,000 BTU/h. It is the amount of power needed to melt one short ton of ice in
24 hours, and is approximately 3.51 kW.
1 therm is defined in the United States and European Union as 100,000 BTU—but the U.S.
uses the BTU59 °F whilst the EU uses the BTUIT.
1 quad (energy) (short for quadrillion BTU) is defined as 1015 BTU, which is about one
exajoule (1.055 × 1018 J). Quads are used in the United States for representing the annual
energy consumption of large economies: for example, the U.S. economy used 99.75
quads/year in 2005. [1]. One quad/year is about 33.43 gigawatts.
The BTU should not be confused with the Board of Trade Unit (B.O.T.U.), which is a much larger
quantity of energy (1 kW·h, or about 3412 BTU).
Helpful HVAC Info:
Clues to BTU’s
Rule of thumb for Air Conditioning design
BTU – amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. A ton of
refrigeration is equal to 12,000 BTU’s. That is the amount of heat required to melt a ton (2000 lbs) of ice at 32
degrees Fahrenheit.
Comfort cooling: estimate one ton of cooling for every 400 square feet of living space.
Commercial Process Cooling: estimate approximately one ton of cooling for every 250 square feet of space to
be conditioned.
Cooling People: People generate approximately 600 BTU’S per person. If you have 10 people in a room you
must therefore account for 10 x 600 = 6000 Btu’s
Cooling Equipment: check equipment specifications for the BTU or Wattage output, if that information is not
available check the equipment nameplate and calculate wattage with volts times amps ( Volts x Amps ) = Watts
Quick Cool Formula: Watts x 3.4 = BTU or ( Volts x Amps ) x 3.4 = BTU
Add up all of your equipment BTU’s and you will have an approximate load calculation of your cooling
requirements.
HVAC Formulas
The HVAC design formulas shown below are based upon normal conditions and should only be
used as a general guide. For extreme or demanding conditions, we recommend consulting with
an architect or qualified environmental engineer to design an HVAC system for your specific
requirements.
Heating
Heater sizing formula – 7 watts of heat per square foot of floor space
Example:
10’ x 20’ room = 200 square feet
200 sq. ft. x 7 = 1400 watts of heat required
(Note: 1 watt = approximately 3.4 BTU’s)
Ventilation
The ventilation required within a room depends on a couple of factors: 1) Occupancy -- the
number of people normally in the room; and 2) Usage – lunchrooms or conference rooms may
require more ventilation.
General rule of thumb – changing the air in the room every 10 minutes is sufficient
Example:
10’ x 20’ room with 8’ ceiling height = 10’x20’x8’ = (1600 cubic feet)
1600 cu. ft. / 10 minutes = 160 cu. ft. per minute (CFM); therefore,
A 160 CFM fan should be adequate for this room.
Note: If smoking is allow in the room, the air should be changed every three minutes.
Air Conditioning
Air conditioner sizing formula – 30 BTU’s of cooling per square foot of floor space
Example:
10’ x 20’ room = 200 square feet
200 sq. ft. x 30 BTU’s = 6,000 BTU’s of cooling required
If the room is going to be heavily occupied (i.e. lunchroom, conference room) or located near a
heat producing piece of equipment, the amount of air conditioning should be increased. A good
rule of thumb is to add 500 BTU’s for each person in the room.
Material extracted in whole or in part with permission and courtesy of Starrco.
Updated June 2007
CALCULATING COOLING CAPACITY

A good rule of thumb to estimate the amount of cooling capacity
you need is to multiply the area of floor space (ft 2) by a factor of
10 and add 3,000.
For example, the amount of cooling capacity for a 20-foot by
20-foot room would be:
[400 ft2 x 10] + 3,000 = 7,000 Btu/hour

ENGINEERING DATA
1 ton a/c = 12,000 BTU per hour
1 Boiler HP = 42,000 BTU input (@ approx. 80% efficiency)
100 Boiler HP = 42 therm Input (@ approx. 80% efficiency)
100 lb Steam = 1 therm (approx.)
1 Engine HP = 10,000 BTU input (approx.)
1 British Thermal Unit = Energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lb. Mass of
water by 1° F
1 SCF natural gas = 1,000 BTU (approx.)
100 SCF natural gas = 1 therm (approx.)
1 MSCF natural gas = 1,000 scf 1 MSCF = 10 therm
1 Therm = 29.3 kilowatt hr
Standard Cubic Foot = Volume of gas at standard conditions
Standard conditions = 60° F @ 14.73 psia
SCFH = Volume flow rate per hour @ standard conditions
Degrees Celsius = 5/9 ( °F - 32)
ABBREVIATIONS
ACSH - actual cubic feet per hour
ACFM - actual cubic feet per minute
BTU - British thermal unit
MSCF - (thousand) standard cubic feet
N.O. - Normally open
N.C. - Normally closed
PSI - pounds per square inch
PSIA - pounds per square inch absolute
PSIG - pounds per square inch gauge
SCFH - Standard cubic feet per hour
w.c. - inches of water column
G - Gravity
H - Pressure drop
Q - Flow
T - Temperature
W - Flow rate
RULES OF THUMB - UNIT SIZING
Sizing Boiler Feed or Condensate Return ump Discharge Pressure:
1) If boiler < 50 psig, size pump to discharge 5 psig above working pressure.
2) If boiler > psig, size pump to discharge 10 psig above working pressure.
Sizing Boiler Feed or Condensate Return Pump Capacity:
1) Condensate pump = 2 x condensate return rate
2) Boiler Feed pump = 2 x boiler evaporation rate, or:
a) .14 GPM/BHP (on/off pumps)
b) .104 GPM/BHP (continuous running pumps)
Receiver Storage:
1) Size condensate receivers for 2 minute net storage capacity per return rate.
2) Size boiler feed receivers for system capacity (normally estimated at 10
minutes)
RULES OF THUMB - GENERAL
1 Ft3 Natural Gas = 1000 BTU
1 Therm Natural Gas = 100,000 BTU
1 Unit Natural Gas = 10 Therms = 1,000,000 BTU
1 Ft3 Propane = 2,500 BTU
1 Gallon #2 Oil - 140,000 BTU
1 lb. Steam = 1000 BTU
1 BHP = 42,000 BTU / hr Input
1 BHP = 33,600 BTU / hr Output
1 KWH Electric = 3412 BTU
Normal Stack Temp on a 15 psig Steam Boiler = 375°F
Normal Stack Temp on a 150 psig Steam Boiler = 475°F
Normal Stack Temp on a 30 psig Hot Water Boiler = 340°F
1 psig = 2.31' Head
1 psig = 27.68" H20
Air Supply Required (in CFM) = 10.8 X BHP
Louver Size = 1 In2 per 4000 BTU (Input)
HVAC
Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning is based on the basic principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics,
and heat transfer, and to inventions and discoveries made by Michael Faraday, Willis Carrier, Reuben Trane,
James Joule, William Rankine, Sadi Carnot, and many others. The invention of the components of HVAC
systems goes hand-in-hand with the industrial revolution, and new methods of modernization, higher efficiency,
and system control are constantly introduced by companies and inventors all over the world.
The three functions of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning are closely interrelated. All seek to provide
thermal comfort, acceptable indoor air quality, and reasonable installation, operation, and maintenance costs.
HVAC systems can provide ventilation, reduce air infiltration, and maintain pressure relationships between
spaces. How air is delivered to, and removed from spaces is known as room air distribution.[1]
10.8 Air-Conditioning
10.8.1 Air-conditioning is the application of methods for controlling the temperature of internal environments
for the purpose of: (a) promoting human health and comfort, (b) improving working efficiency, (c) maintaining
materials in the most suitable conditions for storage and manufacturing operations, and (d) supplying
conditioned air (hot or cold) for industrial process. Multistoreyed office, hotel and other buildings are air-
conditioned to increase working efficiency and to provide optimum thermal comfort of the occupants. Thermal
comfort depends on proper combination of dry bulb temperature, relative humidity and air velocity.
Air Change per Hour (ACH) :- The number of times per hour that the volume of a specific room or building is
supplied or removed from that space by mechanical and natural ventilation.
Air handler, or air handling unit (AHU) :- Central unit consisting of a blower, heating and cooling elements,
filter racks or chamber, dampers, humidifier, and other central equipment in direct contact with the airflow.
This does not include the ductwork through the building.
British thermal unit (BTU) :- Any of several units of energy (heat) in the HVAC industry, each slightly more than
1 kJ. One BTU is the energy required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, but the many
different types of BTU are based on different interpretations of this “definition”. In the United States the power
of HVAC systems (the rate of cooling and dehumidifying or heating) is sometimes expressed in BTU/hour
instead of watts.
Chiller :- A device that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycle.
This cooled liquid flows through pipes in a building and passes through coils in air handlers, fan-coil units, or
other systems, cooling and usually dehumidifying the air in the building. Chillers are of two types; air-cooled or
water-cooled. Air-cooled chillers are usually outside and consist of condenser coils cooled by fan-driven air.
Water-cooled chillers are usually inside a building, and heat from these chillers is carried by recirculating water
to outdoor cooling towers.
Coil :- Equipment that performs heat transfer when mounted inside an Air Handling unit or ductwork. It is
heated or cooled by electrical means or by circulating liquid or steam within it. Air flowing across it is heated or
cooled.
Controller :- A device that controls the operation of part or all of a system. It may simply turn a device on and
off, or it may more subtly modulate burners, compressors, pumps, valves, fans, dampers, and the like. Most
controllers are automatic but have user input such as temperature set points, e.g. a thermostat. Controls may
be analog, or digital, or pneumatic, or a combination of these.
delta T :- delta T is a reference to a temperature difference. It is used to describe the difference in temperature
of a heating or cooling fluid as it enters and as it leaves a heat transfer device. This term is used in the
calculation of coil efficiency.
Fan-coil unit (FCU) :-A small terminal unit that is often composed of only a blower and a heating and/or cooling
coil (heat exchanger), as is often used in hotels, condominiums, or apartments.
Condenser :- A component in the basic refrigeration cycle that ejects or removes heat from the system. The
condenser is the hot side of an air conditioner or heat pump. Condensers are heat exchangers, and can
transfer heat to air or to an intermediate fluid (such as water or an aqueous solution of ethylene glycol) to
carry heat to a distant sink, such as ground (earth sink), a body of water, or air (as with cooling towers).
Constant air volume (CAV) :- A system designed to provide a constant air volume per unit time. This term is
applied to HVAC systems that have variable supply-air temperature but constant air flow rates. Most residential
forced-air systems are small CAV systems with on/off control.
Damper : - A plate or gate placed in a duct to control air flow by introducing a constriction in the duct.
Evaporator : - A component in the basic refrigeration cycle that absorbs or adds heat to the system.
Evaporators can be used to absorb heat from air (by reducing temperature and by removing water) or from a
liquid. The evaporator is the cold side of an air conditioner or heat pump.
Furnace : - A component of an HVAC system that adds heat to air or an intermediate fluid by burning fuel
(natural gas, oil, propane, butane, or other flammable substances) in a heat exchanger.
Fresh air intake (FAI) :- An opening through which outside air is drawn into the building. This may be to replace
air in the building that has been exhausted by the ventilation system, or to provide fresh air for combustion of
fuel.
Grille : -A facing across a duct opening, usually rectangular is shape, containing multiple parallel slots through
which air may be delivered or withdrawn from a ventilated space.
Heat load, heat loss, or heat gain :- Terms for the amount of heating (heat loss) or cooling (heat gain) needed
to maintain desired temperatures and humidities in controlled air. Regardless of how well-insulated and sealed
a building is, buildings gain heat from warm air or sunlight or lose heat to cold air and by radiation. Engineers
use a heat load calculation to determine the HVAC needs of the space being cooled or heated.
Louvers : - Blades, sometimes adjustable, placed in ducts or duct entries to control the volume of air flow. The
term may also refer to blades in a rectangular frame placed in doors or walls to permit the movement of air.
Makeup air unit (MAU) :- An air handler that conditions 100% outside air. MAUs are typically used in industrial
or commercial settings, or in once- through (blower sections that only blow air one-way into the building), low
flow (air handling systems that blow air at a low flow rate), or primary-secondary (air handling systems that
have an air handler or rooftop unit connected to an add-on makeup unit or hood) commercial HVAC systems.
Packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC) : -
An air conditioner and heater combined into a single, electrically-powered unit, typically installed
through a wall and often found in hotels.
Roof-top unit (RTU) : -An air-handling unit, defined as either "recirculating" or "once-through" design, made
specifically for outdoor installation. They most often include, internally, their own heating and cooling devices.
RTUs are very common in some regions, particularly in single-story commercial buildings.
Variable air volume (VAV) system : - An HVAC system that has a stable supply-air temperature, and varies the
air flow rate to meet the temperature requirements. Compared to CAV systems, these systems waste less
energy through unnecessarily-high fan speeds. Most new commercial buildings have VAV systems.
The most common units for heat are

 BTU - British Thermal Unit
 Calorie
 Joule
BTU - British Thermal Unit: - The unit of heat in the imperial system - the BTU - is
 the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through 1 oF (58.5oF -
59.5oF) at sea level (30 inches of mercury).
 1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 1055.06 J = 107.6 kpm = 2.931 10-4 kWh = 0.252 kcal = 778.16 ft.lbf
= 1.0551010 ergs = 252 cal = 0.293 watt-hours
An item using one kilowatt-hour of electricity will generate 3412 BTU.
Calorie: - A calorie is
 the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water 1 oC.
 1 kcal = 4186.8 J = 426.9 kp.m = 1.163 10-3 kWh = 3.088 ft.lbf = 3.9683 Btu = 1000 cal
The calorie is outdated and commonly replaced by the SI-unit Joule.
Joule: - The unit of heat in the SI-system the Joule is

 the mechanical energy which must be expended to raise the temperature of a unit weight (2 kg)
of water from 0oC to 1oC, or from 32oF to 33.8oF.
 1 J (Joule) = 0.1020 kpm = 2.778 10-7 kWh = 2.389 10-4 kcal = 0.7376 ft.lbf = 1 kg.m2/s2 = 1 watt
second = 1 Nm = 1 ft.lb = 9.478 10-4 Btu
Chiller Refrigeration Tons
A chiller refrigeration ton is defined as:
1 refrigeration ton = 12,000 Btu/h = 3,025.9 k Calories/h

A ton is the amount of heat removed by an air conditioning system that would melt 1 ton of ice in 24 hours.
Cooling Tower Tons
A cooling tower ton is defined as:
1 cooling tower ton = 15,000 Btu/h = 3,782 k Calories/h
Heat Load and Water Flow
A water systems heat load in Btu/h can be simplified to:
h = cp ρ q dt
= 1 (Btu/lbm oF) 8.33 (lbm/gal) q (gal/min) 60 (min/h) dt (oF)
= 500 q dt (1)
where
h = heat load (Btu/h)
cp = 1 (Btu/lbm oF) for water
ρ = 8.33 (lbm/gal) for water
q = water volume flow rate (gal/min)
dt = temperature difference (oF)
Example - Water Chiller Cooling
Water flows with 1 gal/min and 10oF temperature difference. The ton of cooling load can be calculated as:
Cooling load = 500 (1 gal/min) (10oF) / 12,000
= 0.42 ton
The efficiency of chillers depends on the energy consumed. Absorption chillers are rated in fuel consumption per ton cooling.
Electric motor driven chillers are rated in kilowatts per ton cooling.
KW/ton = 12 / EER
KW/ton = 12 / (COP x 3.412)
COP = EER / 3.412
COP = 12 / (KW/ton) / 3.412
EER = 12 / KW/ton
EER = COP x 3.412

If a chillers efficiency is rated at 1 KW/ton, the COP=3.5 and the EER=12
Cooling Load in - kW/ton
The term kW/ton is common used for large commercial and industrial air-conditioning, heat pump and
refrigeration systems.
The term is defined as the ratio of the rate of energy consumption in kW to the rate of heat removal in
tons at the rated condition. The lower the kW/ton the more efficient the system.
kW/ton = Pc / Er (1)
where
Pc = energy consumption (kW)
Er = heat removed (ton)

Coefficient of Performance - COP
The Coefficient of Performance - COP - is the basic unit less parameter used to report the efficiency
of refrigerant based systems.
The Coefficient of Performance - COP - is the ratio between useful energy acquired and energy
applied and can be expressed as:
COP = Eu / Ea (2)
where
COP = coefficient of performance
Eu = useful energy acquired (btu in imperial units)
Ea = energy applied (btu in imperial units)
COP can be used to define both cooling efficiency or heating efficiency as for a heat pump.
 For cooling, COP is defined as the ratio of the rate of heat removal to the
rate of energy input to the compressor.
 For heating, COP is defined as the ratio of rate of heat delivered to the rate
of energy input to the compressor.
COP can be used to define the efficiency at a single standard or non-standard rated condition or a
weighted average seasonal condition. The term may or may not include the energy consumption of
auxiliary systems such as indoor or outdoor fans, chilled water pumps, or cooling tower systems. For
purposes of comparison, the higher the COP the more efficient the system.
COP can be treated as an efficiency where COP of 2.00 = 200% efficient For unitary heat pumps,
ratings at two standard outdoor temperatures of 47 oF and 17oF (8.3oC and -8.3oC) are typically used.
Energy Efficiency Ratio - EER
The Energy Efficiency Ratio - EER - is a term generally used to define the cooling efficiency of unitary
air-conditioning and heat pump systems.
The efficiency is determined at a single rated condition specified by the appropriate equipment
standard and is defined as the ratio of net cooling capacity - or heat removed in Btu/h - to the total
input rate of electric energy applied - in watt hour. The units of EER are Btu/w.h.
EER = Ec / Pa (3)
where
EER = energy efficient ratio (Btu/W.h)
Ec = net cooling capacity (Btu/h)
Pa = applied energy (Watts)
This efficiency term typically includes the energy requirement of auxiliary systems such as the indoor
and outdoor fans and the higher the EER the more efficient is the system.
Definitions
A BTU is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of liquid water
by one degree Fahrenheit. As is the case with the calorie, several different definitions of the BTU exist,
which are based on different water temperatures and therefore vary by up to 0.5%:
Conversions
One BTU is approximately:
1 054 – 1 060 J (joules)

252 – 253 cal (calories)
25 031 – 25 160 ft·pdl (foot-poundal)
778 – 782 ft·lbf (foot-pounds-force)
Other conversions:
In natural gas, by convention 1 MMBtu (1 million BTU, sometimes written "mmBTU") =
1.054615 GJ. Conversely, 1 gigajoule is equivalent to 26.8 m3 of natural gas at defined
temperature and pressure. So, 1 MMBtu = 28.263682 m3 of natural gas at defined
temperature and pressure.
1 standard cubic foot of natural gas yields ≈ 1030 BTU (between 1010 BTU and 1070 BTU,
depending on quality when burned)
[edit] Associated units
The BTU per hour (BTU/h) is the unit of power most commonly associated with the BTU.
1 watt is approximately 3.41 BTU/h

1000 BTU/h is approximately 293 W
1 horsepower is approximately 2,544 BTU/h
1 "ton of cooling", a common unit in North American refrigeration and air conditioning
applications, is 12,000 BTU/h. It is the amount of power needed to melt one short ton of ice in
24 hours, and is approximately 3.51 kW.
1 therm is defined in the United States and European Union as 100,000 BTU—but the U.S.
uses the BTU59 °F whilst the EU uses the BTUIT.
1 quad (energy) (short for quadrillion BTU) is defined as 1015 BTU, which is about one
exajoule (1.055 × 1018 J). Quads are used in the United States for representing the annual
energy consumption of large economies: for example, the U.S. economy used 99.75
quads/year in 2005. [1]. One quad/year is about 33.43 gigawatts.
The BTU should not be confused with the Board of Trade Unit (B.O.T.U.), which is a much larger
quantity of energy (1 kW·h, or about 3412 BTU).
Acceleration
foot/second2, meter/second2, gal, galileo, inch/second2

 1 m/s2 = 3.28084 ft/s2 = 100 cm/s2 = 39.37 inch per second squared (inch/s2)
 1 ft/s2 = 0.3048 m/s2 = 30.48 cm/s2
 1 g = 9.80665 m/s2 = 32.17405 ft/s2
Area
acre, are, barn, sq.ft., sq.in., foot2, hectare, inch2, mile2, section, meter2, township, yard2, hectares
 1 m2 = 1550 in2 = 10.764 ft2 = 1.1968 yd2 = 3.861x10-7 mile2
 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2 = 144 in2 = 0,1111 yd2 = 3.587x10-8 mile2
 1 in2 = 6.452 cm2 = 6.452x10-4 m2 = 6.944x10-3 ft2 = 7.716x10-4 yd2 = 2.491x10-10 mile2
 1 yd2 = 0.8361 m2 = 1,296 in2 = 9 ft2 = 0.3228x10-6 mile2
 1 mile2 = 2.590x106 m2 = 0.4015x1010 in2 = 2.788x107 ft2 = 3.098x106 yd2=640 Acres
 1 acre = 1/640 mile2 = 0.404686 ha (Hectares) = 4,046.86 m 2 =43,560 Sq.Ft. = 4840 Sq.Yds.
 1 km2 = 102 ha2 = 106 m2 = 1010 cm2 = 1012 mm2
 1 ha (Hectare) = 104 m2 = 108 cm2 = 1010 mm2 = 2.471 Acres
 1 cm2 = 10-4 m2 = 0.155 in2
 1 mm2 = 1.55x10-3in2
 1 township = 9.323957 107 m2
 1 section = 2.589 106 m2
Density
kg/cubic meter, gram/centimeter3, lmb/cubic inch, lbm/cubic foot, slug/cubic foot, kilogram/cubic meter, lbm/gallon (US liq)
 Density Water 1,000 kg/m3 = 62.43 Lbs./Cu.Ft = 8.33 Lbs./Gal. = 0.1337 Cu.Ft./Gal.
 1 lb/ft3 = 16.018 kg/m3 = 0.016 g/cm3 = 0.00926 oz/in3 = 2.57 oz/gal (Imperial) = 2.139 oz/gal
(U.S.) = 0.0005787 lb/in3 = 27 lb/yd3 = 0.161 lb/gal (Imperial) = 0.134 lb/gal (U.S) = 0.0121
ton/yd3
 1 slug/ft3 = 515.379 kg/m3
 1 kg/l = 62.43 lb/ft3

 1 kg/m3 = 0.001 g/cm3 = 0.0005780 oz/in3 = 0.16036 oz/gal (Imperial) = 0.1335 oz/gal (U.S.) =
0.0624 lb/ft3 = 0.000036127 lb/in3 = 1.6856 lb/yd3 = 0.010022 lb/gal (Imperial) = 0.008345 lb/gal
(U.S) = 0.0007525 ton/yd3
Energy
British Thermal Unit (Btu), calorie, joule, kilojoule, electron volt, erg, foot lb f, foot poundal, kilocalorie, kilowatt hour, watt hour,
 1 J (Joule) = 0,1020 kpm = 2.778x10-7 kWh = 2.389x10-4 kcal = 0.7376 ft lbf = 1 (kg m2)/s2 = 1
watt second = 1 Nm = 1 ft lb = 9.478x10-4 Btu
 1 kpm = 9.80665 J = 2.724x10-6 kWh = 2.342x10-3 kcal = 7.233 ft lbf = 9.295x10-3 Btu
 1 kWh = 3.6x106 J = 3.671x105 kpm = 859.9 kcal = 2.656x106 ft lbf = 3.412x103 Btu
 1 kJ = 1 kNm = 1kWs = 103 J = 0.947813 Btu = 737.6 ft lbf = 0.23884 kcal
 1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 1,055.06 J = 107.6 kpm = 2.931x10 -4 kWh = 0.252 kcal = 778.16 ft
lbf = 1.055x1010 ergs = 252 cal = 0.293 watt hour
 1 cal = 4.186 J
 1 kcal = 4186,8 J = 426,9 kp m = 1.163x10-3 kWh = 3.088 ft lbf = 3.9683 Btu = 1,000 cal
 1 ft lbf (foot pound force) = 1.3558 J = 0.1383 kp m = 3.766x10 -7 kWh = 3.238x10-4 kcal =
1.285x10-3 Btu
 1 hp h (horse power hour) = 2.6846x106 J = 0.7457 kWh
 1 erg = 1 (g cm2)/s2 = 10-7 J
 1 eV = 1.602x10-19 J
 1 Q = 1018 Btu = 1.055x1021 J
 1 Quad = 1015 Btu
 1 kg m = 7.233 ft lb = 0.00929 Btu = 9.806 Joule
Energy per unit mass

 1 kJ/kg = 1 J/g = 0.4299 Btu/ lbm = 0.23884 kcal/kg
Flow - see Volume flow

Force
dyne, kilogram force (kgf), kilopound force, kip, lbf (pound force), ounce force (avoirdupois), poundal, newton
 1 N (Newton) = 0.1020 kp = 7.233 pdl = 7.233/32.174 lb f = 0.2248 lbf = 1 (kg m)/s2 = 105 dyn =
1/9.80665 kgf
 1 lbf (Pound force) = 4.44822 N = 0.4536 kp = 32.17 pdl = 4.448x10 5 dyn
 1 dyn = 1 (g cm)/s2
 1 kg has a weight of 1 kp
 1 kp (Kilopond) = 9.80665 N = 2.205 lbf = 70.93 pdl
 1 pdl (Poundal) = 0.13826 N = 0.01409 kp = 0.03108 lb f
Heat flow rate

 1 Btu/sec = 1,055.1 W
 1 kW (kJ/s) = 102.0 kpm/s = 859.9 kcal/h = 3,413 Btu/h = 1.360 hk = 1.341 hp = 738 ft lb/s =
1,000 J/s = 3.6x106 J/h
 1 kpm/s = 9.8067x10-3 kW = 8.432 kcal/h = 32.47 Btu/h = 0.01333 hk = 0.01316 hp = 7.237 ft lb/s
 1 kcal/h = 1.163x10-3 kW = 0.1186 kpm/s = 3.969 Btu/h = 1.582x10-3 hk = 1.560x10-3 hp = 0.8583

ft lb/s
 1 Btu/h = 2.931x10-4 kW = 0.0299 kpm/s = 0.252 kcal/h = 3.986x10-4 hk = 3.939x10-4 hp = 0.2163

ft lb/s
 1 kcal/h = 1.16x10-3 kW
 1 hk (metric horse power) = 0.735499 kW = 75.00 kpm/s = 632.5 kcal/h = 2,510 Btu/h = 0.9863
hp = 542.8 ft lb/s
 1 hp = 0.74570 kW = 76.04 kpm/s = 641.2 kcal/h = 2,545 Btu/h = 1.014 hk = 550.3 ft lb/s
 1 ft lb/s = 1.35501 kW = 0.1382 kpm/s = 1.165 kcal/h = 4.625 Btu/h = 1.843x10 -3 hk = 1.817x10-3
hp
Heat flux
 1 Btu/ft2 = 2.713 kcal/m2 = 2.043x104 J/m2K
 1 Btu/ ft2 h = 3.1525 W/m2
 1 Btu/ft2 oF = 4.88 kcal/m2K = 2.043x104 J/m2K
 1 kcal/m2 = 0.369 Btu/ft2
 1 kcal/m2K = 0.205 Btu/ft2oF
Heat generation per unit volume

 1 Btu/ft3 = 8.9 kcal/m3 = 3.73x104 J/m3
 1 Btu/ft3 h = 10.343 W/m3
 1 kcal/m3 = 0.112 Btu/ft3
Heat generation per unit mass

 1 Btu/lb = 0.556 kcal/kg = 2,326 J/kg
 1 kcal/kg = 1.800 Btu/lb
Heat transfer coefficient

 1 Btu/ft2 h oF = 5.678 W/m2 K = 4.882 kcal/h m2 oC
 1 W/m2K = 0.85984 kcal/h m2 oC = 0.1761 Btu/ ft2 h oF
 1 kcal/h m2 oC = 1.163 W/m2K = 0.205 Btu/ ft2 h oF
Hydraulic Gradients
 1 ftH2O/100 ft = 0.44 psi/100 ft = 9.8 kPa/100 m = 1000 mmH2O/100 m
 1 psi/100 ft = 2.3 ftH2O/100 ft = 2288 mmH2O/100 ft = 22.46 kPa/100 m
Length
feet, meters, centimeters, kilometers, miles, furlongs, yards, micrometers, inches,angstrom, cubit, fathom, foot, hand, league,
light year, micron, mil, nautical mile, rod,
 1 m (meter) = 3.2808 ft = 39.37 in = 1.0936 yd = 6.214x10 -4 mile
 1 km = 0.6214 mile = 3281 ft = 1094 yds
 1 in (inch) = 25.4 mm = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m = 0.08333 ft = 0.02778 yd = 1.578x10 -5 mile
 1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m = 12 in = 0.3333 yd = 1.894x10-4 mile = 30.48 cm = 304.8 mm
 1 mm = 10-3 m
 1 cm = 10-2 m = 0.3937 in = 0.0328 ft
 1 mm = 0.03937 in
 1 Ã… (Ã…ngstrÃ¶m) = 10-10 m
 1 mile = 1.6093 km = 1,609.3 m = 63,346 in = 5,280 ft = 1,760 yd
 1 mil (Norway and Sweden) = 10 kilometres
 1 nm (nautical mile) = 1,852 metres = 1.151 mile = 6076.1 feet
 1 yd (yard) = 0.9144 m = 36 in = 3 ft = 5.682x10-4 mile
 1 Furlong = 660 feet = 40 rods = 1/8 mile
 1 rod = 5.5 yards
 1 land league = 3 miles
 1 Fathom = 6 feet = 1.828804 meters
Mass, weight
pounds, kilograms, grams, ounces, grains, tons (long), tons (short), tons (metric), carat, grain, ounce mass, pound mass (lb m),
slug, tonne
 1 kg = 1,000 g = 2.2046 lb = 6.8521x10-2 slug
 1 lb = 16 oz = 0.4536 kg = 453.6 g = 7000 grains = 0.03108 slug
 1 slug = 14.594 kg = 32.174 lbm
 1 grain = 0.000143 lb = 0.0648 g
 1 g = 15.43 grains = 0.0353 oz = 0.002205 lb
 1 tonne = 103 kg = 106 g = 109 mg = 0.984 tons
 1 qt = 0.9464 liters
 1 Ton = 2000 Lbs. = 907 kg
 1 long ton = 2240 pounds
 1 oz (ounce) = 28.35 g = 437.5 grains
 1 troy pound = 12 troy ounces
 1 scruple = 20 grains
 1 dram = 3 scruples
 1 apothecary ounce = 8 drams
 1 apothecary pound = 12 apothecary ounces
 1 pennyweight = 24 grains
 1 Gal. H2O = 8.33 Lbs. H2O
 Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity - An introduction and definition of density, specific
weight and specific gravity. Formulas with examples.
Mass flow rate

 1 lb/h = 1.26x10-4 kg/s
 1 lb/s = 0.4536 kg/s
 1 lb/min = 7.56x10-3 kg/s = 27.216 kg/s
 1 kg/s = 3,600 kg/h = 132.28 lb/min
 1 kg/h = 2.778x10-4 kg/s = 3.67x10-2 lb/min
Moment of Inertia
 1 kg m2 = 10000 kg cm2 = 54675 ounce in2 = 3417.2 lb in2 = 23.73 lb ft2
Power
horsepower, kilowatt, watt,btu/second, calorie/second, foot lbf/second, kilocalorie/second

 1 W = 1 kg m2/s3 = 1 Nm/s = 1 J/s
 1 kW = 1,000 Watts = 3,412 Btu/h = 737.6/550 British hp = 1.341 British hp = 10 3/9.80665 kgf m/s
= 737.6 ft lbf/s = 103/(9.80665 75) metric hp
 1 hp (English horse power) = 745.7 W = 0.746 kW = 550 ft lb/s = 2,545 Btu/h = 33.000 ft lb/m =
1.0139 metric horse power ~= 1.0 KVA
 1 metric horse power = 736 W = 75 kg m/s = 0.986 English horse power
 1 refrigeration Ton = 12,000 Btu/h cooling = 3.516 kW = 3,025.9 k Calories/h
 1 cooling tower Ton = 15,000 Btu/h = 3,782 k Calories/h
 1 Therm = 100,000 Btu/h
 1 ft lb/s = 1.3558 W
 1 Btu/s = 1055.1 W
 1 Btu/h = 1 Btuh = 0.293 W = 0.001 MBH
Power per unit area

 1 W/m2 = 0.3170 Btu/(h ft2) = 0.85984 kcal/(h m2)
Pressure
atmosphere, centimeters of mercury, foot of water, bar, barye, centimeter of water, dyne/centimeter 2, inch of mercury, inch of
water, kgf/centimeter2, kgf/meter2, lbf/foot2, lbf/inch2 (psi), millibar, millimeter of mercury, pascal, torr, newton/meter 2
 Standard Atmospheric Pressure 1 atm = 101.325 kN/m2 = 101.325 kPa = 14.7 psia = 0 psig = 29.92
in Hg = 760 torr = 33.95 Ft.H2O = 407.2 In.W.G (Water Gauge) = 2116.8 Lbs./Sq.Ft.
 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa = 1.4504x10-4 lb/in2 = 1x10-5 bar = 4.03x10-3 in water = 0.336x10-3 ft water = 0.1024
mm water = 0.295x10-3 in mercury = 7.55x10-3 mm mercury = 0.1024 kg/m2 = 0.993x10-5 atm
 1 Pa = 10-6 N/mm2 = 10-5 bar = 0.1020 kp/m2 = 1.02x10-4 m H2O = 9.869x10-6 atm = 1.45x10-4 psi
(lbf/in2)
 1 N/mm2 = 106 Pa = 10 bar = 1.020x105 kp/m2 = 102.0 m H2O = 9.869 atm = 145.0 psi (lbf/in2)
 1 mmHg = 1 torr = 0.01934 lb/in2
 1 atm = 101,325 Pa (N/m2) = 1.013x102 kN/m2 = 1.033x104 kp/m2 = 1.033 kp/cm2 = 1.013 bar =
14.696 psi (lb/in2) = 407.1 in H2O at 62 0F (16.7 oC) = 33.9 ft H2O at 62 0F (16.7 oC) = 10.33 m
H2O at 62 0F (16.7 oC) = 29.92 in mercury at 62 0F (16.7 oC) = 760 mm mercury at 62 0F (16.7 oC)
= 760 torr
 1 bar = 105 Pa (N/m2) = 0.1 N/mm2 = 10,197 kp/m2 = 10.20 m H2O = 0.9869 atm = 14.50 psi
(lbf/in2) = 106 dyn/cm2 = 750 mmHg
 1 kp/m2 = 9.81 Pa (N/m2) = 9.807x10-6 N/mm2 = 10-3 m H2O = 1 mm H2O = 0.9681x10-4 atm =
1.422x10-3 psi (lb/in2) = 0.0394 in H2O = 0.0736 mm mercury
 1 psi (lb/in2) = 144 psf (lbf/ft2) = 6,894.8 Pa (N/m2) = 6.895x10-3 N/mm2 = 6.895x10-2 bar = 27.71 in
H2O at 62oF (16.7oC) = 703.1 mm H2O at 62oF (16.7oC) = 2.0416 in mercury at 62oF (16.7oC) =
51.8 mm mercury at 62oF (16.7oC) = 703.6 kg/m2 = 0.06895 atm = 2.307 Ft. H2O = 16 ounces
 1 psf (lbf/ft2) = 47.88 N/m2 (Pa) = 0.006944 lbf/in2 (psi)
 1 dyn/cm2 = 145.04x10-7 lbf/in2
 1 in mercury (Hg) = 3,376.8 N/m2= 0.49 lb/in2 = 12.8 in water
 1 Ounce = 1.73 In.W.C.
 1 Ft.H2O = 0.4335 psi = 62.43 Lbs./Sq.Ft.
 1 in water = 248.8 N/m2= 0.0361 lb/in2 = 25.4 kg/m2 = 0.0739 in mercury
 1 m H2O = 9806.7 Pa = 9.807x10-3 N/mm2 = 0.0987 bar = 1,000 kp/m2 = 0.09678 atm = 1.422 psi
(lbf/in2)
 1 mm water = 9.81 Pa (N/m2) = 1 kg/m2 = 0.0736 mm mercury = 0.9677x10-4 atm
 1 mm mercury = 0.0193 lb/in2 = 133 N/m2 = 12.8 mm water
Rotation
revolutions,
 1 r/min (rpm) = 0.01667 r/s = 0.105 rad/s
 1 r/s = 60 r/min = 6.28 rad/s
 1 rad/s = 9.55 r/min (rpm) = 0.159 r/s (rps)
Specific energy, enthalpy, entropy

 1 Btu/lbm = 2,326.1 J/kg = 0.55556 kcal/kg = 778.2 ft lbf / lbm = 3.9 10-4 hp hr / lbm = 5.4 lbf/in2 /
lbm/ft3 = 0.237 kp m / g = 5.56 10-4 kcal/g = 2.326 kJ/kg
 1 J/kg = 4.299x10-4 Btu/lbm = 2.388x10-4 kcal/kg
 1 kcal/kg = 1.80 Btu/lbm = 4,187 J/kg
Specific heat capacity

 1 J/(kg K) = 2.389x10-4 kcal/(kg oC) = 2.389x10-4 Btu/(lbm oF)
 1 kJ/(kg K) = 0.2389 kcal/(kg oC) = 0.2389 Btu/(lbm oF)
 1 Btu/(lbm oF) = 4,186.8 J/ (kg K) = 1 kcal/(kg oC)
 1 kcal/(kg oC) = 4,186.8 J/ (kg K) = 1 Btu/(lbm oF)
Specific Volume
 1 m3/kg = 16.02 ft3/lbm = 27680 in3/lbm = 119.8 US gal/lbm = 1000 liter/kg
 1 liter/kg = 0.016 ft3/lbm = 27.7 in3/lbm = 0.12 US gal/lbm = 0.001 m3/kg
 1 ft3/lbm = 1728 in3/lbm = 7.48 US gal/lbm = 62.43 liter/kg = 0.062 m3/kg
 1 in3/lbm = 0.00058 ft3/lbm = 0.0043 US gal/lbm = 0.036 liter/kg = 0.000036 m3/kg
 1 US gal/lbm = 0.134 ft3/lbm = 231 in3/lbm = 8.35 liter/kg = 0.0083 m3/kg
Temperature
celsius, rankine, kelvin, centigrade, fahrenheit,

 1 oC = 1.8 oF
 1 oF = 0.555 oC
 0 oC corresponds to 32 oF, 273.16 K and 491.69 R
 T(oR) = (9/5)T(K)
 T(oF) = [T(oC)](9/5) + 32
 T(oF) = [T(K) - 273.15](9/5) + 32
 T(oC) = 5/9[T(oF) - 32]
Thermal conductivity
 1 W/(m K) = 0.85984 kcal/(h m oC) = 0.5779 Btu/(ft h oF)
 1 Btu/(ft h oF) = 1.731 W/(m K) = 1.488 kcal/(h m oC)
 1 kcal/(h m oC) = 1.163 W/(m K) = 0.6720 Btu/(ft h oF)
Thermal diffusivity
 1 ft2 /s = 0.0929 m2/s
 1 ft2 /h = 2.581x10-5 m2/s
Thermal resistance
 1 (h oF)/Btu = 1.8958 K/W
Time
year, month, day, hour, minute, second, millisecond

 1 h = 3,600 s = 60 min
 1 ms (millisecond) = 10-3 s
 1 μs (microsecond) = 10-6 s
 1 ns (nanosecond) = 10-9 s
Torque, Moment
foot-pound torque, newton-meter

 1 ft lb = 1.356 Nm
Velocity, speed
foot/second, inch/second, meter/second, kilometer/hour, knot, mile/hour,nautical mile per hour

 1 ft/s = 0.3048 m/s
 1 ft/min = 5.08x10-3 m/s = 0.0183 km/h = 0.0114 mph
 1 mph = 0.44703 m/s = 1.609 km/h = 88 ft/min = 5280 ft/hr = 1.467 Ft./sec. = 0.8684 knots
 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h = 196.85 ft/min = 2.237 mph
 1 km/h = 0.2778 m/s = 54.68 ft/min = 0.6214 mph = 0.5396 knot
 1 knot (nautical mile per hour)= 0.514444444 m/s = 1.852 kilometers per hour = 1.1515 miles per
hour= 1 nautical miles per hour
 1 League = 3.0 Miles
Viscosity dynamic
 1 lb/(ft s) = 1.4879 Pa s = 14.88 P = 1,488 cP = 0.1517 kp s/m2
 1 cP (Centipoise) = 10-3 Pa s = 0.01 P = 1.020x10-4 kp s/m2 = 6.721x10-4 lb/(ft s) = 0.00100 (N
s)/m2
 1 kg/(m s ) = 1 (N s)/m2 = 0.6720 lbm/(ft s) = 10 Poise
 1 P (Poise) = 0.1 Pa s = 100 cP = 1.020x10-2 kp s/m2 = 6.721x10-2 lb/(ft s) = 0.1 kg/ms
 1 Pa s (N s/m2) = 10 P (Poise) = 103 cP = 0.1020 kp s/m2 = 0.6721 lb/(ft s)
 1 kp s/m2 = 9.80665 Pa s = 98.07 P = 9,807 cP = 6.591 lb/(ft s)
 1 reyns = 1 1bf s/in2 = 6894.76 Pa s
 - An introduction to dynamic, absolute and kinematic viscosity and how to convert between
CentiStokes (cSt), CentiPoises (cP), Saybolt Universal Seconds (SSU) and degree Engler.
Viscosity kinematic
 1 ft2/s = 0.0929 m2/s
 1 ft2/ h = 2.581x10-5m2/s
 1 St (Stokes) = 1x10-4 m2/s = 100 cSt = 1.076x10-3 ft2/s
 1 m2/s = 104 St = 106 cSt = 10.764 ft2/s= 38750 ft2/h
 1 cSt (Centistokes) = 10-6 m2/s = 0.01 St = 1.076x10-5 ft2/s
Volume
barrel, gallon, cubic centimeter (cm3), cubic feet (foot3), cubic inch (inch3), cubic meter (meter3), cubic yard (yard3), quarts, liters,
acre foot, board foot, bushel, cord, cup, dram, fluid ounce, peck, pint, quart, tablespoon, teaspoon,
 1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3= 28.32 dm3 = 0.03704 yd3 = 6.229 Imp. gal (UK) = 7.481 gal (US) = 1,728
Cu.In.
 1 in3 = 1.6387x10-5 m3 = 1.639x10-2 dm3 (liter) = 16.39 cm3 = 16390 mm3 = 0.000579 ft3
 1 Gallon (U.S.) = 3.785x10-3 m3 = 3.785 dm3 (liter) = 0.13368 ft3 = 4.951x10-3 yd3 = 0.8327 Imp.
gal (UK) = 4 Quarts = 8 Pints
 1 Imp. gal (UK) = 4.546x10-3 m3 = 4.546 dm3 = 0.1605 ft3 = 5.946x10-3 yd3 = 1.201 gal (US)
 1 dm3 (Liter) = 10-3 m3 = 0.03532 ft3 = 1.308x10-3 yd3 = 0.220 Imp gal (UK) = 0.2642 Gallons (US)
= 1.057 Quarts = 2.113 Pints
 1 yd3 = 0.7646 m3 = 764.6 dm3 = 27 ft3 = 168.2 Imp. gal (UK) = 202.0 gal (US) = 46,656 Cu.In. =
1616 Pints = 807.9 Quarts = 764.6 Liters
 1 pint (pt) = 0.568 dm3 (liter) = 16 fl. oz. (fluid ounce) = 28.88 in3
 1 km3 = 109 m3 = 1012 dm3 (liter) = 1015 cm3 = 1018 mm3
 1 cm3 = 0.061 in3
 1 m3 = 103 dm3 (liter) = 35.31 ft3 = 1.3093 yd3 = 220.0 Imp. gal (UK) = 264.2 gal (US) = 61,023
Cu.In. = 0.02832 Cu.Ft
 1 Hogshead = 63 Gallon = 8.42184 Cu.Ft
 1 Barrel liquid = 31.0 Gallons liquid
 1 Barrel beer = 31.5 Gallons beer
 1 Barrel oil (petroleum) = 42 Gallons oil
 1 Bushel = 1.2445 Cu.Ft. = 32 Quarts (Dry) = 64 Pints (dry) = 4 Pecks
 1 quart (qt) = 2 pints = 57.75 in3 = 1/8 dry quarts
 1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.) = 2 tablespoons = 1.805 in3 = 29.574 milliliters
 1 cord = 128 ft3
 1 peck = 8 dry quarts
 1 cup = 8 fl.oz. (fluid ounce)
 one board foot = piece of lumber 1 foot wide x 1 foot long x 1 inch thick
Volume flow
 1 dm3/s (kg/s water) = 13.20 Imp. gal (UK)/min
 1 m3/s = 3,600 m3/h = 1,000 dm3(liter)/s = 35.32 ft3/s = 2,118.9 ft3/min = 13,200 Imp.gal (UK)/min
= 15,852 gal (US)/min
 1 m3/h = 2.7778x10-4 m3/s = 0.2778 dm3(litre)/s = 9.810x10-3 ft3/s = 0.5886 ft3/min (cfm) = 3.667
Imp.gal (UK)/min = 4.403 gal (US)/min
 1 m3/h = 103 dm3(litre)/h = 16.67 dm3(litre)/min = 0.27878 dm3(litre)/s
 1 ft3/min = 1.7 m3/h = 0.47 l/s = 62.43 Lbs.H2O/Min.
 1 dm3(litre)/s = 10-3 m3/s = 3.6 m3/h = 0.03532 ft3/s = 2.1189 ft3/min (cfm) = 13.200 Imp.gal
(UK)/min = 15.852 gal (US)/min = 792 Imp. gal (UK)/h
 1 dm3(litre)/s = 60 litre/min = 3,600 litre/h
 1 ft3/s = 0.0283168 m3/s = 101.9 m3/h = 28.32 dm3(litre)/s = 60 ft3/min = 373.7 Imp.gal (UK)/min =
448.9 gal (US)/min
 1 Imp.gal (UK)/min = 7.57682x10-5 m3/s = 0.0273 m3/h = 0.0758 dm3(litre)/s = 2.675x10-3 ft3/s =
0.1605 ft3/min = 1,201 gal (US)/min
 1 gal (US)/min =6.30888x10-5 m3/s = 0.227 m3/h = 0.06309 dm3(litre)/s = 2.228x10-3 ft3/s = 0.1337
ft3/min = 0.8327 Imperial gal (UK)/min
Heat
Heat is energy transferred as a result of a temperature differences. Energy as heat passes from a warm body (with higher
temperature) to a cold body (with lower temperature).
The transfer of energy as a result of the difference in temperature alone is referred to as heat flow. The watt, which is the SI unit
of power, can be defined as 1 J/s of heat flow.
Other units used to quantify heat energy are the British Thermal Unit - Btu (the amount of heat to raise 1 lb of water by 1oF)
and the Calorie (the amount of heat to raise 1 gram of water by 1oC). Units of energy used may be calorie (cal), Joule (J, SI unit)
or Btu. For comparing units, check the unit converter for more information!
Calorie is defined as an amount of heat required to change temperature of one gram of liquid water by one degree Celsius.
1 cal = 4.184 J
Specific Enthalpy
This is the term given to the total energy, due to both pressure and temperature, of a fluid (such as water or steam) at any given
time and condition. More specifically it is the sum of the internal energy and the work done by an applied pressure.
The basic unit of measurement is the joule (J). Since one joule represents a very small amount of energy, it is usual to use
kilojoules (kJ) (1 000 Joules).
The specific enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a unit mass, and the units are usually kJ/kg.
Heat Capacity
Heat Capacity of a system is the amount of heat required to change temperature of the whole system by
one degree.
Specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to change temperature of one kilogram of a substance by one degree.
Specific heat may be measured in kJ/kg K or Btu/lb oF. For comparing units, check the unit converter for more information!
Specific heat capacities for different materials can be found in the Material Properties section.
Since the enthalpy of a fluid is a function of its temperature and pressure, the temperature dependence of the enthalpy can be
found by measuring the rise in temperature caused by the flow of heat at constant pressure. The constant-pressure heat
capacity - cp - is a measure of the change in enthalpy at a particular temperature.
Similarly, the internal energy is a function of temperature and specific volume. The constant volume heat capacity - cv - is a
measure of the change in internal energy at a particular temperature and constant volume.
Because the specific volumes of solids and liquids are generally smaller, then unless the pressure is extremely high, the work
done by an applied pressure can be neglected. Therefore, if the enthalpy can be represented by the internal energy component
alone, the constant-volume and constant-pressure heat capacities can be said to be equal.
For solids and liquids
cp == cv
The specific heat capacity represents the amount of energy required to raise 1 kg by 1 oC, and can be thought of as the ability of
a substance to absorb heat. Therefore the SI units of specific heat capacity are kJ/kg K (kJ/kg oC). Water has a very large
specific heat capacity (4.19 kJ/kg oC) compared with many fluids.
 Water is a good heat carrier!
Amount of Heat Required to Rise Temperature
The amount of heat needed to heat a subject from one temperature level to an other can be expressed as:
Q = cp m dT (2)
where
Q = amount of heat (kJ)
cp = specific heat capacity (kJ/kg.K)
m = mass (kg)
dT = temperature difference between hot and cold side (K)
Example Heating Water
Consider the energy needed to heat 1.0 kg of water from 0 oC to 100 oC when the specific heat of water is 4.19 kJ/kg K:
Q = 4.19 (kJ/kg.K) 1.0 (kg) (100 - 0)(K)
= 419 (kJ)
Work
The amount of mechanical work done can be determined by an equation derived from Newtonian mechanics
Work = Force x Distance moved in the direction of the force
It can also be described as the product of the applied pressure and the displaced volume:
Work = Applied pressure x Displaced volume
The unit of work is joule, J, which is defined as the amount of work done when a force of 1 newton acts for a distance of 1 m in
the direction of the force.
1 J = 1 Nm
Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work (a translation from Greek-"work within"). The SI unit for work and energy is the joule, defined
as 1 Nm.
Moving objects can do work because they have kinetic energy. ("kinetic" means "motion" in Greek).
The amount of kinetic energy possessed by an object can be calculated as
Ek =1/2 m v2 (1)
where
m = mass of the object (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
The energy of a level position (stored energy) is called potential energy. This is energy associated with forces of attraction and
repulsion between objects (gravity).
The total energy of a system is composed of the internal, potential and kinetic energy. The temperature of a substance is directly
related to its internal energy. The internal energy is associated with the motion, interaction and bonding of the molecules within a
substance. The external energy of a substance is associated with its velocity and location, and is the sum of its potential and
kinetic energy.
The specific gravity of some common liquids or fluids can be found in the table below:
Temperature
Specific Gravity
Product
SG 1)
o o
F C
61 16.1 0.79
Acetaldehyde CH3CHO
68 20 0.76
Acetic acid 5% - vinegar 59 15 1.006
Acetic acid - 10% 59 15 1.014
Acetic acid - 50% 59 15 1.061
Acetic acid - 80% 59 15 1.075
Acetic acid - concentrated 59 15 1.055
Acetic acid anhydride (CH3COO)2O 59 15 1.087
Acetone CH3COCH3 68 20 0.792
Alcohol - allyl 68 20 0.855
68 20 0.81
Alcohol - butyl-n
158 70 0.78
68 20 0.789
Alcohol - ethyl (grain) C2H5OH
104 40 0.772
Alcohol - methyl (wood) CH3OH 68 20 0.79
68 20 0.804
Alcohol - propyl
32 0 0.817
Aluminum sulfate 36% solution 60 15.6 1.055
Ammonia 0 -17.8 0.662
68 20 1.022
Aniline
32 0 1.035
Automotive crankcase oils

60 15.6 0.88-0.94
SAE-5W/10W/20W/30W/40W/50W
Automotive gear oils
60 15.6 0.88-0.94
SAE-75W/80W/85W/90W/140W/150W
Beer 60 15.6 1.01
32 0 0.899
Benzene (benzol) C6H6
60 15.6 0.885
Bone oil 60 15.6 0.918
46.4 8 1.014
Boric acid H3BO3
59 15 1.025
Bromine 32 0 2.9
Butane-n 60 15.6 0.584
Butyric acid 68 20 0.959
Calcium chloride 5% 65 18.3 1.040
Calcium chloride 25% 60 15.6 1.23
Carbolic acid (phenol) 65 18.3 1.08
Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 68 20 1.594
32 0 1.293
Carbon disulfide CS2
68 20 1.263
68 20 0.96
Castor Oil
104 40 0.95
China wood oil 60 15.6 0.943
68 20 1.489
Chloroform
140 60 1.413
Coconut oil 60 15.6 0.925
Cod liver oil 59 15 0.920-0.925
Corn oil 60 15.6 0.924

Cotton seed oil 60 15.6 0.88-0.93
Creosote 60 15.6 1.04-1.10
60 15.6 0.79
Crude oil 48o API
130 54.4 0.76
60 15.6 0.825
Crude oil 40o API
130 54.4 0.805
60 15.6 0.847
Crude oil 35.6o API
130 54.4 0.824
60 15.6 0.832
Crude oil 32.6o API
130 54.4 0.84
60 15.6 0.843
Crude oil Salt creek
130 54.4 0.82
Decane-n 68 20 0.73
Diethylene glycol 60 15.6 1.12
Diethyl ether 68 20 0.714
Diphenylamine 1.16
Diesel Fuel Oil 2D/3D/4D/5D 60 15.6 0.81 - 0.96
Dowtherm 77 25 1.056
59 15 0.907
Ethyl acetate CH3COOC2H3
68 20 0.90
Ethyl bromide C2H3Br 59 15 1.45
Ethylene bromide 68 20 2.18
Ethylene chloride 68 20 1.246
Ethylene glycol 60 15.6 1.125
Formic acid - 10% 68 20 1.025

Formic acid - 50% 68 20 1.121
Formic acid - 80% 68 20 1.186
Formic acid - concentrated 68 20 1.221
Freon - 11 70 21.1 1.49
Freon - 12 70 21.1 1.33
Freon - 21 70 21.1 1.37
Furfurol 68 20 1.159
Fuel oils 1/2/3/5A/5B/6 60 15.6 0.82-0.95
Gas oils 60 15.6 0.89
Gasoline a 60 15.6 0.74
Gasoline b 60 15.6 0.72
Gasoline c 60 15.6 0.68
Glycerin 100% 68 20 1.26
Glycerin 50% water 68 20 1.13
Glucose 60 15.6 1.35-1.44
Heptane-n 60 15.6 0.688
Hexane-n 60 15.6 0.664
Ink printers 60 15.6 1.0-1.4
Kerosene 60 15.6 0.78-0.82
Jet fuel 60 15.6 0.82
Lard 60 15.6 0.96

Lard oil 60 15.6 0.91-0.93
Linseed oil 60 15.6 0.92-0.94
Mercury 60 15.6 13.6
Methyl acetate 68 20 0.93
Methyl iodide 68 20 2.28
Milk 60 15.6 1.02-1.05
Molasses A first 60 15.6 1.40-1.46
Molasses B second 60 15.6 1.43-1.48
Molasses C blackstrap 60 15.6 1.46-1.49
Naphthalene 68 20 1.145
Neatsfoot oil 60 15.6 0.917
68 20 1.203
Nitrobentzene
59 15 1.205
60 15.6 0.722
Nonane-n
68 20 0.718
Octane-n 60 15.6 0.707
Olive oil 60 15.6 0.91 - 0.92
Palm oil 60 15.6 0.924
Peanut oil 60 15.6 0.92
32 0 0.650
Pentane-n
60 15.6 0.631
Potassium hydrate 1.24
Sodium chloride 1.19

Sodium hydrate 1.27
Tuluol 0.87
Turpentine 0.87
Water. fresh 1
Water. sea 36 oF 1.02
Xylene 0.87
1)
Based on water at 60oF and SG = 1
Density
Density is defined as an objects mass per unit volume. Mass is a property.

 Mass and Weight - the Difference! - What is weight and what is mass? An explanation of the difference between weight
and mass.
The density can be expressed as
ρ = m / V = 1 / vg (1)
where
ρ = density (kg/m3)
m = mass (kg)
V = volume (m3)
vg = specific volume (m3/kg)
The SI units for density are kg/m3. The imperial (BG) units are lb/ft3 (slugs/ft3). While people often use pounds per cubic foot as a
measure of density in the U.S., pounds are really a measure of force, not mass. Slugs are the correct measure of mass. You can
multiply slugs by 32.2 for a rough value in pounds.
 Unit converter for other units
The higher the density, the tighter the particles are packed inside the substance. Density is a physical
property constant at a given temperature and density can help to identify a substance.
 Densities and material properties for common materials
Relative Density
Relative density of a substance is the ratio of the substance to the density of water, i.e.
Example - Use the Density to Identify the Material:
An unknown liquid substance has a mass of 18.5 g and occupies a volume of 23.4 ml. (milliliter).
The density can be calculated as
ρ = [18.5 (g) / 1000 (g/kg)] / [23.4 (ml) / 1000 (ml/l) 1000 (l/m 3) ]
= 18.5 10-3 (kg) / 23.4 10-6 (m3)
= 790 kg/m3
If we look up densities of some common substances, we can find that ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, has a density of 790 kg/m3. Our
unknown liquid may likely be ethyl alcohol!
Example - Use Density to Calculate the Mass of a Volume
The density of titanium is 4507 kg/m3 . Calculate the mass of 0.17 m3 titanium!
m = 0.17 (m3) 4507 (kg/m3)
= 766.2 kg
Specific Weight
Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force.

 Mass and Weight - the difference! - What is weight and what is mass? An explanation of the difference between weight
and mass.
Specific Weight can be expressed as
γ = ρ g (2)
where
γ = specific weight (N/m3)
ρ = density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
The SI-units of specific weight are N/m3. The imperial units are lb/ft3. The local acceleration g is under normal conditions 9.807
m/s2 in SI-units and 32.174 ft/s2 in imperial units.
Example - Specific Weight Water
Specific weight for water at 39 oF (4 oC) is 62.4 lb/ft3 (9.81 kN/m3) in imperial units. Specific weight in SI units can be calculates
like
γ = 1000 kg/m3 9.81 m/s2
= 9810 N/m3
= 9.81 kN/m3
Example - Specific Weight Some other Materials
Specific Weight - γ
Product
Imperial Units SI Units
(lb/ft3) (kN/m3)
Ethyl Alcohol 49.3 7.74
Gasoline 42.5 6.67
Glycerin 78.6 12.4
Mercury 847 133.7
SAE 20 Oil 57 8.95
Seawater 64 10.1
Water 62.4 9.81
 Material Properties
Specific Gravity
The Specific Gravity - SG - is a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of density of the material to the density of water at a
specified temperature. Specific Gravity can be expressed as
SG = = ρ / ρH2O (3)
where
SG = specific gravity
ρ = density of fluid or substance (kg/m3)
ρH2O = density of water (kg/m3)
It is common to use the density of water at 4 oC (39oF) as reference - at this point the density of water is at the highest - 1000
kg/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3.
 Thermal Properties of Water Density, Freezing temperature, Boiling temperature, Latent heat of melting, Latent heat of
evaporation, Critical temperature ...
Since Specific Weight is dimensionless it has the same value in the metric SI system as in the imperial English system (BG). At
the reference point the Specific Gravity has same numerically value as density.
Example - Specific Gravity
If the density of iron is 7850 kg/m3, 7.85 grams per cubic centimeter (cm3), 7.85 kilograms per liter, or 7.85 metric tons per cubic
meter - the specific gravity of iron is:
SG = 7850 kg/m3/ 1000 kg/m3

= 7.85
(the density of water is 1000 kg/m3)
Mass and weight are two common, and often misused and misunderstood terms in mechanics and fluid mechanics.
The fundamental relation between the mass and the weight is defined from the Newton's Second Law and can be expressed in
SI-units as
F = m a (1)
where
F = force (N)
m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m/s2)
Mass
Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an object, being directly related to the number and type of atoms present in the
object. Mass does not change with a body's position, movement or alteration of its shape unless material is added or removed.
The mass is a fundamental property of an object, a numerical measure of its inertia and a fundamental measure of the amount
of matter in the object.
Weight
Weight is the gravitational force acting on a body mass. Transforming Newton's Second Law regarding the weight as a force
due to gravity gives
w = m g (2)
where
w = weight (N)
m = mass (kg)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
The handling of mass and weight depends on the systems of units that is used. The most common systems of units are the
 International System - SI
 British Gravitational System - BG
 English Engineering System - EE
The International System - SI
In the SI system the mass unit is the kg and since the weight is a force - the weight unit is the newton (N). Equation (2) for a
body with 1 kg mass can then be expressed as:
w = 1 (kg) 9.807 (m/s2) = 9.807 (N) (2b)

where
9.807 (m/s2) = standard gravity close to earth in the SI system
As a result:
 a 9.807 N force acting on a body with 1 kg mass will give the body an acceleration of 9.807 m/s 2
 A body with mass of 1 kg weights 9.807 N
 More about the SI System - A tutorial introduction to the SI-system.
The British Gravitational System - BG
The British Gravitational System of units is used by engineers in the English-speaking world with the same relation to the foot -
pound - second system as the meter kilogram - force second system (SI) has to the meter - kilogram - second system. For
engineers who deals with forces, instead of masses, it's convenient to use a system that has as its base units length, time, and
force, instead of length, time and mass.
The three base units are the foot, the second, and the pound-force.
In the BG system the mass unit is the slug and is defined from the Newton's Second Law (1). The unit of mass, the slug, is
derived from the pound-force by defining it as the mass that will accelerate at 1 foot per second per second when a 1 pound-
force acts upon it:
1 lb = (1 slug)(1 ft/s2)
In other words, 1 lb force acting on 1 slug mass will give the mass an acceleration of 1 ft/s 2.
The weight of the mass from equation (2) in BG units can be expressed as:
w (lb) = m (slugs) g (ft/s2)
With a standard gravity 32.17405 ft/s 2 - the mass of 1 slug weights 32.17405 lbf (pound-force).
The English Engineering System - EE
In the English Engineering system of units the primary dimensions are are force, mass, length, time, and temperature. The units
for force and mass are defined independently:
 the basic unit of mass is pound-mass (lbm)
 the unit of force is the pound (lb) alternatively pound-force (lbf).
In the EE system 1 lb of force will give a mass of 1 lbm a standard acceleration of 32.17405 ft/s 2.
Since the EE system operates with these units of force and mass, the Newton's Second Law can be modified to
F = m a / gc (3)
where
gc = a proportionality constant
or transformed to weight
w = m g / gc (4)
The proportionality constant gc makes it possible to define suitable units for force and mass. We can transform (4) to
1 lbf = (1 lbm)(32.174 ft/s2) / gc
or
gc = (1 lbm)(32.174 ft/s2)/(1 lbf)
Since 1 lbf gives a mass of 1 lbm an acceleration of 32.17405 ft/s 2 and a mass of 1 slug an acceleration of 1 ft/s 2, then
1 slug = 32,17405 lbm
Example - Weight versus Mass
A car's mass is 1,644 kg. The weight can be calculated:
w = (1,644 kg)(9.807 m/s2) = 16,122.7 N = 16.1 kN
- there is a force (weight) of 16.1 kN between the car and the earth.
The SI system (International System of Units) is the modern metric system of measurement and the dominant system of
international commerce and trade. SI units are gradually replacing Imperial and USCS units.
The SI is maintained by a small agency in Paris, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, for Bureau
International des Poids et Mesures).
The SI system is founded on the

 SI base units
 SI derived units described in terms of acceptable SI units
 SI derived units with special names and symbols acceptable in SI
 SI Prefixes
SI base units
The core of the SI system is a short list of base units defined in an absolute way without referring to any other units. The
base units are consistent with the part of the metric system called the MKS system. The International System of Units (SI)
is founded on seven base units.
Quantity Name of Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electrical current ampere A

Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol
SI derived units with special names and symbols acceptable in SI
Derived units are algebraic combinations of the seven base units and the two supplementary units with some of the
combinations being assigned special names and symbols.
Expression in Expression in
Quantity Name of Unit Symbol terms of SI base terms of other
units units
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr
Adsorbed radiation gray Gy m2 s-2 J/kg
Electrical
farad F m-2 kg-1 s4 A2 C/V
capacitance
Electrical charge coulomb C As
Electrical
siemens S m-2 kg-1s3A2 A/V
conductance
Electrical
Henry H m2 kg s-2 A-2
inductance
Electrical potential volt V m2 kg s-3 A-1 W/A
Electrical
ohm w m2 kg s-3 A-2 V/A
resistance
Force Newton N kg ms-2
Frequency hertz Hz s-1

Luminance lux lx m-2cd sr lm/m2
Luminous flux lumen lm cd sr
Magnetic flux weber Wb m2 kg s-2 A-1 Vs
Magnetic flux
tesla T kg s-2 A-1 Wb/m2
density
Power or radiant
watt W kg m2 s-3 J/s
flux
Pressure pascal Pa kg/(m s2) = (N/m2)
Radioactivity bequerel Bq s-1
Work, energy, heat joule J m2 kg s-2 Nm
SI derived units described in terms of acceptable SI units
Derived units are algebraic combinations of the seven base units and the two supplementary units with some of the
combinations being assigned special names and symbols.
Expression in terms of
Quantity Description Symbol
SI base units
meter per second

acceleration m/s2 m s-2
squared
area square meter m2 m2
coefficient of heat
watt per square meter
transfer (often used W/(m2 K) kg s-3K-1
Kelvin
symbol h or U)
concentration (of amount

mole per cubic meter mol/m3 mol m-3
of substance)
current density (often ampere per square

A/m2 A m-2
used symbol r) meter
kilogram per cubic
density (mass density) kg/m3 kg m-3
meter
electrical charge density columb per cubic meter C/m3 m-3 s A
electric field strength volt per meter V/m m kg s-3 A-1
columb per square

electric flux density C/m2 m-2 s A
meter
energy density joule per cubic meter J/m3 m-1 kg s-2
force Newton N or J/M m kg s-2
heat capacity joule per Kelvin J/K m2 kg s-2 K-1
heat flow rate (often

watt W or J/s m2 kg s-3
used symbol Q or q)
heat flux density or

watt per square meter W/m2 kg s-3
irradiance
candela per square

luminance cd/m2 cd m-2
meter
magnetic field strength ampere per meter A/m A m-1
modulus of elasticity (or

giga Pascal GPa 10-9 m-1 kg s-1
Young?s modulus)
molar energy joule per mole J/mol m-2 kg s-2 mol-1
molar entropy (or molar

joule per mole Kelvin J/(mol K) m-2 kg s-2 K-1 mol-1
heat capacity)
moment of force (or

Newton meter Nm m2 kg s-2
torque)
moment of inertia kilogram meter squared kg m2 kg m2

kilogram meter per
momentum kg m/s kg m s-1
second
permeability Henry per meter H/m m kg s-2 A-2
permitivity farad per meter F/m m-3 kg-1 s4 A2
power kilowatt kW 10-3 m2 kg s-3
pressure (often used

kilopascal kPa 10-3 m-1 kg s-2
symbol P or p)
specific energy joule per kilogram J/kg m2 s-2
specific heat capacity (or

joule per kilogram
specific entropy, often J/(kg K) m2 s-2 K-1
Kelvin
used symbol c,p,cv or s)
cubic meter per

specific volume m3/kg m3 kg-1
kilogram
stress mega Pascal MPa 10-6 m-1 kg s-2
surface tension Newton per meter N/m kg s-2
thermal conductivity
watt per meter Kelvin W/(m K) m kg s-3 K-1
(often used symbol k)
torque Newton meter Nm m2 kg s-2
velocity (or speed) meters per second m/s m s-1
viscosity, absolute or
dynamic (often used Pascal second Pa s m-1 kg s-1
symbol m)
viscosity, kinematic square meter per

m2/s m2 s-1
(often used symbol n) second
volume cubic meter m3 m3

wave number 1 per meter 1/m m-1
work (or energy heat,

joule J or N m m2 kg s-2
often used symbol W)
 Convert from SI to USCS or Imperial Units
PUMPS
How to the calculate the water horsepower coming out of the pump 16-12
Horsepower is measured using the units, foot pounds with one horsepower equal to 33,000 foot pounds. Since
fluid has weight we can calculate how many pounds per minute we are pumping by finding out how much a
gallon of our fluid weighs. After you have done that, multiply the gallons per minute you are pumping by 8.33
(the weight of a gallon of water) and then multiply that result by the specific gravity (the weight) of your fluid,
and you will have the pounds per minute number you are looking for.
Once you have the pounds per minute you are pumping, you can multiply that number into the feet of head the
pump is producing and you have foot pounds per minute that can be converted to horsepower.
Please take a look at the following pump curve.

Let's use this chart for our example:
You are using the 13 inch impeller at 1750 rpm and pumping 300 gallons per minute of a fluid with a specific
gravity of 1.0 to a head of 168 feet
300 gpm x 8.33 x 1.0 sg. = 2,499 pounds of fluid per minute.
We are pumping this fluid to a head of 168 feet so:
2,499 x 168 = 419,832 foot pounds per minute
Since 33,000 foot pound per minute equals one horsepower. We will divide and get:
419,832 / 33,000 = 12.73 horsepower.
This means that the pump is putting out 12.73 horsepower. Now, the next question is how much actual
horsepower is required to do this?
Please take a look at the ascending lines on the bottom of the chart. Each line represents a different size impeller
with the top line showing the horsepower required for a 13-inch impeller and the bottom line for a 9-inch
impeller. The horsepower required is shown in the left column under bhp. (brake horsepower). Notice that it
calls for 20 horsepower to move 300 gallons per minute with a 13-inch impeller.
If the pump were 100% efficient, all you would need would be 12.73 horsepower motor to drive the pump and it
would do the job, but motors and pumps are not 100 % efficient because of friction losses and heat generation.
This means that our actual efficiency is
12.73 hp out / 20 hp in = 0.64 or 64% efficient

Suppose the specific gravity of the fluid you are pumping is different than 1.0 (cold water). Just plug the new
number into the formula and multiply the pump curve bhp by the same number. Using a specific gravity of 1.3,
the change would look like this:
300 x 8.33 x 1.3 = 3248.70 pounds per minute
3248.70 x 168 = 545,781.60 foot-pounds per minute
545,781.6 / 33000 = 16.54 water horsepower out of the pump
20 x 1.3 = 26 horsepower is going into the pump
16.54 / 26 = 0.64 efficient
POND CALCULATIONS
HOW TO CALCULATE LINER SIZE:

Once you have your pond size determined, you can figure out the liner size. Use the
longest, widest points of your size to calculate. Use the following formula:
Length + (2 x the depth) + (2 x 1 ft overlay)=length needed

Width + (2 x the depth) + (2x1 ft overlay)=width needed
For example: a pond 10' x 6' x 3'

10+(2x3)=16+2=18 ft liner length
6+(2x3)=12+2=14 ft liner width
Means you will need a piece of liner 18x14.
HOW TO CALCULATE PUMP SIZE:

It is very important to choose the correct size of pump to get proper circulation of water. You may
purchase pumps without fountain heads or pumps with fountain heads built in already. Pumps can be
the most costly part of your project, so you will want to maintain it regularly and care for it properly
over winter. Ideally pumps should be stored in a container of fresh water in a spot where it won't
freeze, and plugged in at least once a month throughout the winter to keep it in proper working order
for the next spring.
A good rule of thumb to decide on pump size is: pumps should be able to pump out close to or a little
less than half the volume of the pond. So, a 350 gph pump is ideal for a 6-700 gallon pond. This is a
quick method of calculating a simple pump for a pond with no waterfalls or features.
To calculate the exact pump size required for your pond, you will need first to calculate the volume of
the pond, then the waterfall height (if applicable). Then you select your pump based on circulating
50% of the volume of the pond in 1 hour, at the waterfall height. The formula for volume first:
If your pond is a rectangular shape: length x width x average depth x 7.48=US gallons
If your pond is an oval shape: 1/2 diameter x 1/2 diameter x average depth x 3.14 x 7.48=US gallons
Then to calculate the waterfall height, you simply measure the height from the pump to the top of the
waterfall.
For example:
160 gph pump is suitable for a waterfall with a height of 3' 3" max., which reduces the gph to 29. This
doesn't leave you with much gph for pumping the volume of your pond, so you can see that a 160 gph
pump is not ideal for a pond with a waterfall.
360 gph pump can pump for a waterfall height of 7'10" max., which reduces the gph to 70. At 5' gph is
120, at 3' gph is 250.
On this page, we have listed some basic sample pond supply lists for the sizes noted. Please be aware
that these are approximate only, and you may or may not require everything on the list, or in the
quantities mentioned.
For determination of Contracted Load in case of multi-storeyed buildings, please adopt the following methods:
1. For Domestic category- 500 W per 100 Sq.ft of the constructed area
2. For commercial category - 1500 W per 100 Sq. ft of the constructed area
3. For lift, water-lifting pump, street light (if any), corridor/campus lighting and other common facilities, load is be
calculated on actual basis.
SUBJECT: PLAYING WITH A FEW PUMP TERMS 12-11
In any discussion of centrifugal pumps you will find that there are several terms that are interrelated:
 Head
 Capacity
 Horsepower consumption
 Efficiency
In past papers I showed you formulas that calculated some of these relationships.
As an example, here is the formula for measuring the water horsepower or the horsepower out of the pump:
Efficiency is defined as the horsepower (water horsepower) out of the pump divided by the horsepower (brake
horsepower) into the pump. The formula to calculate it with head and capacity numbers is:
 TDH = the total discharge head measured in feet

 GPM = gallons per minute.
 HP = horsepower required. This number is shown on the pump print.
 3960 = a conversion number we get by dividing 8.333 (the weight, in pounds, of one gallon of water)
into 33,000 ( foot pounds in one horsepower).
Like all mathematical formulas you can change the order of the formula to calculate a different term. As an
example if you want total discharge head :
Or you can convertr it to read gallons per minute instead:
Horsepower required might be another choice:
If you are not comfortable using formulas another way to do this is to use a chart like the one attached to this
paper. If you know any of the following three numbers the chart will give you the fourth
 Head (TDH)
 Capacity (GPM)
 Efficiency
 Horsepower in (HP)
Lets do an example. The following numbers were supplied, what is the head that will be produced by the pump?
 Brake horsepower in = 17.6

 Efficiency = 70%
 Capacity = 350 gpm
To determine the head you would enter the graph at 17.6 horsepower, go up to the 70% efficiency point and
then run parallel to the existing lines until you reach the "break line".
From the break line you would go up the chart to 350 gallons per minute and then over to the head of 140 feet.
That wasn't too bad was it?
Here is another example: How many gallons per minute will this pump put out?
 Brake horsepower in = 20
 Efficiency = 50%
 Capacity = 150 gpm
Did you get about 265 gpm? I know the numbers are hard to read, but if you do not want to work with formulas
and you need the information, outside of asking someone else, what are your choices?
Since pump curves often are in head - feet or meters, its may be necessary with a conversion to the common pressure scales used
in pressure gauges - psi or bar.
The SI unit of the pressure is the pascal with the formula sign Pa.
1 Pascal is equal to the pressure of 1 newton per square meter. 1 Pa = 1 N / m² = 1 kg / m · s².
Good to know: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 ≡ 94 dBSPL and 1 bar = 105 Pa
Converting Head to Pressure

Converting head in feet to pressure in psi
Pump curves in feet of head can be converted to pressure - psi - by the expression:
p = 0.434 h SG (1)
where
p = pressure (psi)
h = head (ft)
SG = specific gravity
Converting head in meter to pressure in bar
Pump curves in meter of head can be converted to pressure - bar - by the expression:
p = 0.0981 h SG (2)
where
h = head (m)
p = pressure (bar)
Converting head in meter to pressure in kg/cm2
Pump curves in meter of head can be converted to pressure - kg/cm 2 - by the expression:
p = 0.1 h SG (2b)
where
h = head (m)
p = pressure (kg/cm2)
Converting Pressure to Head
Since pressure gauges often are calibrated in pressure - psi or bar, it may be necessary with a conversion to head - feet or
meter, common used in pump curves.
Converting pressure in psi to head in feet
h = p 2.31 / SG (3)
where
h = head (ft)
p = pressure (psi)
Converting pressure in bar to head in meter
h = p 10.197 / SG (4)
where
h = head (m)
p = pressure (bar)
Converting pressure in kg/cm2 to head in meter
h = p 10 / SG (4b)
where
h = head (m)
p = pressure (kg/cm2)
Example - Converting Pump Head - feet - to Pressure - psi.
The pressure - psi - of a water pump operating with head 120 ft can be expressed as:
p = (120 ft) 1 / 2.31
= 52 psi
The pressure indicates the normal force per unit area at a given point acting on a given plane. Since there is no shearing
stresses present in a fluid at rest - the pressure in a fluid is independent of direction.
For fluids - liquids or gases - at rest the pressure gradient in the vertical direction depends only on the specific weight of the fluid.
How pressure changes with elevation can be expressed as
dp = - γ dz (1)
where
dp = change in pressure
dz = change in height
γ = specific weight
The pressure gradient in vertical direction is negative - the pressure decrease upwards.
Specific Weight
Specific Weight can be expressed as:
γ = ρ g (2)
where
γ = specific weight
g = acceleration of gravity
In general the specific weight - γ - is constant for fluids. For gases the specific weight - γ - varies with the elevation.
Static Pressure in a Fluid
For a incompressible fluid - as a liquid - the pressure difference between two elevations can be expressed as:
p2 - p1 = - γ (z2 - z1) (3)
where
p2 = pressure at level 2
p1 = pressure at level 1
z2 = level 2
z1 = level 1
(3) can be transformed to:

p1 - p2 = γ (z2 - z1) (4)
or
p1 - p2 = γ h (5)
where
h = z2 - z1 difference in elevation - the dept down from location z2.
or
p1 = γ h + p2 (6)
The Pressure Head
(6) can be transformed to:
h = (p2 - p1) / γ (6)
h express the pressure head - the height of a column of fluid of specific weight - γ - required to give a pressure difference of (p2
- p1).
Example - Pressure Head
A pressure difference of 5 psi (lbf/in 2) is equivalent to
5 (lbf/in2) 12 (in/ft) 12 (in/ft) / 62.4 (lb/ft3) = 11.6 ft of water
5 (lbf/in2) 12 (in/ft) 12 (in/ft) / 847 (lb/ft3) = 0.85 ft of mercury
when specific weight of water is 62.4 (lb/ft3) and specific weight of mercury is 847 (lb/ft3).
Heads at different velocities can be taken from the table below:
Velocity Head Water

(ft/sec) (ft)
0.5 0.004
1.0 0.016
1.5 0035
2.0 0.062
2.5 0.097
3.0 0.140
3.5 0.190
4.0 0.248
4.5 0.314
5.0 0.389
5.5 0.470
6.0 0.560
6.5 0.657
7.0 0.762
7.5 0.875
8.0 0.995
8.5 1.123
9.0 1.259
9.5 1.403
10.0 1.555
11.0 1.881
12.0 2.239
13.0 2.627
14.0 3.047
15.0 3.498
16.0 3.980
17.0 4.493
18.0 5.037
19.0 5.613
20.0 6.219
21.0 6.856
22.0 7.525
 1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m = 12 in = 0.3333 yd

 The table below can be used to convert between commonly used units for pressure and head.
Multiply by
to
from
in.
lb/in2 lb/ft2 Atm kg/cm2 kg/m2
water (68oF)
lb/in2 1 144 0.068046 0.070307 703.070 27.7276
lb/ft2 0.0069444 1 0.000473 0.000488 4.88241 0.1926
Atm. 14.696 2116.22 1 1.0332 10332.27 407.484
kg/cm2 14.2233 2048.155 0.96784 1 10000 394.38
kg/m2 0.001422 0.204768 0.0000968 0.0001 1 0.03944
in. 0.036092 5.1972 0.002454 0.00253 25.375 1

water (68oF)
ft.
0.432781 62.3205 0.029449 0.03043 304.275 12
water (68oF)
in. mercury
0.491154 70.7262 0.033421 0.03453 345.316 13.6185
(32oF)
mm
0.0193368 2.78450 0.0013158 0.0013595 13.59509 0.53616
mercury (32oF)
Bars 14.5038 2088.55 0.98692 1.01972 10197.2 402.156
MPa 145.038 20885.5 9.8692 10.1972 101972.0 4021.56
Multiply by
to
from
ft. in. mm
Bars MPa
water (68oF) mercury (32oF) mercury (32oF)
lb/in2 2.3106 2.03602 51.7150 0.06895 0.006895
lb/ft2 0.01605 0.014139 0.35913 0.000479 0.0000479
Atm. 33.9570 29.921 760 1.01325 0.101325
kg/cm2 32.8650 28.959 735.559 0.98067 0.098067
kg/m2 0.003287 0.002896 0.073556 0.000098 0.0000098
in.
0.08333 0.073430 1.8651 0.00249 0.000249
water (68oF)
ft.
1 0.88155 22.3813 0.029839 0.0029839
water (68oF)
in. mercury (32oF) 1.1349 1 25.40005 0.033864 0.0033864
mm
0.044680 0.03937 1 0.001333 0.0001333
mercury (32oF)
Bars 33.5130 29.5300 750.062 1 0.10
MPa 335.130 295.300 7500.62 10.0 1
Unit of energy
One foot-pound is the amount of energy expended when a force of one pound acts through a
distance of one foot along the direction of the force.
1 foot-pound is equivalent to:
1.3558179483314004 joules (exactly)

13558179.483314004 ergs (exactly)
12 inch-pound force (exactly)
192 inch-ounce force (exactly)
0.001285067 British Thermal Unit
0.323832 calorie
0.000323832 "food calorie"
32.174049 foot-poundals
[edit] Related units of power

The foot-pound force per minute (ft·lbf/min), foot-pound force per second (ft·lbf/s), and horsepower
are units of power derived from the foot-pound force.
1 watt ≈ 44.25372896 ft·lbf/min

1 horsepower (mechanical) = 33000 ft·lbf/min = 550 ft·lbf/s
[edit] Unit of torque

As a unit of torque, one foot-pound is the torque created by one pound force acting at a
perpendicular distance of one foot from a pivot point. The term pound-foot is sometimes used to
distinguish the unit of torque from the unit of energy. Pound-foot is used by engine manufacturers
in specifying the torque output of an engine.
1 foot-pound is equivalent to:

1.3558179483314004 newton meter (exactly)
Metric to U.S. Conversion Chart
1 ml = 1/5 teaspoon
5 ml = 1 teaspoon
15 ml = 1 tablespoon
30 ml = 1 fluid oz.
100 ml = 3.4 fluid oz.
240 ml = 1 cup
1 liter = 34 fluid oz.
1 liter = 4.2 cups
1 liter = 2.1 pints
1 liter = 1.06 quarts
1 liter = .26 gallon
Weight
1 gram = .035 ounce
100 grams = 3.5 ounces
500 grams = 1.10 pounds
1 kilogram = 2.205 pounds
1 kilogram = 35 oz.
U.S. to Metric Conversion Chart
1/5 teaspoon = 1 ml
1 teaspoon = 5 ml
1 tablespoon = 15 ml
1 fluid oz. = 30 ml
1/5 cup = 50 ml
1 cup = 240 ml
2 cups (1 pint) = 470 ml
4 cups (1 quart) = .95 liter
4 quarts (1 gal.) = 3.8 liters
Weight
1 oz. = 28 grams
1 pound = 454 grams
Cooking Measurement Equivalents
16 tablespoons = 1 cup
12 tablespoons = 3/4 cup
10 tablespoons + 2 teaspoons = 2/3 cup
5 tablespoons + 1 teaspoon = 1/3 cup
2 tablespoons + 2 teaspoons = 1/6 cup
1 tablespoon = 1/16 cup
2 cups = 1 pint
2 pints = 1 quart
3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon
48 teaspoons = 1 cup
Common Recipe Measurement Conversion Chart
1 cup = 24 centiliter (cl) or 240 milliliter (ml)

1 tablespoon (tbsp) = 15 milliliter (ml)
1 teaspoon (tsp) = 5 milliliter (ml)
1 fluid ounce (oz) = 30 milliliter (ml)
1 pound (lb) = 454 grams (gm)
Weight
1 ounce = 28.35 grams
1 pound = 453.59 grams
1 gram = 0.035 ounce
100 grams = 3.5 ounces
1000 grams = 2.2 pounds
1 kilogram = 35 ounces
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds
Temperature
Conversion chart formulas:
°C = (°F - 32) X 5/9
°F = (°C X 9/5) + 32
32°F = 0°C
40°F = 4.4°C
100°F = 37.7°C
200°F = 93.3°C
225°F = 107.2°C
250°F = 121.1°C
275°F = 135°C
300°F = 148.9°C
325°F = 162.8°C
350°F = 176.7°C
375°F = 190.6°C
400°F = 204.4°C
425°F = 218.3°C
450°F = 232.2°C
475°F = 246.1°C
500°F = 260°C
Distance
1 inch = 2.5 centimeters
1 foot = 30 centimeters
1 millimeter = 0.04 inch
1 centimeter = 0.4 inch
1 meter = 3.3 feet
Abbreviations
Standard English
cup = C
fluid cup = fl C
fluid ounce = fl oz
fluid quart = fl qt
foot = ft
gallon = gal
inch = in
ounce = oz
pint = pt
pound = lb
quart = qt
tablespoon = T or Tbsp
teaspoon = t or tsp
yard = yd
Metric
millimeter = mm
centimeter = cm
meter = m
kilometer = km
milliliter = mL
liter = L
milligram = mg
gram = g
kilogram = kg
Multiply BY TO GET
acre ac 0.40 ha hectare
acre-foot ac-ft 43560. ft3 cubic foot
acre-foot ac-ft 325851. gal gallon
acre-foot ac-ft 2719362. lb pound

acre-inch ac-in 3630. ft3 cubic foot
acre-inch ac-in 27154. gal gallon
acre-inch ac-in 226614. lb pound
animal unit month AUM 0.60 t/ac ton/acre
atmosphere pressure atm 14.7 psi, lb/in2 pound/square inch
atmosphere pressure atm 1.01 bar barometric pressure
barrel bbl 31.5 gal gallon
bushel bu 1.24 ft3 cubic feet
bushel bu 0.035 m3 cubic meter
bushel bu 4. pk peck
o
Centigrade C (oC x 9/5) + 32 o
F Fahrenheit
chain ch 66. ft feet
cord cd 128. ft3 cubic feet
cubic feet ft3 62.43 lb pound
cubic feet ft3 7.48 gal gallon
cubic feet ft3 0.028 m3 cubic meter
cubic feet/second cfs, ft3/sec 449. gpm, gal/min gallon/minute
Cubic inch in3 16.39 cc,cm3 cubic centimeter
Cubic yard yd3 0.76 m3 cubic meter
o
Fahrenheit F (oF-32) x 5/9 o
C Centigrade
feet ft 0.3048 m meter
feet/second fps, ft/sec 0.68 mph, mi/hr mile/hour
gallon gal 3.79 L liter
gallon gal 8.35 lb pound
gallon/acre gal/ac 9.35 L/ha liter/hectare

grains (troy) gr 0.0648 gm gram
grains/gallon (US) gr/gal 17.118 ppm parts per million
hand hnd 4. In inch
horsepower hp 550. ft-lb/sec foot-pound/second
horsepower hp 0.746 kW kilowatt
horsepower hp 42.44 BTU/min British Thermal Unit/minute
inch in 2.54 cm centimeter
knot kt 1.15 mi mile
link lk 7.92 in inch
mile mi 1.61 km kilometer
nitrogen N 4.43 NO3 nitrate ion
TO GET BY DIVIDE
Multiply BY TO GET
ounce oz 28.35 gm gram
parts per million ppm or mg/kg 0.002 lb/t pound/ton
parts per million ppm or mg/L 0.00835 lb/1000 gal pound/1000 gallon
parts per million ppm or mg/L 0.2266 lb/ac-in pound/acre-inch
peck pk 8. qt quart
percent % 20. lb/t pound/ton
percent % 83.5 lb/1000 gal pound/1000 gallon
percent % 2266. lb/ac-in pound/acre-inch
percent % 10000. ppm parts per million
phosphorus P 2.29 P2O5 phosphate
potassium K 1.20 K2O potash
pound lb 0.45 kg kilogram

pound/acre lb/ac 1.12 kg/ha kilogram/hectare
pound/cubic foot lb/ft3 16.02 kg/m3 kilogram/cubic meter
pound/gallon lb/gal 119826. ppm or mg/L parts per million
pound/gallon lb/gal 120. kg/m3 kilogram/cubic meter
pound/1000 gallon lb/1000 gal 0.12 kg/m3 kilogram/cubic meter
pound/1000 gallon lb/1000 gal 27.154 lb/ac-in pound/acre-inch
pound/square foot lb/ft2 4.88 kg/m2 kilogram/square meter
pound/square inch psi, lb/in2 0.07 kg/cm2 kilogram/square centimeter
pound/square inch psi, lb/in2 2.04 in Hg inch mercury
pound/square inch psi, lb/in2 2.31 ft H2O feet water
pound/square inch psi, lb/in2 6895. Pa Paschal
rod rd 16.5 ft feet
square feet ft2 0.093 m2 square meter
square mile mi2 2.59 km2 square kilometer
square mile mi2 640. ac acre
sulfur S 3. SO4 sulfate
ton, short t 2000. lb pound
ton, short t 0.907 mt metric ton
ton, long t 2240. lb pound
ton, long t 1.016 mt metric ton
ton, metric mt 1000. kg kilogram
ton, metric mt 2205 lb pound
yard yd 0.9144 m meter
TO GET BY DIVIDE
Return to: Animal & Poultry Manure Production & Characterization or BAE or NCSU
What is a Pump?
A mechanical device used to move gases, liquids, or slurries is known as a Pump. A pump moves
liquids or gases from a lower pressure to a higher pressure and is responsible for creating this
difference in pressure. Depending on the purpose it serves, a pump is available in variety of shapes
and sizes, from very large to very small, from high pressure to low pressure, from handling gas to
handling liquid, and from high volume to low volume. A pump can move fluids in a variety of ways.
 It is a machine or device for raising, compressing, or transferring fluids.
 Any form of liquid can be raised or caused to flow by means of a pump.
 It can draw, deliver, or pour forth liquid.
 It can remove the water from below.
 It can propel, eject, or insert liquid.
Application of Pumps
Pumps are used for a variety of purposes, since time immemorial. The first pump was described in the 3rd century BC by Archimedes
and it was known as the Archimedes screw pump. Since then, pumps are used in every society. Initially pumps were used in windmill or
watermill to pump water. Starting from irrigation to water supply, air conditioning, refrigeration, chemical movement, sewage movement,
flood control to marine services and many more, pumps have become a very essential commodity for everybody. They are widely used
in various industrial, commercial and residential applications.
Types of Pumps
The list of pumps available in the market is an endless list. The types of pumps are wide and varied. Some popular ones are as follows:
 Diaphragm Pump
 Piston Pump
 Bladder Pump
 Gear Pump
 Rotary Pump
 Water Pump
 Peristaltic Pump
 Hydraulic Pump
 Vacuum Pump
 Drum Pump
 Marine Pump
 Positive Displacement Pump and many more
Diaphragm Pump
Diaphragm pump is classified as a positive displacement pump because it acts as a limited
displacement piston. It is a common industrial pump to move liquids. Diaphragm pumps are highly
reliable because they do not include internal parts that rub against each other. Diaphragm pump is one
of the oldest pumping techniques used by man.
How does a diaphragm pump works?

The operating principle of diaphragm liquid pump is extremely simple. The pump includes a single
diaphragm and chamber, as well as suction and discharge check valves to prevent back flow. In a
diaphragm pump, a diaphragm is hydraulically moved backwards and forwards rapidly by a simple
piston pump. The diaphragm is clamped at its circumference between the pump housing and the pump
head. An eccentric imparts movement to the connecting rod
, which in turn moves the diaphragm to and from. This produces a periodic change in volume of the working chamber. In combination
with automatic inlet and exhaust valves, this change in volume produces a pumping action.
Types of Diaphragm Pump:
 Hydraulically Operated Diaphragm Pump : This pump does not need piston seals. This pump is activated by the plunger
pump setup. The plunger setup provides high pressure operation. This pump is monitored continuously. The inlet valve and
outlet valve may be eroded and blocked.
 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump : Two diaphragms are mechanically, hydraulically or pneumatically oscillated to displace the
liquid or gas. The diaphragm which pushed the fluid now sucks the fluid and the diaphragm which admitted the fluid now
pushes the fluid out. This is also called the double diaphragm pump.
Applications of Diaphragm Pump:

Diaphragm pumps are used in a variety of industries and applications. They are as follows:
 Aerospace or Defense
 Agriculture or Horticulture
 Automotive
 Brewery or Distillery
 Construction
 Cryogenic
 Dairy
 Flood Control
 Food Processing
 HVAC
 Machine Tool
 Maritime
 Mining
 Municipal Applications
 Medical, Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Applications
 Power Generation
 Pulp and Paper Industries and
 Production of Semiconductors
 Packaging Industry
 Ceramic and Tiles Industry
Uses and Features of Diaphragm Pump:
 Rugged diaphragm pump can withstand high temperatures and may be exposed to various grades of water, oils, and other
solvents.
 Some diaphragm pumps can handle hazardous materials, highly viscous fluids, liquids with solids, or liquids with oil.
 Diaphragm pumps can also handle lubricants, oil, potable water, salt water, wastewater, powder or solids, sewage, sludge, and
slurry or ash slurry.
 Power sources include AC voltage, DC voltage, pneumatic or hydraulic systems, natural gas, gasoline, steam, water, or solar
power.
 Cars often use a diaphragm Pump to move gasoline from the gas tank to the carburetor or fuel injection plugs.
 Diaphragm pumps are very common and come in many sizes.
 Speed motors and drives are not needed in diaphragm pumps.
 There is no contact between the chamber of pump and the pumping material. This feature is ideal for diaphragm pump to
pump the slurries and abrasives.
 The diaphragm plays the role of membrane while separating the fluid and air.
 It is a totally submerging pump in many cases.
Piston Pump
Also known as well service or high viscosity pump, piston pump is a reciprocating pump that uses a
plunger or piston to move media through a cylindrical chamber. The plunger or piston is actuated by a
steam powered, pneumatic, hydraulic or electric drive. Piston pump is basically a plunger pump.
How does a Piston Pump works?

Piston pumps use a cylindrical mechanism to create a reciprocating motion along an axis, which then
builds pressure in a cylinder to force gas or fluid through the pump. Liquid moves through a piston by
virtue of the push pull motion of pistons within the handle side of the pump. A basic piston pump
consists of two valves and a stuffing box. The pressure in the chamber actuates the valves at both the
suction and discharge points. Piston pumps are used in lower pressure applications. It uses cam lobe action against the piston to
generate hydraulic fluid flow and lift the implements. The volume of the fluid discharged is equal to the area of the plunger or piston.
Types of Piston Pump:
 Axial Piston Pump :The piston elements moving along an axis are called axial piston pumps.
 Rotary Piston Pump : Rotary piston pumps typically have an internal rotating mechanism that moves the piston.
Applications of Piston Pump:

Piston Pumps are used in a variety of industries and applications. They are as follows:
 Beverage vending machines
 Post-mix drink dispensers
 Water carbonators
 Espresso coffee machines
 Smoke generators
 Steam generators
 Carpet cleaners
 Water purifiers
 Indexing, conveying, lifting, clamping and machine feed or extract applications
 Low pressure applications and general service or oil service applications
 Power applications
Uses and Features of Piston Pump:

 Generally of compact design.
 Low noise level during operation.
 Excellent horse power to weight ratio.
 Piston pumps can generate an overall efficiency in the range of 90-95%.
 Reciprocating piston pumps can maintain a pressure of 1500 to 6000 psi and move fluid volumes of 35 gallons per minute.
 It is made up of materials like steel, stainless steel, bronze, brass, iron and nickel alloy.
Gear Pump
A gear pump is a positive displacement rotary pump which is used to transport high pressure
and high volume flows. It uses step down gearbox mechanism for pumping various viscous
liquids. Mostly used in hydraulic pumps and engine oil pumps, a gear pump supplies constant
amount of fluid per revolution.
How does a gear pump works?

A gear pump functions through the use of two or more internal gears that create vacuum pressure, propelling the fluid media. It
consists of two toothed gears that are meshed together in a very tight enclosure. As each tooth of the gear comes in contact,
the load moves to the next tooth and this will force out the liquid in the discharge pipe.
Types of Gear Pump:
 Internal gear pump : Internal gear pumps are suited for a wide range of viscosity applications because of their relatively low
speeds. This is especially true where suction conditions call for a pump with minimal inlet pressure requirements.
 External gear pumps : External gear pumps are a popular pumping principle and are often found in lubrication pumps in
machine tools, in fluid power transfer units and as oil pumps in engines.
Applications of Gear Pump:

Gear Pumps are used in a variety of industries
and applications. They are as follows:
 Laboratory
 Petrochemical
 Marine Applications
 Sanitary and Pumping Applications
 Hydraulic Power Applications
 Used in tankers, terminal loading and unloading, and barges.
 Automotive and Vehicle Manufacturing Industries
 Dairy Industries
 Food Service Applications
 Oil and Gas Production Applications
 Recreational Products Industry
 Biotechnology Industry
 Pharmaceutical Industry
 Cement Industries
 Engineering Industries
 Fertilizer Industry
 Paint Industry
 Ship building Industry
 Chemical and Dye industries
Rotary Pump
A rotary pump is a positive displacement pump, where the movement of liquid from the inlet to the
outlet of the pump is caused by rotary motion. Intended for industrial and commercial applications, a
rotary pump is suitable for high pressure liquids and high viscosity liquids.
How does a Rotary Pump works?

A rotary pump operates on the principle of a rotating vane, rotating screw or forces on the gear trap’s
pump casing on the suction side of the liquid and those on the pump casing on the discharge side. All
rotary pumps have rotating parts which trap the fluid at the suction (inlet) port and force it through the discharge port into the system.
Gears, screws, lobes, and vanes are commonly used to move the fluid.
They are designed with very small clearances between rotating parts and stationary parts to minimize slippage from the discharge side
back to the suction side. They are designed to operate at relatively moderate speeds. Operating at high speeds causes erosion and
excessive wear which results in increased clearances.
Types of Rotary Pump:

There are numerous types of rotary pumps and various methods of classification. A few of the most common types of rotary pumps are:
 Piston pumps
 Gear pumps
 Rotary Lobe pumps
 Screw pumps
 Diaphragm pumps
Applications of Rotary Pump

Rotary Pumps are are used in a variety of industries and applications. They are as follows :
 Pharmaceutical industry
 Pulp and paper industry
 Mining industry
 Power generation industry
 Food and beverage industry
 Chemical industry and biotechnology
Uses and Features of Rotary Pump
 Flow is independent of pressure. The flow can be changed without upsetting the pump's efficiency.
 It can handle high viscosity fluids efficiently.
 It is self priming.
 It is possible to get a smooth pulse free flow of the liquid into the system.
 It is also possible to get the desirable high head low flow combination that is needed in many high pressure applications.
 A rotary pump gives a non-shearing action that will not degrade sensitive petrochemicals and polymers.
Water Pump
The basic purpose of a water pump is to move water that does not contain any suspended solids or
particulates. While slurries and the like are best handled by wastewater or sewage pumps, water
pumps can handle ground water, potable water and salt water.
Types of Water Pumps:

 Fountain water pump
 Submersible water pump
 Centrifugal pump
 Cantilever pump
 Hand water pump

Applications of Water Pump:
Water pumps are widely used in water supply distribution applications.
 Irrigation
 Land and mine drainage
 Condensate transport
 Sump and bilge pumping
 Households
 Agriculture
 Cars
Features of Water Pump:
 A water pump is run by different types of power source like electric, gas power, fuel driven pumps and solar power.
 To select the type of water pump depends on the specific application, the discharge flow and the discharge pressure required
(high pressure water pumps are available), the size of the inlet and outlets to which the water pump will be connected, the
temperature of the water that will be pumped, and whether or not the water must maintain some form of sterility.
Peristaltic Pump
Peristaltic Pumps are the world's fastest growing pump type. A peristaltic pump is used to pump clean
or sterile fluids because the pump cannot contaminate the fluid, or to pump aggressive fluids because
the fluid cannot contaminate the pump. Peristaltic pumps are also referred to as flexible member
pumps, flexible tube pumps, dispensing pumps, or dosing pumps or hose pumps or tube pumps.
How does a peristaltic pump works?

A peristaltic pump uses a rotating roller pressed against special flexible tubing to create a pressurized
flow. The tube is compressed at a number of points in contact with the rollers or shoes. The media is
moved through the tube with each rotating motion. The individual components of a peristaltic pump
include a pump head, drive, and tubing. As the rotor turns, the part of tube under compression closes
thus forcing the fluid to be pumped to move through the tube.
Types of Peristaltic Pump:
 Higher pressure peristaltic pump :Typically uses reinforced tube which is often called hose and the class of pump is often
called a hose pump.
 Lower pressure peristaltic pump : Typically uses non-reinforced tubing, and the class of pump is sometimes called a tube
pump or tubing pump.
Applications of Peristaltic Pump:

Peristaltic Pumps are are used in a variety of industries and applications. They are as follows:
 Commercial Swimming Pools
 Water Conditioning
 Agricultural and Industrial Applications
 Petrochemical
 Surface Treatment
 Building Construction
 Mining Industry
 Food and Beverage Processing
 Pulp and Paper Production.
 Pharmaceutical Processing
 Semiconductor
 Medical Applications
Uses and Features of Peristaltic Pumps:
 Seals and valves are not needed as in other pumps. Hence, they do not need any maintenance.
 Peristaltic pumps come with wash down capabilities and/or IP54 or IP55 ratings.
 Peristaltic pumps are also reversible and are generally used to clean out the hose or tubing.
 Single head and dual head pump options are also available.
 The tubing in peristaltic pumps is often replaceable or disposable.
 When choosing between peristaltic pumps, flow rate is proportional to the rotation of the rollers.
 These pumps combine precise positive displacement and low maintenance requirements with the ability to handle abrasive
and aggressive fluids, which wear out many other pump types. This unique combination of features often proves to be a cost-
effective alternative used in difficult pumping applications.
Hydraulic Pump
The process of transferring of power from one point (the hydraulic pump) to another point (linear or
rotary actuator) is called hydraulics. Hydraulic Pump is designed to convert mechanical power or
motion into hydraulic fluid power by producing a flow.
How does a hydraulic pump works?

Unlike other pumps, a hydraulic pump does not require external energy source to perform the pumping
action. The water is put to work to pump itself. The pumps use kinetic energy of the water to push small
amounts of water into a reservoir. Two functions are carried out when a hydraulic pump is in operation.
One is the mechanical action that creates a vacuum in the pump inlet. This allows the atmospheric
pressure to drive the liquid into the reservoir and to the inlet of the pump. The other function is also the
mechanical action in which liquid is released into the outlet of the pump and then it flows into the hydraulic system.
Types of Hydraulic Pump:

 Piston Pump
 Vane Pump
 Gear Pump
 Positive Displacement Pump
Applications of Hydraulic Pump:

Hydraulic Pumps are used in a variety of industries and applications. They are as follows:
 Forestry
 Agriculture
 Construction
 Material handling
 Washing machines
 Refrigerators
 Trucks
Features of Hydraulic Pump:
 Hydraulic pumps deliver high pressure fluid flow to the pump outlet.
 A hydraulic pump, when powered by pressurized fluid, can rotate in a reverse direction and act as a motor.
 Operating specifications, housing materials, and features are all important specifications to consider when searching for
hydraulic pumps.
 Pump type and pump stages are the most important operating specifications to consider when searching for hydraulic pumps.
 Additional operating specifications include continuous operating pressure, maximum operating pressure, speed, horsepower
, temperature, maximum fluid flow, maximum fluid viscosity, displacement per revolution and pump weight.
Vacuum Pump
A vacuum pump is a pump that removes gas molecules from a sealed or closed volume in order to
leave behind a partial vacuum.
How does a Vacuum Pump works ?

Vacuum pumps operate by different mechanisms. A single application may employ more than one of
them. There are techniques available to achieve a more perfect vacuum. When the pressure is lower in
the gaseous chamber than the atmospheric pressure, then a vacuum is said to exist in the closed
chamber. The easiest way to create a vacuum is to expand the volume of a closed container. By
repeatedly closing off a compartment of the vacuum and exhausting it, air is pumped out of the closed
chamber. Most mechanical pumps operate under this principle.
Types of Vacuum Pump:

 Positive Displacement Pump
 Molecular Pump
 Entrapment Pump
Applications of Vacuum Pump:

Vacuum pumps and vacuum generators provide sub-atmospheric pressure for a variety of industrial and scientific applications:
 General Purpose
 Semiconductor Manufacturing
 Electron Microscopy
 Medical and Laboratory
 Vacuum Engineering
 Gasoline Powered Automobiles
 Industrial Gripping and Chucking

 Laboratory Degassing
 Chemical and Corrosive Gas Processing
 Pharmaceutical and Sanitary
 Food Processing
 Agricultural Applications
 Packaging
Features of Vacuum Pump:
 Vacuum specifications for vacuum pumps include ultimate vacuum range, pumping speed or displacement, vacuum pump
stages, and lubrication style.
 There are other terms and standards used such as medium vacuum and ultra high vacuum.
 The pumping speed is the air volume capacity of the vacuum pump.
 Vacuum pumps are flow rated according to the volume of air exhausted with no pressure differential across the pump. Some
vacuum pumps may be used for compression of air or other gases.
Drum Pump
A drum pump is a kind of pump to transport or dispense the contents, usually liquid of drums, pails,
tanks or barrels. It is also called as barrel pump.
How does a drum pump works?

The motors used for driving the drum pump are of different types, such as pneumatic air drive, electric,
pneumatic, and hydraulic driven motors, including hand driven. The motor is usually attached to the
pump tube so that one motor can be used on several different pumps. This helps in preventing fluid
contamination. A drum pump works in a combination of two basic principles: Positive displacement
principle and the Centrifugal principle.
Types of Drum Pump:

 Diaphragm Pump
 Piston Pump
Applications of Drum Pump:

Drum Pumps are used in a variety of industries and applications. They are as follows:
 Chemical Industry
 Marine Industry
 Paper Industry
 Chemical Transfer
 Cooling Systems
 Waste Water
 Plating Solutions
 Slurries
Uses and Features of Drum Pumps:
 Drum pumps operated by hand requires handles, levers, or plungers to begin dispensation of the fluid.
 Double action drum pumps allow the fluid to be delivered on the front and back or up and down stroke of the handle or lever.
 Drum pumps may mount manually or with a clamp.
 Drum pumps are portable and lighter in weight.
 Can handle liquids that are less viscous than water.
 In special cases, drum pumps can handle suspended solids.
 They are not inherently self-priming.
Marine Pump
Pumps are hydraulic machines which convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. The hydraulic
energy is in the form of pressure energy. Marine pumps are those pumps used in marine applications.
Types of Marine Pumps:

 Circulating pumps
 Diaphragm pumps
 Flexible Impeller pumps
 Manual diaphragm pumps
 Multipurpose centrifugal pumps
Uses and Features of Marine Pumps:
 It is designed for continuous operation.
 Marine Pumps are considered as extra heavy duty constructed pumps.
 These pumps are explosion proof pumps.
 They are mechanically sealed.
 Some models of marine pumps are directly connected to sewage line or holding tank.
 Self primed.
 Some pumps are magnetically driven.
 Designed for fresh water handling as marine water pump.
 It resists the stress produced during cavitations.

 It also resists wear due to high velocities of the impeller.
 It is easily replaced by the mounting bracket.
 It is easy to install.
Applications of Marine Pumps:

Marine Pumps are used in marine industry and other applications. They are as follows:
 Engine cooling systems
 Bilge pumping
 Deck wash
 Lavatory systems
 Transporting fuel from tank to tank
 Water circulating systems
 Marine fuel pump
 Pumping salt water, waste water, brackish water and many pollution control systems.
Positive Displacement Pump

Positive Displacement Pumps, also known as PD Pumps, are that kind of pumps which displace a
known quantity of liquid with each revolution of the pumping elements. They are constant flow
machines and are found in a wide range of applications.
How does a Positive Displacement (PD) Pump works?

Positive displacement pumps use gears, lobes, rotary pistons, vanes, and screws
to move fluid in a fixed cavity and when liquid exits, the vacuum that is created draws in more fluid.
This type of pump forces the fluid from one chamber to another by reducing the volume of the first
chamber while increasing the volume of the second. The PD Pump has an increasing cavity on the
suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Fluid flows into the pump as the cavity on
the suction side expands and the fluid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses.
Types of Positive Displacement Pump:

 Bladder Pump
 Diaphragm Pump
 Double-diaphragm Pump
 Piston Pumps
 Peristaltic Pump
 Gear Pump
 Rotary Pump
 Rotary Lobe Pump
 Grinder Pump
 Progressive Cavity Pump
 Submersible Pump
 Axial flow pump
 Metering Pump
Applications of Positive Displacement Pump:

Positive displacement pumps are used in a variety of industrial, commercial, and municipal applications such as:
 Construction
 Maritime
 Mining
 Petrochemical
 Pulp and paper
 Power generation industries.
 Petrochemical and hydrocarbon applications
 Chemical-processing
 Liquid delivery
 Biotechnology
 Pharmaceutical
 Food, dairy, and beverage processing
Uses and Features of Positive Displacement Pump:
 PD pump is suitable for liquids with high viscosities and for applications that require high pressures.
 Important specifications for positive displacement pumps include maximum discharge flow, maximum discharge pressure, inlet
size, discharge size and media temperature.
 Power sources include AC, DC, compressed air, diesel fuel, gasoline, natural gas, water, steam, hydraulic systems and solar
energy.
 Manually powered pumps rely upon hand or foot power.
 Positive displacement pumps are frequently used in hydraulic systems at pressures ranging up to 5000 psi.
 The versatility and popularity of PD pump are due to their relatively compact design, high-viscosity performance, continuous
flow regardless of differential pressure, and ability to handle high differential pressure.
Specifications of Pump
There are various features of pumps which are to considered before buying a pump for any industrial,
commercial or residential applications. Not necessary that all the features will be available in all types
of pumps. It all depends on the individual choice of the buyers to choose from all specifications and
features that can be available in a pump.
The various features or specifications that can be present in any pump are as follows:
 Adjustable Speed : The speed of these pumps can be selected by the operator.
 Belt Driven : Here, the pumps shaft is driven by a belt.
 Continuous Duty : This feature of a pump enables it to run continuously. It can maintain performance specifications at 100%
duty cycle.
 Corrosion Resistant : The pump is made up of corrosion resistant materials, such as stainless steel.
 Back-up Battery Power Supply : The feature enables the pump to be equipped with a battery for back-up power supply.
However, the battery is not intended for regular use.
 Close Coupled :These pumps have the pump end mounted directly on the motor shaft.
 Control Panel : Equipped with a control panel for operating levels of values such as pressure, flow and any safety shut-off
features.
 End/Bottom Suction : They have centerline suction and discharge.
 Explosion Proof :This feature prevents internal or external explosions by enclosing parts that could cause ignition of the
transfered media or the surrounding atmosphere. It also prevents internal explosions from affecting the surrounding atmosphere
and vice versa.
 Frame Mounted :The pump end mounted on a bearing frame that is coupled to the motor.
 Grinding Mechanism :There is an integral grinding mechanism in the suction port to grind sewage, rubber goods, garbage,
plastic bags, fabrics, etc. to very small pieces and transfer them under pressure.
 Horizontal Orientation : Here the pump stator or rotor assembly is lying horizontally. Media is pumped horizontally through
the pump.
 Hygienic : This feature means that the pump is constructed from hygienic materials, and is fully sealed so as to eliminate
leakage and contamination of pumped materials.
 Jacketed : The pumps feature jacketed flanges, casing and pump head. This feature helps when the pump is used for
applications where pump head temperature control is critical.
 Level Control Device : This feature turns the pump on and off depending on the level of media.
 Multi-stage : This helps the compressed fluid to go from initial stage to successive chambers or stages of pressurization. This
feature generates higher-pressure levels which is not possible with single stage pumping.
 Nonclog : Nonclog pumps are configured to pump sticky materials that would clog the various types of pumps.
 Plug-in : This feature enables the pump to be supplied with a power cord that can plug into a power source.
 Portable : The pump is packaged for easy transportation.
 Pressure Gauge : The pump is fixed with a dial or digital readout of pressure level(s), at the outlet.
 Reversible : These pumps have the ability to pump in either direction with equal efficiency.
 Run Dry Capable :This feature enables the pump to operate with no pumped fluid or external lubrication for an extended
period of time with no damage.
 Sanitary : The pump is specifically designed to meet the strict guidelines established for sanitary process applications.
 Seal less : There are no caps, packing or mechanical seals in the pump. All the sliding and rotating parts are isolated from the
pumped fluid.
 Self-priming :Priming means to introduce fluid into the pumping chamber to create the pressure difference to begin pumping
at rated service. Self-priming feature helps the pump to create and maintain a sufficient vacuum level to draw fluid into the inlet with
no external assistance.
 Strainer/Filter : Pump has a strainer or filter to collect solids before they pass through the pump.
 Thermal Overload Protection : This is a device to shut off the pump in the event the motor becomes too hot.
 Top Suction : With this feature the pump is capable of drawing fluid from the top of a tank rather than from the bottom of a
reservoir.
 Vertical Orientation :Pump stator and rotor assembly is vertically upright. Media is pumped vertically through the pump.
 Washdown Duty : This feature enables the pumps to perform better in wet environments including food processing plants and
dairies as well as other high humidity areas.
Materials for Construction of Pumps

Pumps are made of various materials. Pumps are offered in a variety of construction materials for
dispensing most types of liquids and chemicals. Some common materials used in the construction of
pumps are as follows:
 Aluminum
 Brass
 Bronze
 Cast Iron
 Plastic
 Stainless Steel
Aluminum
Aluminum is a silvery and ductile member of the poor metal group of chemical elements. Aluminum is found primarily as the ore
bauxite. It is a light trivalent metallic element and has good electrical and thermal conductivity, high reflectivity, and resistance to
oxidation. Aluminum is used in many industries to make millions of different products and is very important to the world economy.
Brass
The term used for alloys of copper and zinc in a solid solution is called brass. It is more than 50% copper and from 5 to 20% zinc. Brass
comes with good strength. It has excellent high temperature ductility and reasonable cold ductility. Brass has also good conductivity and
excellent corrosion resistance. Since it also has good bearing properties and low magnetic permeability, it is a ideal material for
construction of pumps.
Bronze
The term used for alloys of copper and tin is called Bronze. Sometimes, bronze is also found with other elements such as phosphorus,
manganese, aluminum, or silicon. It is strong and tough, and has wide range of uses in industry. Some types of brasses are also called
bronzes. Sintered bronze is a porous material, which can be impregnated with oil, graphite or PTFE. It is not suitable for heavily loaded
applications but is of great use where lubrication is inconvenient.
Cast Iron
There are various types of cast irons which are widely used in industry, especially for valves, pumps, pipes, filters and certain
mechanical parts. Cast iron can be considered as an alloy of iron, silicon and carbon. Cast irons are natural composite materials whose
properties are determined by their micro structures, that is, the stable and metastable phases formed during solidification or subsequent
heat treatment. Cast irons have improved (corrosion) resistance and substantially modified mechanical and physical properties. Various
types of cast irons used in the construction of pumps are:
 Gray Cast Iron
 White Cast Iron
 Chilled Iron (duplex)
 Malleable Cast Irons
 Ductile Or Nodular Cast Irons
Plastic
Plastic includes a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic polymerization products. It is composed of organic condensation or addition
polymers and other substances to improve performance or economics. It is capable of being molded, extruded, cast into various shapes
and films, or drawn into filaments used as textile fibers. It is malleable, having the property of plasticity. It is designed with immense
variation in properties such as heat tolerance, hardness, resiliency and many others. Combined with this adaptability, the general
uniformity of composition and light weight of plastic ensures its use in almost all industrial segments.
Stainless Steel
Another material of construction of pumps is stainless steel. Stainless steel is chemical and corrosion resistant and can have relatively
high pressure ratings.
Pumps are in general classified as Centrifugal Pumps (or Roto-dynamic pumps) and Positive Displacement Pumps.
Centrifugal Pumps (Roto-dynamic pumps)
The centrifugal or roto-dynamic pump produce a head and a flow by increasing the velocity of the liquid through the machine with
the help of a rotating vane impeller. Centrifugal pumps include radial, axial and mixed flow units.
Centrifugal pumps can further be classified as

 end suction pumps
 in-line pumps
 double suction pumps
 vertical multistage pumps
 horizontal multistage pumps
 submersible pumps
 self-priming pumps
 axial-flow pumps
 regenerative pumps
Positive Displacement Pumps
The positive displacement pump operates by alternating of filling a cavity and then displacing a given volume of liquid. The positive
displacement pump delivers a constant volume of liquid for each cycle against varying discharge pressure or head.
The positive displacement pump can be classified as:

 Reciprocating pumps - piston, plunger and diaphragm
 Power pumps
 Steam pumps
 Rotary pumps - gear, lobe, screw, vane, regenerative (peripheral) and progressive cavity
Selecting between Centrifugal or Positive Displacement Pumps
Selecting between a Centrifugal Pump or a Positive Displacement Pump is not always straight forward.
Flow Rate and Pressure Head
The two types of pumps behave very differently regarding pressure head and flow rate:
 The Centrifugal Pump has varying flow depending on the system pressure or head
 The Positive Displacement Pump has more or less a constant flow regardless of the system pressure or head. Positive
Displacement pumps generally gives more pressure than Centrifugal Pump's.
Capacity and Viscosity
Another major difference between the pump types is the effect of viscosity on the capacity:
 In the Centrifugal Pump the flow is reduced when the viscosity is increased
 In the Positive Displacement Pump the flow is increased when viscosity is increased
Liquids with high viscosity fills the clearances of a Positive Displacement Pump causing a higher volumetric efficiency and a
Positive Displacement Pump is better suited for high viscosity applications. A Centrifugal Pump becomes very inefficient at even
modest viscosity.
Mechanical Efficiency
The pumps behaves different considering mechanical efficiency as well.

 Changing the system pressure or head has little or no effect on the flow rate in the Positive Displacement Pump
 Changing the system pressure or head has a dramatic effect on the flow rate in the Centrifugal Pump
Cubic feet per minute (CFPM) is a non-SI unit of measurement of gasflow (most often airflow)
that indicates how many cubic feet of gas (most often air) pass by a stationary point in one
minute. In other words, it is a unit for measuring the rate of flow of a gas or air volume into or out
of a space at a given temperature.
Conversion factor for SI conversions

1 CFPM equals approximately 0.471947443 Liter per second (l/s) or 1.6990107955 cubic Meter
per hour (m3/h).
When ever you want to talk about heat you have to use the term BTU (British Thermal Unit) or CALORIE A
btu. is defined as the amount of heat that is needed to raise one pound ( about one pint) of fresh water one
degree Fahrenheit. In other words, if I heated one pound of water from 60 F. To !00 F. I must have used 40
British Thermal Units. A calorie is defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise one gram( one milliliter) of
water one degree Centigrade.
We use the term SPECIFIC HEAT to describe how many BTUs., or calories are needed to raise one pound or
one gram of a liquid, other than water, one degree Fahrenheit or Centigrade. Oil would typically have a Specific
Heat of 0.35 so it would only take 0.35 BTUs. or Calories to raise oil one degree. Another way to look at it is
that oil will get almost three times as hot as fresh water, if the same amount of heat is added to both of them.
Take a look at the diagrams shown below. Picture "A" describes two pumps hooked up in SERIES If these
pumps are the same size it will double the head out put of a single pump, but keep the capacity the same. If they
are different sizes we will be limited to the capacity of the smaller pump, and the heads will add together.
Picture "B" describes two pumps hooked up in PARALLEL. In this configuration we will double the capacity of
one pump, but the head will remain the same.
There are occasions when you might want to permanently change the amount of fluid you're pumping, or
change the discharge head of a centrifugal pump. There are four ways you could do this:
 Regulate the discharge of the pump.

 Change the speed of the pump.
 Change the diameter of the impeller.
 Purchase a new pump
Of the four methods the middle two are the only sensible ones. In the following paragraphs we'll learn what
happens when we change either the pump speed or impeller diameter, and as you would guess, other
characteristics of the pump are going to change along with speed or diameter.
To determine what's going to happen you begin by taking the new speed or impeller diameter and divide it by
the old speed or impeller diameter. Since changing either one will have approximately the same affect I'll be
referring to only the speed in this part of the discussion.
As an example:
The capacity, or amount of fluid you're pumping, varies directly with this number.
 Example: 100 Gallons per minute x 2 = 200 Gallons per minute

 Or in metric, 50 Cubic meters per hour x 0,5 = 25 Cubic meters per hour
The head varies by the square of the number.
 Example : a 50 foot head x 4 (22) = 200 foot head

 Or in metric, a 20 meter head x 0,25 ( 0,52) = 5 meter head
The horsepower required changes by the cube of the number.
 Example : a 9 Horsepower motor was required to drive the pump at 1750 rpm.. How much is required
now that you are going to 3500 rpm?
 We would get: 9 x 8 (23) = 72 Horse power is now required.
 Likewise if a 12 kilowatt motor were required at 3000 rpm. and you decreased the speed to 1500 the
new kilowatts required would be: 12 x 0,125 (0.53) = 1,5 kilowatts required for the lower rpm.
The following relationships are not exact, but they give you an idea of how speed and impeller diameter
affects other pump functions.
The net positive suction head required by the pump manufacturer (npshr) varies by the square of the number.
 Example : A 3 meter NPSHR x 4 (22) = 12 meter N.P.S.H.R.

 Or: 10 foot NPSHR x 0.25 ( 0.52) = 2.5 foot N.P.S.H.R.
The amount of shaft run out ( deflection) varies by the square of the number
 As an example : If you put a dial indicator on the shaft and noticed that the total run out at 1750 rpm.
was 0.005 inches then at 3500 rpm the run out would be 0.005" x 4 (22), or 0.020 inches.
 Likewise if you had 0,07 mm. run out at 2900 rpm. and you slowed that shaft down to 1450 rpm the run
out would decrease to 0,07 mm x 0,25 ( 0.52) or 0,018 mm.
The amount of friction loss in the piping varies by about 90% of the square of the number. Fittings and
accessories varies by almost the square of the number.
 As an example : If the system head loss was calculated or measured at 65 meters at 1450 rpm., the loss
at 2900 rpm. would be : 65 meters x 4 (22) = 260 x 0.9 = 234 Meters
 If you had a 195 foot loss at 3500 rpm the loss at 1750 rpm. would be : 195 x 0.25 (0.52) = 48.75 / 0.9 =
54.17 feet of head loss.
The wear rate of the components varies by the cube also
 Example : At 1750 rpm. the impeller material is wearing at the rate of 0.020 inches per month. At 3500
rpm the rate would increase to: 0.020 " x 8 (23) or 0.160 inches per month. Likewise a decrease in speed
would decrease the wear rate eight times as much.
I started this discussion by stating that a change in impeller speed or a change in impeller diameter has
approximately the same effect. This is true only if you decrease the impeller diameter to a maximum of 10% .
As you cut down the impeller diameter, the housing is not coming down in size so the affinity laws do not
remain accurate below this 10% maximum number.
The affinity laws remain accurate for speed changes and this is important to remember when we convert from
jam packing to a balanced mechanical seal. We sometimes experience an increase in motor speed rather than a
drop in amperage during these conversions and the affinity laws will help you to predict the final outcome of the
change.
SUBJECT : Rules of thumb for pumps 2-7
If you want to know a pumps capabilities, the rules are simple. Look at the manufacturer's published pump
curve. The problem is that you do not always have the curve available. Pump companies test their pump to
determine its performance, they have no need for general guide lines or "rules of thumb."
Over the years I've accumulated many of these rules to help me estimate pump performance. Here are a few of
them:
PUMP BASICS
 How to estimate the shut off head of a pump (inch sizes)

o At 1750 rpm. Shut off head = Diameter of the impeller squared
o At 3500 rpm. Shut off head = Diameter of the impeller squared x 4
o For other speeds you can use the formula : Shut Off Head = D2 x (new rpm / 1750)2
 Estimating metric head is a little bit more involved, but it still works:
o Measure the shaft in mm. ( as an example: 250 mm )
o Mark off two places. (2,5)
o Square the number. (6,25)
o For 1450 rpm, multiply by 3 (18,75)
o Add 10 % for the answer in meters. (21 meters )
o NOTE: For 3000 rpm, you'd multiply by 12 instead of 3. Although you can estimate shutoff head
with these formulas you cannot estimate the pump capacity. you'll need the pump curves for that.
 The pumps best efficiency point (B.E.P.) is between 80% and 85% of the shut off head. At this point
there is little to no radial thrust on the impeller. Also the "power in" is closest to the "power out".
 The L3/D4 ratio should be below 60 (2.0 in metric) to prevent excessive shaft bending. To calculate it for
end suction centrifugal pumps :
o L = length of the shaft from the center of the inboard bearing to the center of the impeller (inches
or millimeters). Caution: do not use centimeters, the numbers will come out wrong.
o D = diameter of the shaft (under the sleeve) in the stuffing box area (inches or millimeters) Do
not use centimeters.
 Since most shaft materials have a similar modulus of elasticity, changing shaft materials will not prevent
shaft bending when you operate off of the B.E.P. Lowering the L3/D4 is the only logical and efficient
solution. When pump manufacturers discuss operating off of the B.E.P. they relate problems to the heat
that will build up in a minimum flow condition and ignore the problems with shaft bending.
 A double suction pump can run with 27% less N.P.S.H. or at a 40% faster speed without cavitating.
 If you double the speed of a pump you'll get twice the capacity, four times the head and it will take eight
times the horsepower to do it.
 A stainless steel shaft has only a small portion of the conductivity of a carbon steel shaft. This is very
important when you're pumping at elevated temperatures because we do not want to transmit the high
temperature back to the bearing oil.
 If you double the speed of a pump you'll get almost four times the shaft whip, wobble or run out and
eight times the wear.
 Multistage pumps reduce efficiency 2% to 4%.
 In many instances, an inducer can lower Net Positive Suction Head Required by as much as 50% .
 If you're pumping paper stock, modify the curves for head, capacity, and efficiency as follows:
o 0.725 for 6% stock
o 0.825 for 5.5% stock
o 0.90 for 5%
o 0.94 for 4.5%
o 0.98 for 4%
o 1.0 for 3.5% or less
 Open impeller clearance settings are determined by the pump manufacturer and normally run between
0.008" and 0.015" (0,2 to 0,5 mm) You lose 1% of the pumps capacity for each 0.002" (0,05 mm) you
miss this setting.
 Wear ring clearances are very similar to impeller clearances, but you lose 1% pump capacity for each
0.001" (0,025 mm) of wear. A typical clearance would be 0.003 inch/inch diameter with 0.010 inches
(0,3 mm) minimum clearance for wear rings less than two inches (50 mm.) in outside diameter.
 Bearing, grease or lip seals have a design life of less than 2000 hours. In a constantly running pump this
would be only 83 days. These seals will also damage the expensive shaft and place a stress point at the
maximum bending moment arm. Substitute non fretting labyrinth seals, or positive face seals in these
locations. It is a good idea to install them in electric motors also to prevent moisture from entering and
damaging the motor windings and bearings.
 Do not use a vent on the top of the bearing case. At shut down the outside moisture will enter the bearing
housing through this vent. Let the moisture attempt to enter the case through the labyrinth seals instead,
They will do a better job of directing the moisture to the external drain hole. If you install positive face
seals you can forget about this problem.
 The axial clearance in a bearing is ten times the radial clearance. This is the reason proper installation is
so critical. If the bearing is over compressed the bearing balls will distort and roll instead of spin causing
excessive heat and premature failure. The temperature at the bearing race of a properly installed bearing
is at least 10 degrees Fahrenheit (5° C) higher than the oil sump temperature.
 The life of bearing oil is directly related to its temperature. The rule of thumb used by the SKF Bearing
Company, is that the service life of an oil is estimated to be 30 years at 30 degrees Centigrade (86° F)
and it's life is cut in half for each 10 degree Centigrade (18 F) temperature increase. This corresponds
to :
o A life of 3 months at 100 C. (212 F.)
o A life of 6 months at 90 C. (195 F.)
o A life of 12 months at 80 C. ( 176 F.)
These numbers assume that the lubricating oil is not being contaminated by water from one or all of the
following sources:
 Packing leakage
 The water hose used to wash the packing leakage away from the pump area.
 Aspiration, as moisture laden air enters the bearing case.
An automobile engine running at 1750 rpm. would cover about 100,000 miles (160,000 kilometers) every 2000
hours (83 days in the life of a constantly running pump ). Auto manufacturers recommend changing their
automatic transmission oil every 25,000 miles ( 40,000 kilometers)
APPLICATION
 Use Centerline pump designs when the pumping temperature exceeds 200 degrees Fahrenheit (100° C).
This design will allow the wet end of the pump to expand in two directions instead of from the feet up,
destroying the wear rings..
 Try to buy pumps with a Suction Specific Speed (SSS) below 8,500 (10,000 metric) Do not buy pumps
with a SSS over 12,000 ( metric 16,500) unless you're pumping hot water or mixed hydrocarbons. If you
have a double suction pump you can divide the SSS number by 2
 Do not specify a pump with the largest impeller available . Give yourself an additional 5% or 10% you
might need it.
 The maximum viscosity a centrifugal pump can handle would be a product similar to 30 weight oil at
room temperature.
 Use a variable speed pump if your head is mainly system head. Circulating hot or cold water would be
typical applications. If you have a high static or pressure head, as is the case with a boiler feed pump, the
variable speed will not be of much help in keeping you on or near the best efficiency point.
 Pumps piped in series must have the same capacity (impeller width and speed)
 Pumps piped in parallel must have the same head (impeller diameter and speed )
 Use a rotary positive displacement pump if your capacity is going to be less than 20 gpm.(4,5 cubic
meters per hour)
 A centrifugal pump can handle 0.5% air by volume. At 6% it will probably become air bound and stop
pumping. Cavitation can occur with any amount of air.
 Use double volute pumps any time your impeller diameter is 14 inches (355 mm) or greater. They
should also be used on long shaft vertical pumps to prevent excessive shaft movement that will cause
problems with the packing, seals, bearings and critical dimensions.
 A Vortex pump is 10% to 15% less efficient than a comparable size end suction centrifugal pump.
 The A.P.I. (American Petroleum Institute). sixth edition states : High energy pumps, defined as pumping
to a head greater than 650 feet (198 meters) and more than 300 horsepower (224 KW) per stage, require
special consideration to avoid blade passing frequency vibrations and low frequency vibrations at
reduced flow rates.
PIPING ETC..
 There should be at least 10 diameters of pipe between the suction of the pump and the first elbow. This
is especially critical in double ended pump designs as the turbulent inlet flow can cause shaft thrusting,
and subsequent bearing problems.
 Substituting a globe valve for a gate valve in a piping system is similar to adding another 100 feet (31
meters) of piping to the system. On the discharge side of the pump this will cause the pump to run off of
its B.E.P. with a resultant shaft bending. On the suction side of the pump it will probably cause
Cavitation.
 After the pump and motor have been aligned, dowel both the pump and the motor to the base plate. Be
sure to dowel only the feet closest to the coupling, allowing the outboard ends to expand with
temperature changes.
 Check impeller rotation after installing the pump. Do not assume it will turn in the correct direction. I've
heard about two speed pumps with the second speed wired backwards. They will drive you crazy
because the pump will often meet its head requirement but not the capacity when the second speed cuts
in. You'll also notice excessive noise at this time.
 Use eccentric reducers rather than concentric reducers at the pump suction. Concentric reducers will trap
air. Be sure the eccentric reducer is not installed up side down.
 Suction piping should be at least one size larger than the suction flange at the pump.
 Vortexing can occur if any of the following conditions are present:
o Low liquid levels
o Liquid level falling greater than 3 Ft./sec. (1 Meter/ sec.)
o There is a large concentration of dissolved gases in the liquid.
o High outlet velocities in pipes leaving vessels. Generally greater than 10 feet/sec. (3 meters/sec.)
o Liquids near their vapor point.
o High circulation caused by asymmetrical inlet or outlet conditions.
o Inlet piping too close to the wall or bottom of the tank. Consult the Hydraulic Institute Manual or
a similar publication for recommended clearances.
o In a mixer, the liquid level must be at least one and one half diameters of the blade, above the
blade.
TROUBLESHOOTING
 Cavitation damage on the trailing edge of the impeller blade means :

o The N.P.S.H. available is too low.
o Air is entering at the pump suction.
o There is liquid turbulence at the pump suction.
 Cavitation damage on the leading edge of the impeller blade indicates internal recirculation. Check the
Suction Specific Speed number to see if it is below 9000 (10,000 metric). Higher numbers mean that the
problem is with the impeller shape or adjustment. The problem was created when the pump manufacture
tried to come up with too low a N.P.S.H. Required.
 Cavitation damage just beyond the cutwater, on the casing and tip of the impeller blade, indicates the
impeller blade is too close to the cutwater. This clearance should be at least 4% of the impeller diameter
up to a 14 inch (356 mm.) impeller, and 6% greater than 14 inch ( 356 mm.). Some self priming pump
manufacturers want a maximum clearance of 1/8" (3 mm) and, as a result, often experience this
problem. A repaired or substituted impeller is often the cause of the problem in a non self priming pump.
 Water in the bearing oil will reduce bearing life 48%. The water enters from packing leakage, wash
down hoses, and aspiration caused by the temperature cooling down in the bearing casing after
shutdown and moisture laden air entering the bearing case. A 6% water content in the oil will reduce
bearing life by as much as 83%
 The mass of the pump concrete foundation must be 5 times the mass of the pump, base plate, and other
equipment that is being supported, or vibration will occur.
 Up to 500 horsepower (375 KW), the foundation must be 3 inches (76 mm.) wider than the base plate all
around. Above 500 horsepower (375 KW) the foundation should be a minimum of 6 inches (150 mm.)
wider.
 Imaginary lines extended downward 30 degrees to either side of a vertical through the pump shaft,
should pass through the bottom of the foundation and not the sides.
 The bearing oil level should be at the center of the lowest most ball of a stationary bearing. The
preferred choice for bearing lubrication would be an oil mist system with positive face sealing at the
bearings, if you could solve the emission problem.
 Pipe from the pump suction flange to the pipe rack, not the other way around.
 Make sure eccentric reducers are not installed upside down at the pump suction. The top of the reducer
should go straight into the suction flange.
 Valve stems, T Branches and elbows should be installed perpendicular to the pump shaft, not at right
angles.
 Do not use packing in any pump that runs under a vacuum, as air will enter the system through the pump
stuffing box.. These applications include :
o Pumps that lift liquid.
o Pumps that take their suction from a condenser or evaporator.
o Any pump that takes its suction from a negative pressure. Heater drain pumps are a typical
application.
 Be sure too vent the stuffing box of a sealed, vertical pump back to the suction side of the pump or air
will become trapped in the stuffing box. The vent must be located above the lapped seal faces.
 If the specific gravity of the pumping liquid should increase, due to temperature, there is a danger of
overloading the motor and therefore motors having sufficient power should be used. The same
overloading power will occur if the pump is run too far to the right of its B.E.P.. This is a very common
problem because of the great number of oversized pumps in existence.
Computing Watts When Volts and Amperes are Known
POWER (WATTS) = VOLTS x AMPERES
For example, a small computer has a nameplate that shows 2.5 amps. Given a normal 120 Volt, 60 hz power
source and the ampere reading from equipment, make the following calculation:
POWER (WATTS) = 120 * 2.5 = 300 WATTS
Generally: P=IE P= Power(WATTS) I = Current(AMPS) and E = Voltage(VOLTS).
So: I = P/E and E = P/I therefore: 1 watt = 1 ampere x 1 volt
Computing Volt-Amperes (VA)
Same as above. VOLT-AMPERES (VA) = VOLTS x AMPERES = 300 VA
Computing kilovolt-Amperes (kVA)
For what it's worth, kVA stands for "Thousand Volt-Amps"
SINGLE PHASE
KILOVOLT-AMPERES (kVA) = VOLTS x AMPERES/ 1000
Using the previous example: 120 * 2.5 = 300 VA 300 VA / 1000 = .3 kVA
208-240 SINGLE-PHASE (2-POLE SINGLE-PHASE)

Example: An enterprise server with a 4.7 amp rating and requiring a 208-240 power source. Use 220 volts for our
calculations.
KILOVOLT-AMPERES (kVA) = VOLTS x AMPERES /1000
220 x 4.7 = 1034 1034 / 1000 = 1.034 kVA
THREE-PHASE
Example: A large storage system loaded with disks. The equipment documentation shows a requirement for a 50-
amp 208 VAC receptacle. For this calculation, we will use 21 amps. Do not calculate any value for the plug or
receptacle.
KILOVOLT-AMPERES (kVA) = VOLTS x AMPERES x 1.73
208 x 21 x 1.73 = 7,556.64 7,556.64 / 1000 = 7.556 kVA
Computing Kilowatts
Finding Kilowatts is a bit more complicated in that the formula includes a value for the "power factor". The power
factor is a nebulous but required value that is different for each electrical device. It involves the efficiency in the use of
of the electricity supplied to the system. This factor can vary widely from 60% to 95% and is never published on the
equipment nameplate and further, is not often supplied with product information. For purposes of these calculations,
we use a power factor of .85. This arbitrary number places a slight inaccuracy into the numbers. Its OK and it gets us
very close for the work we need to do. Most UPS equipment will claim a power factor of 1.00.
SINGLE PHASE
Example: We have a medium-sized Intell server that draws 6.0 amps.
KILOWATT (kW) = VOLTS x AMPERES x POWER FACTOR / 1000
120 * 6.0 = 720 VA 720 VA * .85 = 612 612 / 1000 = .612 kW
208-240 SINGLE-PHASE (2-POLE SINGLE-PHASE)
Example: An enterprise server with a 4.7 amp rating and requiring a 208-240 power source. I'll use 220 volts for our
calculations.
KILOWATT (kW) = VOLTS x AMPERES x POWER FACTOR x 2 / 1000
220 x 4.7 x 2 = 2068 2068 x .85 = 1757.8 1757.8 / 1000 = 1.76 kW
THREE-PHASE
Example: A large storage system loaded with disks. The equipment documentation shows a requirement for a 50-
amp 208 VAC receptacle. For this calculation, we will use 21 amps. Do not calculate any value for the plug or
receptacle.
KILOWATT (kW) = VOLTS x AMPERES x POWER FACTOR x 1.73

1000
208x22x1.73 = 7,916.48 7,916.48 * .85 = 6,729.008 6,729.008/1000=6.729 kW

To Convert Between kW and kVA
The only difference between kW and kVA is the power factor. Once again, the power factor, unless known, is an
approximation. For purposes of our calculations, we use a power factor of .85. The kVA value is always higher than
the value for kW.
kW to kVA kW / .85 = SAME VALUE EXPRESSED IN kVA

kVA TO kW kVA * .85 = SAME VALUE EXPRESSED IN kW
Computing BTUs : -Known and Example: 1 kW = 3413 BTUs (or 3.413 kBTUs)
The above is a generally known value for converting electrical values to BTUs. Many manufacturers publish kW, kVA
and BTU in their equipment specifications. Often, dividing the BTU value by 3413 does not equal their published kW
value. Where the information is provided by the manufacturer, use it. Where it is not, use the above formula.
Basic Horsepower Calculations
Horsepower is work done per unit of time. One HP equals 33,000 ft-lb of work per minute. When work is done by a source
of torque (T) to produce (M) rotations about an axis, the work done is:
radius x 2 x rpm x lb. or 2 TM
When rotation is at the rate N rpm, the HP delivered is:
HP = radius x 2 x rpm x lb. / 33,000 = TN / 5,250
For vertical or hoisting motion:
HP = W x S / 33,000 x E
Where:
W = total weight in lbs. to be raised by motor

S = hoisting speed in feet per minute
E = overall mechanical efficiency of hoist and gearing. For purposes of estimating
E = .65 for eff. of hoist and connected gear.
Shotgun Section
Here are conversions, short and sweet:
Convert Watts to Volts:

Voltage = Watts / AMPS
E=P/I
Convert Watts to AMPS:

AMPS = Watts / Voltage
I=P/E
For 3 Phase power divide by 1.73
Convert AMPS to Watts:

Watts = Voltage x Amps
P=ExI
For 3 Phase power multiply by 1.73
Convert Horsepower to AMPS:
HORSEPOWER= (E x I x EFF) / 746
EFFICIENCY= (746 x HP) / (V x A)
Multiply Horsepower by 746w (1 HP = 746 Watts)

Find Circuit Voltage and Phase
Example:
40 HP at 480 (3 Phase) 746 multiplied by 40 = 29840
29840 divided by 480 (3 Phase) = 62.2
62.2 divided by 1.73 = 35.6AMPS
Convert KVA to AMPS:

Multiply KVA by 1000/voltage
For 3 Phase power divide by 1.73
Convert KW to AMPS:
Multiply KW by 1000/voltage and then by power factor
for 3 Phase power divide by 1.73
To find Amperes when Horsepower is known:

Single phase: HP x 746 / E x EFF x PF
Three phase : HP x 746 / E x EFF x PF x 1.73
To find Amperes when kilowatts are known:

Single phase: Kw x 1000 / E x PF
Three phase: Kw x 1000 / E x PF x 1.73
To find Amperes when kva are known:

Single phase: Kw x 1000 / E
Three phase: Kw x 1000 / E x 1.73
To Find Horsepower (Output):

Single phase: I x E x EFF x PF/ 746
Three phase: I x E x EFF x PF x 1.73 / 746
WHERE:
E =VOLTS (or V = VOLTS)

P =WATTS (or W = WATTS)
R = OHMS (or R = RESISTANCE)
I =AMPERES (or A = AMPERES)
HP = HORSEPOWER
PF = POWER FACTOR
kW = KILOWATTS
kWh = KILOWATT HOUR
VA = VOLT-AMPERES
kVA = KILOVOLT-AMPERES
EFF = EFFICIENCY (expressed as a decimal)
Mechanical:
At 1800 rpm, a motor develops a 3 lb.ft. per hp

At 1200 rpm, a motor develops a 4.5 lb.ft. per hp
At 575 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 1 amp per hp
At 460 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 1.25 amp per hp
At 230 volts a 3-phase motor draws 2.5 amp per hp
At 230 volts, a single-phase motor draws 5 amp per hp
At 115 volts, a single-phase motor draws 10 amp per hp
Definitions:
These are from The University of Wisconsin - Stevens Point web site at
http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/wcee/keep/Mod1/Unitall/definitions.htm
Ampere - (abbrev. Amp; pl. Amperes [Amps]) A unit of electric current. One ampere of
current is equal to one coulomb (6.25 x 1,018) of electrons passing a point in an electric circuit
in one second. See Electric current.
Battery - A device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy, producing an electric
current when connected in a circuit.
British thermal unit - (abbrev. Btu) 1. A unit of energy equal to 1,055 joules or 252 calories.
2. The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree
Fahrenheit. 3. The approximate amount of potential energy in one match tip.
Calorie - (abbrev. cal; pl. calories; also small calorie) 1. A unit of energy content of food. One
calorie equals 4.187 joules or 0.003969 Btu. 2. The amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius.
CCF - One hundred cubic feet of water or natural gas. One CCF of natural gas is about equal to
one therm.
Conduction - 1. Heat transfer from particle to particle, occurring most effectively in solids. 2.
Transfer of electrical energy through a material via the flow of charged particles, usually
electrons.
Electrical circuit - A closed, conducting path or route through which an electric current
travels.
Electrical (electromagnetic) energy - Kinetic and potential energy associated with

electric charges (e.g., electrons) and their movement. See Electrical potential energy.
Electrical potential energy - Energy stored by separating positive and negative electrical
charges against electrical forces. A charged battery has electrical potential energy. See
Electrical (Electromagnetic) energy.
Electric current - A flow of electrically charged particles such as electrons with a conductor
or a circuit. See Conduction, Electricity.
Electricity - 1. The behavior of negative and positive charges (electrons and protons) due to
their attraction and repulsion. 2. The flow of electrons; electric current. See Electrical
(Electromagnetic) energy, Electric current.
Electron - 1. A subatomic particle with a negative electric charge that orbits the nucleus of an
atom. 2. The basic particle that makes up an electric current.
Energy - 1. The ability to organize or change matter. 2. The ability to do work. See British
thermal unit, Calorie, Joule, and Kilowatt-hour for units of energy. One unit can be converted
to another.
First law of thermodynamics - Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be

converted from one form to another. For example, the potential chemical energy in coal can be
converted in thermal energy.
Heat - The transfer of energy from one object at a higher temperature to another object at a
lower temperature. Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection, or radiation. Although
technically incorrect, the word heat is often used to mean "thermal energy." See Thermal
energy.
Horsepower (abbrev. hp) - A unit of power. One horsepower equals 550 foot-pounds per
second of 746 watts. See Power.
Joule - A unit of energy. One joule equals 0.2388 calories or 0.0009481 Btu.
Kilocalorie - (abbrev. Cal, kcal; also Calorie [written with a capital C], Food Calorie, Large
calorie) 1. A unit of energy equal to 1,000 calories, 4,187 joules, or 3.969 Btu. 2.The amount of
energy needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree Celsius. See
Calorie, Food calorie.
Kilowatt - (abbrev. kW; pl. Kilowatts) - A unit of power equal to 1,000 watts. See Watt.
Kilowatt-hour (abbrev. kWh; pl. Kilowatt-hours) - 1. A unit of energy equal to 3,413 Btu or
3,600,000 joules. 2. An amount of energy that results from the steady production or
consumption of one kilowatt of power for a period of one hour.
Kinetic energy - The energy possessed by a moving object. The formula for kinetic energy is
1/2 (mass) x (velocity)2.
Leaking electricity - The energy used by an appliance when the appliance is in its lowest
power mode (typically when the appliance is off). A variety of appliances, especially those with
remote control devices, consume electricity even after they are turned off. Other appliances,
including those with built-in clocks, never stop using electricity.
Photovoltaic cell - A device that converts solar energy directly into electricity. For example,
photovoltaic cells provide electricity for handheld calculators, watches, battery chargers,
homes, and satellites.
Photovoltaics - Of, or related to, the use of photovoltaic (solar) cells for producing
electricity. See Photovoltaic cell.
Potential energy - The energy in matter due to its position or the arrangement of its
parts. Forms of potential energy include chemical, elastic, electrical (electromagnetic),
gravitational, nuclear, and thermal energy. Potential energy is often referred to as
"stored" energy. Some scientists and energy educators avoid the word stored because it
might lead to the misunderstanding that energy is a substance. Click here to see
further information about this and other possible energy misconceptions.
Power - 1. The rate at which energy is transferred or converted per unit of time. 2.
The rate in which work is done. See Horsepower, Kilowatt, Megawatt, Watts for units
of power.
Resistance - The opposition of electric current by a material or electrical device.
Electrical energy is converted into thermal and other forms of energy when work is
done by a current to overcome a resistance.
Second Law of Thermodynamics - 1. Each time energy is converted from one

form to another, some of the energy is always degraded to a lower-quality, more
dispersed, less useful form. 2. No system can convert energy from one form to another
useful for with 100 percent efficiency. 3. Energy cannot be spontaneously transferred
from a cold body to a hot body. 4. The entropy of a system increases over time.
Solar cell - See Photovoltaic cell.
Solar energy - Energy transferred from the sun to Earth in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
Sound - Mechanical energy vibrations transmitted as waves through a solid, liquid, or

a gas that can be detected by the human ear.
Sound energy - See Sound.
Standby energy - See Leaking electricity.
Stored energy - See Potential energy.
Switch - A device used to open or close an electric circuit or to divert electric current
from one part of a circuit to another.
System - 1. A group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent parts made up of

matter and energy that form a complex whole. 2. Anything that uses matter and energy
to organize, maintain, or change itself (e.g., the sun, a glass of water, a frog, a city).
Temperature - The level or degree of thermal energy in a substance, an object, or the

surrounding environment as measured on a standard scale. In other words,
temperature refers to whether something is hot or cold. It is the measurement of how
fast the molecules are moving back and forth.
Therm - (pl. Therms) A unit describing the energy contained in natural gas. One
therm equals 100,000 Btu. See Btu.
Thermal energy - The total internal kinetic and potential energy of an object due to
the random motion of its atoms and molecules. An object that feels hot has more
thermal energy inside it than it does after it has cooled down. Although technically
incorrect, the word "heat" is often used to mean thermal energy. See Heat.
Volt - (abbrev. V; pl. Volts) A unit of voltage (potential difference). One volt is equal to
performing one joule of work to move or separate one coulomb (6.25 x 1,018) of
electrons.
Watt - (abbrev. W; pl. Watts) - A unit of power. One watt equals the production or use
of one joule of energy per second. See Joule, Kilowatt, Megawatt, Power.
Work - The transfer of energy from one object or system to another by applying a
force over a distance. The formula for work is
(force) x (distance).
55 most frequently asked interview questions
Dan Johnston from PPR Career shared the following list of frequently asked questions on a job interview, as well as
advice on what to be prepared for.
1. Tell me about yourself. Use Answer in about two minutes. Avoid details, don’t ramble. Touch on
“Picture Frame Approach” these four areas:
 How many years, doing what function
 Education – credentials
 Major responsibility and accomplishments

 Personal summary of work style (plus career goals if
applicable)
Prepare in advance using this formula:
1. “My name is…”

2. “I’ve worked for X years as a [title]”
3. “Currently, I’m a [title] at [company]”
4. “Before that, I was a [title] at [company]”
5. “I love the challenge of my work, especially the major
strengths it allows me to offer, including [A, B, and C]”.
6. Second, help the interviewer by focusing the question with a

question of your own: “What about me would be most
relevant to you and what this company needs?”
2. Did you bring your resume? Yes. Be prepared with two or three extra copies. Do not offer them
unless you’re asked for one.
3. What do you know about our Research the target company before the interview. Basic research is
organization? the only way to prepare for this question. Do your homework, and
you’ll score big on this question. Talk about products, services,
history and people, especially any friends that work there. “But I
would love to know more, particularly from your point of view. Do
we have time to cover that now?
4. What experience do you have? Pre-interview research and PPR Career will help you here. Try to
cite experience relevant to the company’s concerns. Also, try
answering these questions with a question: “Are you looking for
overall experience or experience in some specific area of special
interest to you?” Let the interviewer’s response guide your answer.
5. According to your definition of Be prepared to define success, and then respond (consistent record of
success, how successful have responsibility)
you been so far?
(Is this person mature and self aware?)

6. In your current or last position, Give one or two accomplishment statements
what were your most
significant accomplishments?
In your career so far?
7. Had you thought of leaving Refer to positive aspects of the job, advancement opportunities, and
your present position before? If what you learned.
yes, what do you think held you
there?
8. Would you describe a few Give only one, and tell how you have corrected or plan to correct
situations in which your work your work.
was criticized?
9. If I spoke with your previous Be consistent with what you think the boss would say. Position the
boss, what would he or she say weakness in a positive way (refer to #12)
are your greatest strengths and
weaknesses?
10. How would you describe your Keep your answer short and relevant to the job and the organization’s
personality? culture.
11. What are your strong points? Present three. Relate them to that particular company and job
opening.
12. What are your weak points? Don’t say you have one, but give one that is really a “positive in
disguise.” I am sometimes impatient and do to much work myself
when we are working against tight deadlines.” Or “I compliment and
praise my staff, but feel I can improve.”
13. How did you do in school? Emphasize your best and favorite subjects. If grades were average,
talk about leadership or jobs you took to finance your education. Talk
(Is the person motivated? What are about extra-curricular activities (clubs, sports, volunteer work)
his/her values, attitudes? Is there a fit?)
14. In your current or last position, Refer to your satisfiers for likes. Be careful with dislikes, give only
what features did you like one (if any) and make it brief. Refuse to answer negatively. Respond
most? Least? that you “like everything about my current position and have
acquired and developed a great many skills, but I’m now ready for a
new set of challenges and greater responsibilities.”
15. What do you look for in a job? Flip this one over. Despite the question, the employer isn’t really
interested in what you are looking for. He’s interested in what he is
looking for. Address his interests, rather than yours. Use words like
“contribute,” “enhance,” “improve,” and “team environment.” Fit
your answer to their needs Relate your preferences and
satisfiers/dissatisfiers to the job opening.
16. How long would it take you to “Not long, because of my experience, transferable skills and ability to
make a meaningful learn.”
contribution to our firm?
17. How long would you stay with “As long as I feel that I’m contributing, and that my contribution is
us? recognized. I’m looking to make a long term commitment.”
18. If you have never supervised, If you want to supervise, say so, and be enthusiastic.
how do you feel about
assuming those
responsibilities?
19. Why do you want to become a “To grow and develop professionally, to help others develop, to build
supervisor? a team and to share what I have learned.”
20. What do you see as the most “Getting things planned and done through others and dealing with
difficult task in being a different personalities.” Show how you have done this in the past.
supervisor?
21. You’ve been with your current Let’s assume the interviewer has a point here. That doesn’t mean you
employer quite a while. Why have to agree with the negative terms of the question. Answer: “What
haven’t you advanced with I like about my present position is that it’s both stable and
him? challenging. But it’s true that I’ve grown about as much as I can in
my current position. (This response also turns the issue of salary on
its head, transforming it from What more can I get? to What more
can I offer?)
22. Why are you leaving your Never answer with negative reasons, even if they are true. However,
present position? some companies have financial problems which may preclude you
from staying with them. Frame your answer positively by answering
why you want to move to the target company instead of why you left
or want to leave your most recent job. For example, instead of
answering, “I don’t get enough challenges at [company],” respond, “I
am eager to take on more challenges, and I believe I will find them at
[hiring company]. ”I’m not unhappy (at my present employer).
However, this opportunity seems to be particularly interesting and I
am interested in pursuing it further. Never personalize or be negative.
Keep it short, give a “group” answer (e.g. our office is closing, the
whole organization is being reduced in size). Stick to one response;
don’t change answers during the interview. When applicable; best
response is: I was not on the market when PPR Career contacted me
and explained what you are doing, it peaked my interest.
23. Describe what would be an Team work is the key.
ideal working environment?
24. How would you evaluate your Be positive. Refer to the valuable experience you have gained. Don’t
present firm? mention negatives.
25. Do you prefer working with Be aware of what the job requires and position your answer in that
figures, or with words? context. In many cases it would be both.
26. What kinds of people do you Use this question as a chance to show that you are a team player:
find difficult to work with? “The only people I have trouble with are those who aren’t team
players, who just don’t perform, who complain constantly, and who
fail to respond to any efforts to motivate them.” The interviewer is
expecting a response focused on personality and personal dislikes.
Surprise her by delivering an answer that reflects company values.
27. How would your co-workers Refer to your strengths and skills.
describe you?
28. What do you think of your If you like him or her, say so and tell why. If you don’t like him or
boss? her, find something positive to say.
29. Why do you want to work in a Explain how this size or type of company works well for you, using
company of this size. Or this examples from the past if possible.
type?
30. If you had your choice of jobs Refer to job preferences. Say that this job and this company are very
and companies, where would close to what best suits you.
you go?
31. Why do you want to work for You feel you can help achieve the company’s objectives, especially in
us? the short run. You like what you’ve learned about the company, its
policies, goals and management: “I’ve researched the company and
people tell me it’s a good place to work.”
32. What was the last book you Think this through. Your answer should be compatible with accepted
read? Movie you saw? Sporting norms.
event you attended?
33. What are you doing, or what Talk about formal courses and training programs.
have you done to reach your
career objectives?
34. What was wrong with your last Again, choose your words carefully. Don’t be negative. Say that no
company? company is perfect, it had both strengths and weaknesses.
35. What kind of hours are you “As many hours as it takes to get the job done.”
used to working?
(Does the person match job and criteria?)
36. What would you do for us? Relate past success in accomplishing the objectives which are similar
to those of the prospective employer.
37. What has your experience been Give examples from accomplishments.
in supervising people?
38. Are you a good supervisor? Draw from your successes. Yes, my people like and respect me
personally and professionally. They often comment on how much
they learn and develop under my supervision.
39. Did you ever fire anyone? If so, If you haven’t, say so, but add that you could do it, if necessary.
what were the reasons and how
did you handle it?
40. How have you helped your Refer to accomplishments.
company?
41. What is the most money you Refer to accomplishments. If you haven’t had budget responsibility,
ever accounted for? Largest say so, but refer to an accomplishment that demonstrates the same
budget responsibility? skill.
42. What’s the most difficult Remember, you’re talking to a prospective employer, not your best
situation you ever faced on the friend. Don’t dredge up a catastrophe that resulted in a personal or
job? corporate failure. Be ready for this question by thinking of a story
that has a happy ending – happy for you and your company. Never
digress into personal or family difficulties, and don’t talk about
problems you’ve had with supervisors or peers. You might discuss a
difficult situation with a subordinate, provided that the issues were
resolved inventively and to everyone’s satisfaction.
43. Describe some situations in Refer to accomplishments. Everyone has had a few of these pressure
which you have worked under situations in a career. Behavior-related questions aim at assessing a
pressure or met deadlines? candidate’s character, attitude, and personality traits by asking for an
account of how the candidate handled certain challenging situations.
Plan for such questions by making a list of the desirable traits
relevant to the needs of the industry or prospective employer and by
preparing some job-related stories about your experience that
demonstrate a range of those traits and habits of conduct. Before
answering the questions, listen carefully and ask any clarifying
questions you think necessary. Tell your story and conclude by
explaining what you intended your story to illustrate. Finally, ask for
feedback: “Does this tell you what you need to know?”
44. How do you handle rejection? Rejection is part of business. People don’t always buy what you sell.
The tick here is to separate rejection of your product from rejection of
yourself: “I see rejection as an opportunity. I learn from it. When a
customer takes a pass, I ask him what we could do to the product,
price or service to make it possible for him to say yes. Don’t get me
wrong: You’ve got to makes sales. But rejection is valuable, too. It’s a
good teacher.”
45. In your present position, what Refer to accomplishments
problems have you identified
that had previously been
overlooked?
46. Give an example of your Refer to accomplishments.
creativity.
47. Give examples of your Draw examples from accomplishments.
leadership abilities.
48. What are your career goals? Talk first about doing the job for which you are applying. Your career
goals should mesh with the hiring company goals.
49. What position do you expect to Just say you wish to exceed objectives so well that you will be on a
have in two years? promotable track.
50. What are your objectives? Refer back to question #48 on goals.
(How does the person handle stress?

What is their confidence level?)
51. Why should we hire you? This may sound suspicious, negative, or just plain harsh. Actually, it’s
a call for help. The employer wants you to help him/her hire you.
Keep your response brief. Recap any job requirements the
interviewer may have mentioned earlier in the interview, then, point
by point, match your skills, abilities and qualifications to those
items. Relate a past experience which represents success in achieving
objectives which may be similar to those of the prospective employer.
52. You may be over-qualified or “A strong company needs a strong person.” An employer will get
too experienced for the position faster return on investment because you have more experience than
we have to offer. required.
53. Why haven’t you found a new “Finding the right job takes time. I’m not looking for just any job.”
position before now?
54. If you could start again, what No need to be self-revealing. “Hindsight is 20/20; everyone would
would you do differently? make some changes, but I’ve learned and grown from all my
decisions.”
55. How much do you expect if we Be careful. If you don’t know the market value, return the question
offer this position to you? by saying that you would expect a fair salary based on the job
responsibilities, your experience and skills and the market value of
the job. Express your interest in the job because it fits your career
goals – Receptive to a reasonable and competitive offer – don’t talk
$’s. It’s always best to put off discussing salary and let PPR Career
handle that. ANSWER: I’m open to a competitive offer. I’d prefer to
discuss the opportunity and allow my recruiter to handle any salary
questions.
DEFINITIONS OF WORDS OR TERMS
Activated Sludge: Flocculent sludge produced by the growth of bacteria and other organisms in raw
or settled sewage, when it is continuously aerated.
Activated Sludge Process: A biological treatment process in which a mixture of sewage and
activated sludge is agitated and aerated. The activated sludge is subsequently separated from the
treated sewage by settlement and may be re-used.
Aerobic action: A biological process promoted by action of bacteria in the presence of dissolved
oxygen.
Anaerobic action: A biological process promoted by the action of bacteria in the absence of
dissolved oxygen.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by micro-
biological action when a sample is incubated, usually for 5 days at 20 deg. C (expressed as BOD5 )
or for 3 days at 27 deg. C (expressed as BOD3).
Biological Filter: A bed of relatively inert material to promote or assist natural aerobic degradation of
sewage.
Biological Treatment: This is a stage in the treatment of sewage or other effluents which biologically
treats the pollution frequently by the natural aerobic degradation of the pollutant.
Chemical Oxygen Demand: The amount of oxygen used in the chemical oxidation of the matter
present in a sample by a specified oxidising agent under standard conditions.
Colloidal Material: The finely divided solids which will not settle but which may be removed by
coagulation.
Crude Sewage: Sewage which has received no treatment.
Digestion: The biochemical decomposition of organic matter using anaerobic bacteria, which results
in the formation of simpler and less offensive compounds.
Dosing Chamber: A small tank which receives settled sewage until the desired quantity has
accumulated, when it is discharged automatically to the distributor of a biological filter.
Drains: These are usually the smaller pipes that serve a single property, and they join up to form a
Drainage System. There may be foul water, and surface water drains, which are usually in separate
systems. Many queries are caused by drainage problems, and odours or smells from these systems.
Effluent Polishing or Tertiary Treatment: A further stage of treating sewage or effluents, by

removing suspended solids and or pollutants. Consequential removal of suspended solids may also
remove residual BOD or other pollutants.
Eutrophication: The enrichment of water in watercourses and lakes by chemical substances,

especially compounds of nitrogen and phosphorous.
Filter medium: The material of which the biological filter is formed and on which a biological film (or
biomass) containing bacteria and fungi develops.
Final Effluent: The effluent discharged from a sewage treatment plant.
Membrane: New technology has been developed whereby the pollutants in liquids can be removed
by the use of ultra fine membranes, such as the Reverse Osmosis method in the treatment of fresh
potable water, or membranes in the treatment of polluted water or effluents.
Odours: Sewage by its very nature will produce odours, and these can sometimes be a problem at
sewage pumping stations or sewage treatment works.
Oxidation: The chemical change which a substance undergoes when it takes up oxygen.
Primary Settlement Tank: A tank, in which the majority of settleable solids are removed from the
crude sewage that will flow into it.
Reed Beds: These are usually specially constructed beds which contain reeds (frequently the
Phragmites Australis reed ) to biologically treat sewage and other effluents. Many natural reed beds
exist in wetland areas.
Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC): This is a system of sewage or effluent treatment, that uses
closely spaced parallel discs mounted on a horizontal shaft, which rotate about a horizontal axis, and
the discs are alternatively exposed to polluted liquors and air as the shaft rotates to biologically treat
the sewage.
Secondary Settling tank: A tank in which settleable solids or humus is separated from the effluent
flowing through it, from biological filters or other biological treatment units.
Septic Tank: A type of settlement tank in which the sludge is retained for sufficient time for the
organic matter to undergo anaerobic decomposition.
Settling (or Sediment) Tank: This is a tank which is used in the treatment of sewage or effluents to
settle out the suspended solids contained in the liquids. The tank may be sited near the works inlet as
a 'primary settlement tank' or alternatively after biological treatment as a final (humus) settlement
tank.
Sewage: The water-borne wastes of a house or community.
Sewage Treatment Works: The site which contains all the necessary plant for the treatment of
sewage.
Sewage Treatment Plant: The items of equipment or structures which treat the sewage.
Sewerage: This term is used to describe such items as a 'sewerage system' or 'sewerage network'.
(for example - sewage runs in a sewerage system.)
Sludge: A mixture of solids and water produced during the treatment of waste water or sewage. This
will frequently have to be removed from the treatment system by de-sludging.
Sludge Removal or De-Sludging: This is the process of removing sludge from treatment systems or
tanks and can be carried out manually or automatically. All sludge's removed from tanks or systems
should be transported with care and in accordance with current legislation.
Storm Sewage (or Surface Water Sewage): Sewage flowing to a treatment works in wet weather or
discharged from storm overflows when the sewage is diluted with rainwater.
Suspended Solids (SS ): Solids in suspension in sewage liquors as measured by filtration through a
filter paper followed by washing and drying.
Tertiary Treatment: There are many differing types of tertiary treatment of effluents, the most
common being, Grass Plots, Reed Beds, Upward flow Clarifier. Rapid Gravity Sand Filter,
Microstrainer, Sand Filter, Drum Filter, Lagoons, Nitrifying Filter.
Toxicity : This usually refers to the toxic element of waterborne wastes, and the toxic elements may
comprise of metals, pesticides, or other chemicals which cause pollution of streams, watercourses,
rivers, beach's, or ground water.
Water Quality: This term is used to describe the quality of water in rivers, lakes, streams or
watercourses, as well as the quality of Potable or Drinking Water
Wetlands: Many natural wetland areas exist throughout the world and these are frequently found
where this is some form of pollution that they use as a nutrient feed. In some areas these natural
wetlands have been constructed by man to treat sewage or other forms of effluent pollution
BOD
The amount of oxygen required by aerobic microorganisms (Bacteria, gems) to decompose the
organic matter in a sample of water, such as that polluted by sewage. It is used as a measure of the
degree of water pollution. Also called biological oxygen demand.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is one of the most common measures of pollutant organic material
in water. BOD indicates the amount of putrescible organic matter present in water. Therefore, a low
BOD is an indicator of good quality water, while a high BOD indicates polluted water. Dissolved
oxygen (DO) is consumed by bacteria when large amounts of organic matter from sewage or other
discharges are present in the water. DO is the actual amount of oxygen available in dissolved form in
the water. When the DO drops below a certain level, the life forms in that water are unable to continue
at a normal rate. The decrease in the oxygen supply in the water has a negative effect on the fish and
other aquatic life. Fish kills and an invasion and growth of certain types of weeds can cause dramatic
changes in a stream or other body of water. Energy is derived from the oxidation process. BOD
specifies the strength of sewage. In sewage treatment, to say that the BOD has been reduced from
500 to 50 indicates that there has been a 90 percent reduction.
The BOD test serves an important function in stream pollution-control activities. It is a bioassay
procedure that measures the amount of oxygen consumed by living organisms while they are utilizing
the organic matter present in waste, under conditions similar in nature. The other traditional tests or
indicators for water quality are chemical oxygen demand (COD) and pH.
For results of the BOD test to be accurate, much care must be taken in the actual process. For
example, additional air cannot be introduced. Temperature must be 20°C, which is the usual
temperature of bodies of water in nature. A five-day BOD test is used in environmental monitoring.
This test is utilized as a means of stating what level of contamination from pollutants is entering a
body of water. In other words, this test measures the oxygen requirements of the bacteria and other
organisms as they feed upon and bring about the decomposition of organic matter. Time and
temperature, as well as plant life in the water, will have an effect on the test. High BOD burdens or
loads are added to wastewater by food processing plants, dairy plants, canneries, distilleries and
similar operations, and they are discharged into streams and other bodies of water.
The amount of oxygen taken up by microorganisms that decompose organic waste matter in water. It
is therefore used as a measure of the amount of certain types of organic pollutant in water. BOD is
calculated by keeping a sample of water containing a known amount of oxygen for five days at 20°C.
The oxygen content is measured again after this time. A high BOD indicates the presence of a large
number of microorganisms, which suggests a high level of pollution.
Typical BOD values
Most pristine rivers will have a 5-day BOD below 1 mg/L. Moderately polluted rivers may have a BOD
value in the range of 2 to 8 mg/L. Municipal sewage that is efficiently treated by a three-stage
process would have a value of about 20 mg/L or less. Untreated sewage varies, but averages around
600 mg/L in Europe and as low as 200 mg/L in the U.S., or where there is
severe groundwater or surface water infiltration. (The generally lower values in the U.S. derive from
the much greater water use per capita than other parts of the world.)
The BOD5 test
BOD measures the rate of oxygen uptake by micro-organisms in a sample of water at a temperature
of 20°C and over an elapsed period of five days in the dark.
There are two recognized methods for the measurement of BOD.

Dilution method
To ensure that all other conditions are equal, a very small amount of micro-organism seed is added to
each sample being tested. This seed is typically generated by diluting activated sludgewith de-ionized
water. The BOD test is carried out by diluting the sample with oxygen saturated de-ionized water,
inoculating it with a fixed aliquot of seed, measuring the dissolved oxygen (DO) and then sealing the
sample to prevent further oxygen dissolving in. The sample is kept at 20 °C in the dark to
prevent photosynthesis (and thereby the addition of oxygen) for five days, and the dissolved oxygen
is measured again. The difference between the final DO and initial DO is the BOD. The apparent
BOD for the control is subtracted from the control result to provide the corrected value.
The loss of dissolved oxygen in the sample, once corrections have been made for the degree of
dilution, is called the BOD5. For measurement of carbonaceous BOD (cBOD), a nitrification inhibitor
is added after the dilution water has been added to the sample. The inhibitor hinders the oxidation of
nitrogen.
BOD can be calculated by:

 Undiluted: Initial DO - Final DO = BOD
 Diluted: ((Initial DO - Final DO)- BOD of Seed) x Dilution Factor
BOD is similar in function to chemical oxygen demand (COD), in that both measure the amount of
organic compounds in water. However, COD is less specific, since it measures everything that can be
chemically oxidized, rather than just levels of biologically active organic matter.
Manometric method
This method is limited to the measurement of the oxygen consumption due only to carbonaceous
oxidation. Ammonia oxidation is inhibited.
The sample is kept in a sealed container fitted with a pressure sensor. A substance that absorbs
carbon dioxide (typically lithium hydroxide) is added in the container above the sample level. The
sample is stored in conditions identical to the dilution method. Oxygen is consumed and, as ammonia
oxidation is inhibited, carbon dioxide is released. The total amount of gas, and thus the pressure,
decreases because carbon dioxide is absorbed. From the drop of pressure, the sensor electronics
computes and displays the consumed quantity of oxygen.
The main advantages of this method compared to the dilution method are:
 simplicity: no dilution of sample required, no seeding, no blank sample

 direct reading of BOD value
 continuous display of BOD value at the current incubation time.
Furthermore, as the BOD measurement can be monitored continuously, a graph of its evolution can
be plotted. Interpolation of several graphs on a similar water may build an experience of its usual
evolution, and allow an estimation of the five days BOD after as early as the first two days of
incubation.[1]
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) -- A measure of the amount of oxygen consumed in the
biological processes that break down organic matter in water. The greater the BOD, the greater the
degree of pollution
Biochemical Oxygen Demand or Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a chemical procedure for
determining how fast biological organisms use up oxygen in a body of water. It is used in water
quality management and assessment, ecology and environmental science. BOD is not an accurate
quantitative test, although it could be considered as an indication of the quality of a water source.
COD
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the capacity of water to consume oxygen during
the decomposition of organic matter and the oxidation of inorganic chemicals such
as ammonia and nitrite. COD measurements are commonly made on samples of waste waters or of
natural waters contaminated by domestic or industrial wastes. Chemical oxygen demand is measured
as a standardized laboratory assay in which a closed water sample is incubated with a strong
chemical oxidant under specific conditions of temperature and for a particular period of time. A
commonly used oxidant in COD assays is potassium dichromate (K 2Cr2O7) which is used in
combination with boiling sulfuric acid(H2SO4). Because this chemical oxidant is not specific to
oxygen-consuming chemicals that are organic or inorganic, both of these sources of oxygen demand
are measured in a COD assay.
Chemical oxygen demand is related to biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), another standard test
for assaying the oxygen-demanding strength of waste waters. However, biochemicaloxygen demand
only measures the amount of oxygen consumed by microbial oxidation and is most relevant to waters
rich in organic matter. It is important to understand that COD and BOD do not necessarily measure
the same types of oxygen consumption. For example, COD does not measure the oxygen-consuming
potential associated with certain dissolved organic compounds such as acetate. However, acetate can
be metabolized by microorganisms and would therefore be detected in an assay of BOD. In
contrast, the oxygen-consuming potential of cellulose is not measured during a short-term BOD
assay, but it is measured during a COD test.
COD
In environmental chemistry, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is commonly used to
indirectly measure the amount of organic compounds in water. Most applications of COD determine
the amount of organic pollutants found in surface water (e.g. lakes and rivers), making COD a useful
measure of water quality. It is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which indicates the mass of
oxygen consumed per liter of solution. Older references may express the units as parts per
million (ppm).
Overview
The basis for the COD test is that nearly all organic compounds can be fully oxidized to carbon
dioxide with a strong oxidizing agent under acidic conditions. The amount of oxygen required to
oxidize an organic compound to carbon dioxide, ammonia, and water is given by:
This expression does not include the oxygen demand caused by the oxidation of ammonia into
nitrate. The process of ammonia being converted into nitrate is referred to as nitrification. The
following is the correct equation for the oxidation of ammonia into nitrate.
The second equation should be applied after the first one to include oxidation due to nitrification if the
oxygen demand from nitrification must be known. Dichromate does not oxidize ammonia into nitrate,
so this nitrification can be safely ignored in the standard chemical oxygen demand test.
The International Organization for Standardization describes a standard method for measuring
chemical oxygen demand in ISO 6060 [1].
204(c) RAIN WATER HARVESTING (RWH)
1. Introduction: Rain Water harvesting is the technique of
collection and storage of rain water at surface or in subsurface
aquifer, before it is lost as surface runoff. The augmented
resource can be harvested when needed. Thus it covers wide
range of means of collecting and storing water but popularly this
item is becoming synonymous to artificial recharging of ground
water aquifer.
2. Necessity: Water is one of the most essential requirement for
existence of living beings. Surface water and ground water are two
major sources of water. Due to over population and higher usages
levels of water in urban areas, water supply agencies are unable to
cope up demand with surface sources like dams, reservoirs, rivers
etc. This has led to digging of individual tubewells by house
owners. Even water supply agencies have resorted to ground
water sources by digging tubewells in order to augment the water
supply. Replenishment of ground water is drastically reduced due
to paving of open areas. Indiscriminate exploitation of ground
water results in lowering of water table rendering many borewells
dry. To overcome this situation borewells are drilled to greater
depths. This further lowers the water table and in some areas
which leads to higher concentration of hazardous chemicals such
as fluorides, nitrates & arsenic. In coastal areas like Chennai, over
exploitation of ground water resulted in sea water intrusion thereby
rendering ground water bodies saline. In rural areas also
Government policies on subsidized power supply for agricultural
pumps and piped water supply through bore wells are resulting in
to decline in ground water level. The solution to these problems is
to replenish ground water bodies with rain water by man made
3. Basic types: Following are three basic types:
(a)Roof top rain water harvesting and storage in tanks.
(b) Roof top rain water harvesting and recharging subsurface
aquifer.
(c) Surface runoff harvesting and recharging subsurface
aquifer.
4.
Advantages:
(a) Promotes adequacy of underground water.
(b) Mitigates the effect of drought.
(c) Reduces soil erosion as surface runoff is reduced.
(d) Decreases load on storm water disposal system.
(e) Reduces flood hazards.
(f) Improves ground quality/decreases salinity (by dilution).
(g) Prevents ingress of sea water in subsurface aquifers in
coastal areas.
(h) Affects rise in ground water table. Thus saving energy (to lift
water).
(i) The cost of recharging subsurface aquifer is lower than
surface reservoirs.
(j) The subsurface aquifer also serves as storage and
distribution system.
(k) No land is wasted for storage purpose and no population
displacement is involved.
(l) Storing water underground is environment friendly
The Water Supply Fixture Units - WFSU - are used to determine the water demand in water supply
systems. One WFSU for a singel unit corresponds to one GPM.
 1 WSFU = 1 GPM
This conversion can only be used for one or a few fixtures. When the total amount for many fixtures are added
up, the number must be compensated due to the intermittent use of the fixtures. This is normal taken care of in
the tables available for sizing supply pipe lines.
When special equipment or manifolds are sized the table below can be used to indicate the flowrate. Note that
the minimum flow rate can never be less than the fixture with the largest demand.
The tables below can be used to estimate the demand in the water supply system when the load in WSFU is
known. There are tables for systems with and without flush valves.
Water Supply System without Flush Valves
WSFU GPM f3/min liter/sec
1 3 0.41 0.19
2 5 0.68 0.32
4 8 1.07 0.51
8 12.8 1.71 0.81
15 17.5 2.3 1.1
30 23.3 3.1 1.5
50 29.1 3.9 1.8
Water Supply System with Flush Valves

WSFU GPM f3/min liter/sec
5 15 2 1
7 19.8 2.7 1.3
10 27 3.6 1.7
15 31 4.1 2
20 35 4.7 2.2
30 42 4 1.9
50 50 6.7 3.2
In plumbing, a Fixture Unit (FU) is equal to one cubic foot of water per minute. A Fixture Unit is not a flow rate unit but a
design factor. One cubic foot of water is roughly 7.48 gallons. A Fixture Unit is used in plumbing design for both water
supply and waste water.
Different fixtures have different flow requirements. In order to determine the required size of pipe, an arbitrary unit is used
for pipe sizing which takes into account the likelihood that all the fixtures will not be used at the same time. This is called
"fixture unit" (FU). The relationship between gallons per minute (gpm) and fixture unit is not constant, but varies with the
number of fixture units. For example, 1000 FU is equivalent to 220 gpm, but 2000 FU is not double that, but is only 1.5
times as much, or 330 gpm.
There are situations where a design provides for more FUs being discharged than being supplied. This occurs in
situations where liquids may infiltrate or are added to a draining system, such as might happen in a large sports venue.
Examples of how this could occur include rain water infiltration or

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Measure the area of premises.

Calculate area = Length X width

Now we need area in sq.meter so you need to multiply with 0.093

We have now area = 144×0.093 = 13.39 sq.meter

Lumens = 150(Lux) x 13.39(area) = Around 2000 Lumens

Types of lighting include:

Lighting Comparison Chart

Reflector 12–19 2000–3000 98–100 (excellent) 2800 (warm) Indoors/outdoors

Circline 40–50 12,000 Indoors

Metal halide 70–115 5000–20,000 70 (fair) 3700 (cold) Indoors/outdoors

High-pressure sodium 50–140 16,000–24,000 25 (poor) 2100 (warm) Outdoors

Low-Pressure Sodium 60–150 12,000–18,000 -44 (very poor) Outdoors

Object size protected

0 — No protection against contact and ingress of objects

2 >12.5 mm Fingers or similar objects

Level Protected against Details

dripping water when

6 powerful water jets

Level Protected against access to hazardous parts with

H high voltage device

M device moving during water test

S device standing still during water test

[edit]Mechanical impact resistance

OLD IP Level Impact energy Equivalent drop mass and height

01 0.150 drop of 200 gram object from 7.5 cm height

02 0.200 drop of 200 gram object from 10 cm height

03 0.350 drop of 200 gram object from 17.5 cm height

04 0.500 drop of 200 gram object from 25 cm height

05 0.700 drop of 200 gram object from 35 cm height

06 1.00 drop of 500 gram object from 20 cm height

07 2.00 drop of 500 gram object from 40 cm height

08 5.00 drop of 1.7 kg object from 29.5 cm height

09 10.0 drop of 5 kg object from 20 cm height

The National IP20 1

A component that cools compressed air coming from a compressor. An aftercooler is a

bar A unit of pressure equal to 100,000 pascals or 14.504 psi.

cubic centimeters A measurement of volume that is abbreviated cm&sup3;.

cubic inches A measurement of volume that is abbreviated cu in or in&sup3;.

One complete revolution or rotation of a rotary pneumatic component, or one complete

decibel A unit of measurement that describes the intensity of a sound wave.

force The push or pull that gives energy to an object.

A unit of power used to describe the strength of a pneumatic component. One

A component that cools air inside a compressor. An intercooler is a type of heat

linear motion Motion that takes place along a straight line.

megapascal A unit of pressure equal to one million pascals.

noise Any unwanted sound. Noise at high decibels is a hearing hazard.

pounds per square

power The rate of doing work in a specified period of time.

An indication of the displacement of a pneumatic component that is equal to the volume

torque The force exerted in rotation.

A pneumatic compressor that consists of a rotor mounted off-center in a circular cavity.

work The result of force applied to an object over a distance.

Part Load Optimized Chillers

Compressor Type and Capacity

Scroll (30 - 60 tons) 0.86 or less 0.83

Reciprocating (30 - 150 tons) 0.90 or less 0.80

Screw (70 - 200 tons) 0.98 or less 0.83

Full Load Optimized Chillers

Scroll (30 - 60 tons) 1.23 or less 1.10

Reciprocating (30 - 150 tons) 1.23 or less 1.00

Screw (70 - 200 tons) 1.23 or less 0.94

 So the easy method is;

STEP 1 - Calculate the volume of the area to be cleaned in cubic feet.

Length x Width x Height of area = Cubic Volume

cubic centimeters A measurement of volume that is abbreviated cm³.

cubic inches A measurement of volume that is abbreviated cu in or in³.