Application of Direct Evaporative to determine how chiller efficiency can be improved with any
reduced condensing temperature when operating conditions and
Coolers for Improving the
Energy Efficiency of Air-Cooled
Chillers
F. W. Yu
e-mail: befwyu@polyu.edu.hk
K. T. Chan
Department of Building Services Engineering, The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong
Kong, China
This paper describes how direct evaporative coolers can be used
to improve the energy efficiency of air-cooled chillers in various
operating conditions and with different strategies for staging con-
denser fans. These coolers are installed in front of air-cooled
condensers to precool outdoor air before entering the condensers.
A simulation analysis on an air-cooled chiller equipped with a
direct evaporative cooler showed that when head pressure control
is used, the cooler enables the condensing temperature to drop by
2.1–6.2°C, resulting in a 1.4-14.4% decrease in chiller power and
a 1.3–4.6% increase in the refrigeration effect. When the chiller
with the cooler operates under condensing temperature control,
where condenser effectiveness is enhanced by staging all con-
denser fans, there is a savings in chiller power of 1.3-4.3% in
some operating conditions in which the drop in compressor power
exceeds the additional condenser fan power due to the pressure
drop across the cooler. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.1866144兴
Introduction
Compared to water-cooled chillers, air-cooled chillers have
long been considered inefficient in providing cooling energy 共in
terms of chilled water兲 for air-conditioning in buildings 关1,2兴. This
is because air-cooled condensers are designed to work at a con-
densing temperature of 11–14°C above the dry-bulb temperature
of outdoor air, while water-cooled condensers with cooling towers
or evaporative condensers allow the condensing temperature to
hover close to 4 – 6°C above the wet-bulb temperature of outdoor
air. Under head pressure control 共HTC兲, air-cooled chillers gener-
ally operate at a high condensing temperature of 45–50°C with a
local outdoor temperature of 7.8 –33.7°C. Direct evaporative cool-
ers, when installed in front of air-cooled condensers, can precool
outdoor air before entering the condensers while consuming less
than 15% of the cooling water required by cooling towers and
evaporative condensers 关3,4兴. For a direct evaporative cooler, hot
air flows across a porous wetted surface with a film of cool water.
That air absorbs and evaporates moisture on the surface when
leaving the cooler, and then its dry-bulb temperature drops and
approaches its wet-bulb temperature. With these coolers, air-
cooled chillers can operate more efficiently because the condens-
ing temperature drops followed by any reduced outdoor tempera-
ture. Using direct evaporator coolers to enhance the efficiency of
air-cooled chillers is not common, even though the concept is not
new.
To put forward the use of direct evaporative coolers, it is nec-
essary to identify the extent to which outdoor temperature can
drop with respect to the dryness of outdoor air. It is also important
Contributed by the Solar Energy Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF ME-
CHANICAL ENGINEERS. Manuscript received by the ASME Solar Energy Division
March 24, 2004; final revision July 14, 2004. Associate Editor: V. C. Mei.
430 Õ Vol. 127, AUGUST 2005 Copyright © 2005 by ASME
Downloaded From: http://solarenergyengineering.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/17/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use
the strategy for staging condenser fans vary. At present, there is a
lack of research into the potential and benefits of using the cool-
ers. It is desirable to use computer simulation to evaluate all op-
erating variables within an air-cooled chiller and a direct evapo-
rative cooler 关5兴. The simulation analysis in this study is aimed at
describing the interaction between the effectiveness of direct
evaporative coolers and changes in chiller efficiency in various
operating conditions and with various strategies for staging con-
denser fans. Using the simulation program TRNSYS 关6兴, a model
for an air-cooled reciprocating chiller is developed 关7,8兴. Within
this model, mechanistic relations and operating balance between
chiller components are considered. An algorithm is introduced to
determine the number of staged condenser fans by a set point of
condensing temperature. This model is experimentally verified
and used to investigate how HPC can be replaced by condensing
temperature control 共CTC兲, whereby all condenser fans are staged
in most operating conditions to maximize condenser effectiveness
and hence to reduce the condensing temperature 关9兴. The empiri-
cal equations of a direct evaporative cooler given by Zhang et al.
关3兴 were incorporated into the chiller model to evaluate the feasi-
bility of using direct evaporative coolers to improve chiller effi-
ciency.
This simulation study showed that the cooler effectiveness in-
fluences the heat transfer coefficient of an air-cooled condenser
and, in turn, the number of staged condenser fans. For any reduc-
tion in condensing temperature, there is an increase in condenser
fan power due to the pressure drop across the cooler. Under HPC,
the cooler enables the condensing temperature to drop by 2.1–
6.2°C, resulting in a 1.3–14.4% decrease in chiller power and a
1.0– 4.6% increase in the refrigeration effect. When CTC is ap-
plied together with the cooler, a 1.3– 4.3% saving of chiller power
can be achieved in some operating conditions where the drop in
compressor power exceeds the additional condenser fan power
resulting from the cooler.
Empirical Equations of a Direct Evaporative Cooler
To exploit opportunities to improve the energy efficiency of
air-cooled chillers when direct evaporative coolers are coupled
with air-cooled condensers, it is important to determine how the
cooler effectiveness influences the decrease in the condensing
temperature and the additional condenser fan power. Zhang et al.
关3兴 carried out an experiment to investigate the performance of a
direct evaporative cooler. This cooler was filled with corrugated
holed aluminum foil, which formed a wetted surface to precool
the outdoor air entering the cooler. A set of empirical equations
was developed to evaluate the effectiveness of the cooler and its
pressure drop, and hence to compute the increase in condenser fan
power.
The cooler effectiveness ( ␩ ec ) is defined by Eqs. 共1兲 and 共2兲
and can vary from 0.75 to 0.95. The temperature of air at the
cooler outlet (T o ) was correlated with the face velocity of the air
through the cooler ( v a ), the dry-bulb temperature of the air at the
cooler inlet (T i ), the wet-bulb temperature of the air at the cooler
inlet (T i,w ), and water sprinkling density (q sw )—water flow di-
vided by the cross-section area of sprinkling water. These two
equations were developed under the following conditions: v a var-
ied from 2 to 3 m/s; q sw changed from 0.5 to 1.2 kg/m2 s; and
(T i ⫺T i,w )/T i was between 0.15 and 0.45. When these equations
were incorporated into the condenser component of the chiller
model, T o meant the temperature of air entering the condenser. v a
varied with heat rejection airflow (V a ), which changed step by
step in response to the staging of the constant-speed condenser
fans.
T i ⫺T o
␩ ec ⫽ (1)
T i ⫺T i,w
Transactions of the ASME
 Fig. 1 Refrigeration cycle of the modeled chiller

0.369 0.082 ⫺0.03

T o ⫽1.015T i0.579T i,w v a q sw
Pump power for water circulation was negligible compared to
the increase in condenser fan power (⌬E c f ). As Eq. 共3兲 illustrates,
⌬E c f was related to heat rejection airflow (V a ) and the pressure
drop (⌬ P ec ) across the cooler. If the decrease in compressor
power exceeded ⌬E c f , the use of these coolers would be viable in
enhancing chiller efficiency.
⌬E c f ⫽V a ⌬ P ec
⌬ P ec ⫽23.893v 2.032
a
0.066
q sw
The aforementioned empirical equations were incorporated into
a chiller model 关7,8兴 to determine the extent to which the condens-
ing temperature could drop in various humidity conditions of out-
door air and to analyze the enhancement of chiller efficiency ac-
cordingly. The modeled chiller used the refrigerant R22 and had a
nominal capacity of 120 kW. It comprised a shell-and-tube evapo-
rator, four reciprocating compressors, an air-cooled condenser,
and an electronic expansion valve. Detailed technical data of these
components were described elsewhere 关7,9兴. Figure 1 shows the
refrigeration cycle of the modeled chiller. The evaporating tem-
perature (T e v ) was designed to be 3°C. The temperature of supply
chilled water was maintained at 7°C, and the temperature rise of
chilled water was set to be 5.5°C at full load. There was one
refrigeration circuit in which four compressors of equal capacity
were connected in parallel and staged step by step to provide 25%,
50%, 75%, or 100% of the total cooling capacity. The air-cooled
condenser was designed to work on a condensing temperature
(T cd ) of 50°C when the outdoor temperature was 35°C. The
amount of heat rejection was regulated by staging three constant-
(2) speed propeller fans step by step, with each producing an airflow
of 5.5 m3/s and consuming a constant power of 1.1 kW.
For maximum cooler effectiveness, the water sprinkling density
of the direct evaporative cooler was set to be 1.2 kg/m2 s in all
operating conditions. Given that the cooler’s airflow corresponded
to the heat rejection airflow, the velocity of the air through the
cooler varied with the number of staged condenser fans. In each
operating condition, the wet-bulb temperature of outdoor air con-
(3) stituted an input in conjunction with its dry-bulb temperature and
the part load ratio of the chiller. Based on local weather condi-
(4) tions, the dry-bulb temperature of outdoor air (T i ) of 15, 20, 25,
30, or 35°C corresponded to its average wet-bulb temperature
(T i,w ) of 12.4, 17.0, 21.2, 25.5, or 29.5°C, respectively. Each set
of dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures complied with the require-
ment that the values of (T i ⫺T i,w )/T i ranged from 0.15 to 0.45.
Schedules of Staging Condenser Fans
For any given heat rejection, there was a set point of the con-
densing temperature to control the staging of condenser fans.
When the condensing temperature exceeded its set point, one
more condenser fan would be switched on to increase heat rejec-
tion airflow, which enabled the condensing temperature to fall to
slightly below its set point. Table 1 shows the schedules of staging
condenser fans in various operating conditions 共combinations of
outdoor temperatures and chiller part load ratios兲 when HPC or
CTC was used. Under HPC, the set point of condensing tempera-
ture was fixed at 45°C in all operating conditions. Fewer con-
denser fans were staged to limit the heat rejection airflow when
the chiller load or outdoor temperature decreased. Under CTC, the
set point of condensing temperature varied with any given outdoor

Table 1 Schedules of staging condenser fans under head pressure control „HPC… and under
condensing temperature control „CTC…

Chiller part load ratio

Outdoor
temperature 共°C兲 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Number of staged condenser fans
Dry Wet
bulb bulb HPC CTC HPC CTC HPC CTC HPC CTC
15 12.4 1 2 1 3 1 3 2 3
20 17.0 1 2 1 3 1 3 2 3
25 21.2 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 3
30 25.5 1 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
35 29.5 1 3 2 3 2 3 3 3

Journal of Solar Energy Engineering AUGUST 2005, Vol. 127 Õ 431

Downloaded From: http://solarenergyengineering.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/17/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use

 Table 2 Decrease in condensing temperature under head With the direct evaporative cooler, compressor power dropped
pressure control „HPC… and under condensing temperature following the decrease in the condensing temperature in most op-
control „CTC… erating conditions, while the pressure drop across the cooler
Chiller part load ratio caused additional condenser fan power. Table 3 summarizes the
Outdoor tradeoff between the increase in condenser fan power (E c f ↑) and
temperature 共°C兲 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 the decrease in compressor power (E cc ↓), and the corresponding
Decrease in condensing temperature 共°C兲 saving of chiller power (E ch ↓), when HPC was used. Since the
Dry Wet condenser fans are constant-speed devices and assuming fan effi-
bulb bulb HPC CTC HPC CTC HPC CTC HPC CTC ciency is constant for any step-by-step changes in heat rejection
15 12.4 2.1 1.8 2.1 1.7 2.2 1.7 ⫺17.5 1.7 airflow, E c f ↑ was constant for the same number of staged con-
20 17.0 2.9 2.5 2.9 2.3 3.2 2.3 2.6 2.3 denser fans, regardless of variations in outdoor temperature and
25 21.2 3.9 3.2 4.0 3.2 ⫺11.5 3.2 3.5 3.2 chiller loads. The negative E c f ↑ 共⫺0.39 kW兲 was the net saving
30 25.5 5.0 4.1 ⫺5.9 4.1 4.4 4.1 4.5 4.1
35 29.5 6.2 5.1 5.5 5.1 5.5 5.1 ⫺0.9 5.1 of condenser fan power when the reduced fan power 共1.1 kW兲 due
to switching off one of the condenser fans staged exceeded the
additional fan power 共0.71 kW兲 due to the pressure drop across
the cooler. The negative values of E cc ↓ meant an increase in com-
temperature, allowing all condenser fans to be staged to maximize pressor power when the compressors operated at a higher con-
heat rejection airflow in most operating conditions. densing temperature. The use of the cooler resulted in a beneficial
tradeoff whenever the chiller with the cooler operated at the same
number of staged condenser fans as that without the cooler. This
Results was because the reduction in compressor power exceeded the in-
It was essential to determine the extent to which the condensing crease in condenser fans by 0.4 to 3.4 kW. Concurrently, the sav-
temperature could drop when the chiller, equipped with a direct ing of chiller power (E ch ↓) varied from 1.4 to 14.4%, depending
evaporative cooler, operated HPC or under CTC. As Table 2 illus- on how the outdoor temperature and chiller part load ratio
trates, the decrease in the condensing temperature was generally changed. The tradeoff, however, was undesirable when the use of
related to the difference between the dry-bulb temperature and the cooler caused the condensing temperature to increase rather
wet-bulb temperature of outdoor air. Under HPC, the condensing than to decrease. In these circumstances, the small reduction in
temperature rose considerably in some operating conditions 共indi- condenser fan power 共0.39 kW兲 would not be compensated for by
cated by negative values in Table 2兲. In these conditions, heat the significant increase in compressor power 共4.2–15.2 kW兲, lead-
rejection airflow needed to be reduced by switching off one of the ing to a great increase in the overall chiller power 共by up to
staged condenser fans to allow the condensing temperature to ap- 39.0%兲.
proach its set point of 45°C. This was because the reduced out- It was necessary to examine whether chiller efficiency could be
door temperature would cause the condensing temperature to fall further enhanced when the chiller with the cooler operated under
to below 35°C if the number of staged condenser fans remained CTC. When CTC was used, the increase in condenser fan power
unchanged. When CTC was implemented, the decrease in the con- was comparatively high because all the condenser fans had to be
densing temperature was rather constant throughout the entire staged in most operating conditions. Table 4 shows the extent to
range of chiller part load ratios. This decrease, ranging from 1.7 to which the condenser fan power rose in relation to a drop in com-
5.1°C, in fact followed mainly a 1.0 to 4.2°C drop in the tempera- pressor power. In many operating conditions, the increase in con-
ture of air entering the condenser. denser fan power was comparable to the total nominal power of

Table 3 Increase in condenser fan power „E cf _…, decrease in compressor power „E cc `…, and percentage saving of chiller power
„E ch `… under head pressure control

Chiller part load ratio

Outdoor
temperature 共°C兲 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Dry Wet Ecf↑ E cc ↓ E ch ↓ Ecf↑ E cc ↓ E ch ↓ Ecf↑ E cc ↓ E ch ↓ Ecf↑ E cc ↓ E ch ↓
bulb bulb 共kW兲 共kW兲 共%兲 共kW兲 共kW兲 共%兲 共kW兲 共kW兲 共%兲 共kW兲 共kW兲 共%兲
15 12.4 0.71 1.12 3.4 0.71 1.33 3.4 0.71 1.66 3.6 ⫺0.39 ⫺15.21 ⫺39.0
20 17.0 0.71 1.60 6.0 0.71 1.92 5.6 0.71 2.49 5.8 1.73 2.11 1.4
25 21.2 0.71 2.27 8.9 0.71 2.81 8.5 ⫺0.39 ⫺9.24 ⫺25.5 1.73 3.05 4.3
30 25.5 0.71 3.05 11.5 ⫺0.39 ⫺4.19 ⫺13.4 1.73 3.43 6.0 1.73 4.16 6.9
35 29.5 0.71 4.06 14.4 1.73 3.83 8.0 1.73 4.57 8.9 0.63 ⫺0.83 ⫺3.7

Table 4 Increase in condenser fan power „E cf _… and decrease in compressor power „E cc `…

under condensing temperature control

Chiller part load ratio

Outdoor
temperature 共°C兲 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Ecf↑ E cc ↓ Ecf↑ E cc ↓ Ecf↑ E cc ↓ Ecf↑ E cc ↓
Dry bulb Wet bulb 共kW兲 共kW兲 共kW兲 共kW兲 共kW兲 共kW兲 共kW兲 共kW兲
15 12.4 1.73 0.96 3.1 0.99 3.1 1.12 3.1 1.29
20 17.0 1.73 1.36 3.1 1.41 3.1 1.16 3.1 1.85
25 21.2 3.1 1.77 3.1 1.79 3.1 2.27 3.1 2.64
30 25.5 3.1 2.33 3.1 2.63 3.1 3.02 共3.1兲 共3.53兲
35 29.5 3.1 3.02 共3.1兲 共3.43兲 共3.1兲 共3.96兲 共3.1兲 共4.67兲

432 Õ Vol. 127, AUGUST 2005 Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded From: http://solarenergyengineering.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/17/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use

 Table 5 Increase in refrigeration effect under head pressure control „HPC… and under con-
densing temperature control „CTC…

Chiller part load ratio

Outdoor
temperature 共°C兲 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Increase in refrigeration effect 共%兲
Dry Wet
bulb bulb HPC CTC HPC CTC HPC CTC HPC CTC
15 12.4 1.31 1.11 1.40 1.03 1.53 1.05 ⫺11.60 1.07
20 17.0 1.88 1.59 2.02 1.48 2.25 1.51 1.76 1.54
25 21.2 2.67 2.08 共2.90兲 2.11 ⫺8.00 2.15 2.52 2.21
30 25.5 3.55 2.75 ⫺4.17 2.79 3.20 2.85 3.35 2.93
35 29.5 共4.63兲 3.55 共3.98兲 3.61 共4.16兲 共3.69兲 ⫺0.65 3.80

all condenser fans 共i.e., 3.3 kW兲. It was not desirable to use the
cooler together with CTC when this increase in condenser fan
power exceeded the decrease in compressor power. Chiller effi-
ciency could be improved in four operating conditions in which
the outdoor temperatures and part load ratios were relatively high
共with values in parentheses in Table 4兲. In these conditions, the
condensing temperature decreased considerably and chiller power
was saved by 1.3– 4.3%, compared with that of the chiller oper-
ating without the cooler. These findings indicated that the chiller
operated with its optimum efficiency when condensing tempera-
ture control was applied, and a further reduction in condensing
temperature was limited by the extent of decrease in the tempera-
ture of air entering the cooler, which was influenced by the dry-
ness of outdoor air and the cooler effectiveness ( ␩ ec ).
When the chiller was equipped with the cooler, the refrigeration
effect 共the difference between the specific enthalpy of refrigerant
leaving the evaporator and that entering the evaporator兲 could be
enhanced because the condensing temperature dropped followed
by the decrease in the temperature of air entering the condenser.
Table 5 presents the results of this enhancement when the chiller
operated under HPC or under CTC. The extent to which the re-
frigeration effect increased depended on the degree of decrease in
the condensing temperature. Under HPC, the refrigeration effect
increased by 1.3– 4.6% when disregarding the operating condi-
tions in which the number of staged condenser fans decreased by
one. Likewise, under CTC, the refrigeration effect increased by
1.0–3.8%. With the increase in the refrigeration effect, one com-
pressor could be staged off in some operating conditions 共with
values in parentheses in Table 5兲.
Discussion and Conclusions
The simulation findings in this study give important insights
into how direct evaporative coolers can be used to improve chiller
efficiency in various operating conditions and with different strat-
egies for staging condenser fans. When an air-cooled chiller,
equipped with a direct evaporative cooler, operates under HPC,
the condensing temperature can rise or drop, depending on
whether the number of condenser fans staged decreases by one or
remains the same as in the operation of the chiller without the
cooler. It is possible that in many operating conditions, the con-
densing temperature drops by 2.1– 6.2°C, resulting in a 1.4 –
14.4% saving of chiller power and a 1.3– 4.6% increase in the
refrigeration effect.
When condensing temperature control is used along with a di-
rect evaporative cooler, the schedule of staging condenser fans
remains unchanged. However, the additional condenser fan power
resulting from the cooler causes the chiller to be less efficient in
certain operating conditions. Despite this, there is a savings in
chiller power of 1.3– 4.3% when the drop in compressor power
exceeds the additional condenser fan power. Since the drop in
condensing temperature relates directly to the temperature of air
leaving the cooler, more chiller power will be saved if the outdoor
air is dry enough with a considerable difference between its dry-
bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature. This highlights the
need to study the variation in the dryness of outdoor air under
local weather conditions in order to use direct evaporative coolers
properly. In all operating conditions, the use of the coolers results
in an increase in the refrigeration effect, which enables a smaller
number of compressors to be staged at some chiller part load
ratios. This, in turn, allows the chillers to carry higher loads more
frequently when chiller sequencing is properly implemented in a
multiple chiller plant.
Acknowledgments
The work described in this paper was supported by a grant from
the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong SAR, China
共Project No. PolyU 5018/00E兲 and the central research grant of
the Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
References
关1兴 Chan, K. T., and Yu, F. W., 2002, ‘‘Part Load Efficiency of Air-Cooled
Multiple-Chiller Plant,’’ Build. Services Eng. Res. Technol., 23共1兲, pp. 29–39.
关2兴 Chan, K. T., and Yu, F. W., 2002, ‘‘Applying Condensing-Temperature Control
in Air-Cooled Reciprocating Water Chillers for Energy Efficiency,’’ Appl. En-
ergy, 72, pp. 565–581.
关3兴 Zhang, H., You, S. J., Yang, H. X., and Niu, J. L., 2000, ‘‘Enhanced Perfor-
mance of Air-Cooled Chillers Using Evaporative Cooling,’’ Build. Services
Eng. Res. Technol., 21共4兲, pp. 213–217.
关4兴 Bom, G. J., Foster, R., Dijkstra, E., and Tummers, M., 1999, Evaporative
Air-Conditioning: Applications for Environmentally Friendly Cooling (World
Bank Technical Paper No. 421, Energy Series), World Bank, DC, Washington.
关5兴 Liu, M., Song, L., Wei, G., and Claridge, D. E., 2004, ‘‘Simplified Building
and Air-Handling Unit Model Calibration and Applications,’’ J. Sol. Energy
Eng., 126, pp. 601– 609.
关6兴 Solar Energy Laboratory, 2000, TRNSYS: A Transient System Simulation Pro-
gram (Reference manual), University of Wisconsin-Madison Press, WI, Madi-
son.
关7兴 Chan, K. T., and Yu, F. W., 2004, ‘‘Optimum Set Point of Condensing Tem-
perature for Air-Cooled Chillers,’’ Int. J. HVAC&R Research, 10共2兲, pp. 113–
127.
关8兴 Yu, F. W., and Chan, K. T., 2004, ‘‘Condensing Temperature Control to En-
hance the Efficiency of Air-Cooled Chillers,’’ Build. Services Eng. Res. Tech-
nol., 25共4兲, pp. 279–294.
关9兴 Yu, F. W., and Chan, K. T., 2004, ‘‘Reducing the Condensing Temperature to
Improve the Efficiency of Air-Cooled Chillers,’’ Proceedings of the 3rd Inter-
national Symposium on Heat Transfer Enhancement and Energy Conservation,
12–15 January, Vol. 1, pp. 180–185, South China University of Technology
Press, Guangzhou.

Journal of Solar Energy Engineering AUGUST 2005, Vol. 127 Õ 433

Downloaded From: http://solarenergyengineering.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 01/17/2016 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use