aa A.

PHOTOGRAPHY – is define as an art or science of reproducing images of objects by the action of

light on sensitive surface with the aid of image forming device known as camera with its accessories and the
chemical process involved therein.

Note: Photography is derived from the Greek words “Photo” or “Phos” – which means light and “Graphia”
which means to write or to draw. Literally speaking photography can be defined as to “write or draw” with the
aid of light.

B. Requisites of Photography

1. Light
2. Sensitized material
3. Camera
4. Chemical Process

C. Principles of Photography

A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography. To produce a photograph light is
needed aside from light sensitized material (film or paper). The light reflected or radiated by the subject must
reach the sensitized material while all other lights must be excluded. The exclusion of all other lights is
achieved by placing the sensitized material inside a light tight box (camera).

The light mentioned maybe visible or invisible. Visible lights are those lights that can be detected by our
naked eyes. Invisible light refers to the radiation that is either too short or too long in wavelength to excite the
retina of the eye.

The effect of light on sensitized material is not visible in the formation of images of objects. The effect
could be made visible with the aid of chemical processing of the exposed sensitized material after development
varies with the quantity and quality of light that reach the emulsion is regulated by many factors, such as the
lens opening, the speed of the shutter used, the sensitivity of the film and others.

D. Events and Personalities in Photography

1. Camera Obscura (1700) – Designed by Leonardo da Vinci, and utilized by early artist, particularly painters
to get accurate perspective of natural scene and scale of their subjects.

Note: The “Camera” is a latin word means “chamber” and “obscura” is another latin word meaning “dark”. Literally speaking
camera obscura means “dark chamber or room”

2. Silver Nitrate and Silver Chloride (1725 – 1777) – Its sensitivity to light has been discovered and
investigated.

3. Photograms (1800) – An early method of producing shadow images of objects, through designs, cut and
shaped to papers or plate, place on top of light sensitive materials while being exposed to direct sunlight. This
idea originated from Thomas Wedge wood and Humphrey Davy.

4. Joseph Nicephore Niepce (1816) – He was able to obtain camera images on papers sensitized with silver
chloride solution. Fixation was partial. The first exposure with the Niepce camera took eight hours. He called
his image “Heliograph” or “sun drawing”.

5. Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre (1839) – He produced the first practical photograph, which was clear and
required a much shorter exposure time. He named it after himself, calling it the “daguerreotytpe”. He used
“hypo” or “sodium thiosulfate” (fixer), to dissolve unexposed areas and to make the image permanent.

Note: Hypo or Sodium Thiosulfate was discovered by John F. W. Herchel in 1819. He likewise coined the word “photography” in
1856.

6. William Henry Fox Talbot (1839) – He introduce an important concept to the future of photography: the
Negative. Talbot called his image as the “calotype” or “beautiful impression”. The chemical used were
potassium iodide and silver nitrate coated to paper. Transfer of images were done through contact printing.
7. Frederick Scott Archer (1851) – Discovered the “Wet Collodion Process”. He invented a glass negative
that used collodion in a wet state to suspend the light sensitive chemicals. The process was also called “wet
plate”.

8. James Clerk Maxwell (1861) – Made a research on colors of light. He also produced the first color
photographs in the process.

9. U.S. Eastman Kodak (1888) – George Eastman’s company adds innumerable developments to the
technology of photography, but none was more significant than the introduction of the Kodak box camera and
the roll film. Thus, making photography available even for amateurs.

10. Light Amplification through Simulated Emission of Radiation (LASER) (1960) – The invention of
LASER makes “Holograms” possible. (Three dimensional pictures).

11. Digital Cameras (1988) – Marks the arrival of digital cameras. The first digital camera was introduced by
Fuji which uses 16mb internal memory card, but the first commercially available D.C. was manufactured by
KODAK during 1992, with 1.3 mega pixel sensor. While the first D.C. with a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) on
the back, was produced by CASIO in 1995.

II. The Camera

A. What is camera?

It is a light tight box with a pinhole or lens to form an image, with a shutter and diaphragm to control the
time and amount of light passing through it and a means of holding sensitized material to record photographic
images.

Literally speaking, it is a device use for capturing the image of the objects being photograph.

Note: Pinhole is a small or tiny hole which produces an image entirely free from distortion but its image is so dim that it is
impractically long to be recorded even if the fastest film is used.

a.1. The Eye and the Camera

In many aspects the eye acts like a camera. The only difference is the eye is an organic evolution while
the camera is of technical evolution.

The human eye is a highly develop organ and like the camera its purpose is to project an inverted image
upon a light sensitive surface. The anatomy of the eye reveals that it has a resemblance with the mechanism of
the camera. Like the camera the eye has a lens, a shutter represented by its eyelids, a variable aperture which
is the pupil, a diaphragm which is the Iris and a light sensitive surface that refers to its retina.

B. Camera Operation

Various kinds of camera from the simplest construction to the most complicated operate on the same
principle. That is to expose the sensitized material to the light, and such light is controlled by lens and its
aperture; and by the shutter through its speed in opening and closing of lens to light.

C. Parts of Camera

1. Light Tight Box (LTB) – It is an enclosure devoid of light. Its function is to exclude all unwanted
light that might expose the sensitized material or film (unwanted exposure).

2. The Lens – A transparent medium which either converge or diverge light rays passing trough it to
form an image.
 2.1. General Types of Lenses

a. The Convergent, Positive or Convex Lens – Characterized by a lens thicker at the center and thinner
at the sides. When light rays pass through it, they converge and meet at certain point behind the lens. It has a
positive focal length.

b. The Divergent, Negative or Concave Lens – This lens is always thinner at the center and thicker at
the sides. Light passing through it are bended away from each other as if coming from a point.

2.2. Classification of Lenses according to Focal length

Note: Focal length is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane when the lens is set to focus
at infinity position. It is expressed in millimeter (indicated in the lens barrel of the camera) and tells some important thing about how
lens will act when installed on the camera . This also determines the size of the image at a given distance, and the area coverage or the
angle of view of the lens.

a. Wide Angle Lens – A lens with a focal length less then the diagonal of its negative material. It
produces a wide angle of view but the image decreases in size which sometimes causes distortion. Usually used
on non spacious or narrow places or areas mostly on small rooms. Also utilized outdoor when panoramic view
is desired.

b. Normal Lens – A lens with a focal length approximately equal or more but not more than twice the
diagonal of its negative material. This provides realistic view of the scene to be photograph.

c. Telephoto Lens – A lens with a focal length more than twice of its diagonal material. This kind of
lens has a narrow angle of view. This offer great magnification and mostly use for surveillance purposes for its
capability to take pictures even at great distance.

d. Zoom Lens – A lens with variable focal length. This enables the photographer to adjust focal length
and magnification of the lens without the need of replacements.

Note: Focal distance is not the same with the Focal length . Focal distance refers to the distance from the optical center of the lens
to the film plane.

Note: Negative of the film is usually 37m

2.3. The Lens Diaphragm

The light gathering power of the lens is indicated by its f – number or relative aperture. This can be
controlled by means of diaphragm. The diaphragm of the lens can be made larger or smaller. Its control
depends upon the quantity and quality of the light coming from the subject.

Note: as a rule, the more light given by the source, the more light will be reflected or transmitted by the subject.

The smaller the opening or aperture of the diaphragm, the less light will be admitted, and being
represented by a higher numerical value of f – number. Contrary to that, the wider the aperture the more light
will be admitted and it is being represented by lower numerical value of f- number.

The following are the f – number series:

F1.4 – F2 – F2.8 – F4 – F5.6 – F8 – F11 – F16 – F22…

The diaphragm aperture is doubled with each full step toward the larger aperture size. Going the other
way, area is halved with each full step toward smaller size. With this, each f – number stop allows twice as
much light or half as much, as its immediate neighbor in the series.

2.4. The Depth of Field

Depth of field is the measure of the zone of acceptable focus it is the distance from the nearest
object in good focus, to the farthest object in good focus.
 a. Rules on Depth of Field

1. Depth of field is increased by:

- Small lens aperture

- Shorter focal length lens
- Greater subject distance

2. Photo – Filter – Photo filter is a transparent homogenous medium, which absorbs and transmits
different light rays passing through it. It usually made up of small disk of colored glass or sometimes from
gelatin cemented between glass plates. The filter itself is screwed in front of the lens barrel or sometimes came
up with its own holder.

A filter works as it transmit light of its own color and absorbs light of its complementary colors.

A color Asterisk will show you which colors are complimentary

Red
Magenta Yellow

Perpendicular to Red or cyan

Blue Green

Cyan

2.1. The Filter Factor

Since filter operates by subtracting some of the light passing through the lens, filter manufacturers
normally state the amount of light loss (as it affects the film exposure) , by a number known as “Filter Factor”.
This is used to properly determine the necessary increase in exposure time or lens opening to compensate
from the subtraction of light caused by the filter.

2.2. Types of Filter

a. Correction filter/ Light Balancing Filter – Is use to change the response of the film so that all colors
are recorded at approximately relative brightness value as seen by the eyes. Correction filter allows the user to
use indoor film in daylight, and daylight films in indoor photography. (Indoor film is often known as Tungsten
Film).

b. Contrast Filter – This filter is used to change the relative brightness values in the photograph, so the
two colors which would otherwise be recorded as nearly the same, might exhibit different brightness and great
tonal difference in the final print.

c. Haze Filter – This filter is used to reduced or eliminate the effect of serial haze, which makes distant
objects, appeared blurred and fuzzy in the photograph. A practically clear haze filter, for color film reduced
some of this atmospheric haze.

d. Neutral Density Filter – A grayish colored filter used for reducing the amount of light transmitted
without changing the color value.

e. Polarizing Filter – These are filter capable of reducing or eliminating reflections on highly reflective
surfaces, therefore allowing you to photograph objects enclosed in a transparent glass, or subjects with a highly
reflective background.
 3. Cable Release – These come in different length and allowed the operator to fire the camera from a
distance. This is attached to the shutter release of the camera and use in releasing the shutter to prevent
unnecessary movement caused by pressing the shutter release button to permit longer exposure.

4. Flash Units – This could either be a flash bulb or electronic flash, which is synchronized to the action
of the shutter. This is very effective especially when there’s no enough light for the object being photograph.
This accessory could enable the operator to stop or arrest the movement of the subject.

a. The flash Bulbs – A source of artificial light that occurs through the burning certain metals in an
atmosphere of oxygen. The burning takes place in a glass bulb that looks like a light bulb. The flash bulb is
ignited with the aid of a flash gun and can be used only once.

b. Electronic Flash – Involves the process of producing light by passing an electrical current through a
glass bulb containing a gas. Electronic flash guns produce a light of a much shorter duration than the flash
bulbs. The electricity can come either from the electric wiring or from a battery.

5. Light Meter – A device used in determining the intensity of light that strike the subject and affect the
film. It is used in order to determine the possible correct amount of exposure.

F. Major Types of Camera

1. View Finder Type

a. The smallest and simplest type of camera to operate.

b. Eye level camera equipped with a simple lens system
c. Inexpensive and allow the operator to focus even in low light level
d. Suffers from “Parallax error”

Note: Parallax is the change in appearance and orientation of objects when sees from two viewpoints. It also used to refer to the
distance between the viewpoints themselves. Human vision of depth depends on parallax. Each eye sees object from two viewpoints.
The left and right eye images on the retina have parallax – that is they are not identical. Parallax in viewfinder cameras shows
difference on what the viewfinder sees as compared as to what the capturing lens sees. The result, some parts of the subject were
missing in the final print.

2. Single Lens Reflex Type (SLR)

a. Allows the operator to view and focus through the same lens that captured image on the film.
b. This type of camera automatically eliminates “Parallax Error”
c. Heavier and more complex than the viewfinder type
d. Create a loud click during exposure that makes it ineffective for sefl conscious subject
e. not advisable to be used in poor lighting condition.

3. Twin Lens Reflex Type

a. A camera with two lenses

b. The upper lens is the focusing lens and the lower lens is the taking lens
c. Best used in ground subjects
d. Suffers from “Parallax Error”

4. View or Press Camera

a. Considered as the most sophisticated and biggest among the different types of camera.
b. Provides through the lens viewing and large photograph
c. Focusing is achieved by moving the lens forward or backward until a sharp image is seen in the
viewing screen
d. Parallax error is eliminated
e. Used in reproduction of documents and in Photomicrography
f. Due to its bulkiness, it requires tripod to operate smoothly
g. Useless for candid or action photography
 h. It creates discomfort for the operator for the image in the viewing screen appears inverted

Note: Photomicrography the science of obtaining photographic magnification of minute objects by using a camera attached to a
compound microscope. The camera lens is removed because the microscope lenses are use to form the final image.

III. The Light

A. Definition

Light is a radiant electromagnetic energy that can be seen by the naked eye. Scientifically, it can be
define as an aspect of radiant energy of which a human observer is aware through the visual sensations which
arise from the stimulation of the retina of the eye.

B. Light Classification

1. Visible – Those that can be detected by the retina of the eye

2. Invisible/Non – visible – These are the radiations which are either too short or too long on
wavelength to excite the retina of the eye.

C. Qualities of Light

As an electromagnetic energy, light travels in wave motion, which can be identified through three
qualities.

1. The Velocity It Travel – This refers to the speed of light as it travels. Light travels 186,000 miles per
second.

Note 1: Speed is the product of Wavelength and Frequency of light

Note2: The speed of various radiant energy is constant at a given medium, but varies with other media.

Ex. The speed of light in ordinary glasses is only about 2/3 of its speed in air.

2. The Wavelength – The distance between two successive crest, since light travels in wave motion.

Note 1: Since Velocity or speed of light is constant, and wavelength can be measured with accuracy than frequency, Wavelength is
used to identify a specific or particular radiation.

Note 2: Wavelength is expressed in milli – microns (English system of measure), which means 1 milli-micron is equal to 1000 000
parts of a millimeter. It can also be expressed in Nanometer, which means one billionth of a meter, or one millionth of a millimeter.

3. The Frequency – Refers to the number of waves passing in a given point in one second.
D. Different Photographic Rays

1. X – ray Radiation

a. Wavelength of 01 to 30 millimicrons
b. Hollow solid objects can be penetrated by this radiation
c. Use in producing shadow photographs of internal structures of solid object

2. Ultra Violet Rays

a. Wavelength of 30 to 400 millimicrons

b. This rays gives up energy in the form of visible light that gives “fluorescent effect” to the object.

Note: Fluorescence happens when the molecules of the fluorescent material absorb energy at one wavelength and radiate it at another
wavelength. It only happens as long as the active energy source is irradiating the object.

c. Use in photographing fingerprints in multi – colored background and documents that are altered
chemically as well as detection of secret writing.
d. Also known as “black light”
 3. Visible Light Rays

a. Wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons

b. Only within these wavelengths that the human eye is capable of perceiving. This produces white light.

Note: By definition, all lights are visible. With this the word “visible” is superfluous in that common expression “visible light”. What
the eye cannot see are referred to as radiations (those with shorter or longer wavelength rays).

c. White light is actually a mixture of seven colors, namely; Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo,
and Violet. These came from three Primary colors; the Blue, Green and Red.

d. 1. Blue – With 400 to 500 millimicron (shortest wavelength).

d. 2. Green – With 500 to 600 millimicron (medium wavelength)
d. 3. Red – With 600 to 700 millimicron (longest wavelength)

d. When all the wave lengths between 400 – 700 millimicrons are presented to the eye in nearly equal
quantity, the viewer got a perception of colorless or white light. This is called as additive color mixture

Note: White means presence of all colors, while black means absence of all colors of light. This was proven by Isaac Newton in
1666 when he discovered that when a beam of light pass through a glass prism this produces the rainbow array of hues of the visible
spectrum.

e. A mixture or combination of the primary colors of light produces its secondary colors.
e. 1. Cyan – Combination of blue and green color
e. 2. Yellow – Combination of red and green color
e. 3. Magenta – Combination of red and blue color

f. When all the secondary colors of light are presented to the eye in nearly equal quantity, the viewer got
a perception of black color. This is called as Subtractive Color Mixture.
Note: The primary colors of paints are blue, yellow and red

4. Infra – Red Rays

a. Wavelength of 700 to 1000 millimicrons

b. This means “beyond the red” (color)
c. These are heat waves and cause the sensation of warmth
d. Useful in taking photograph of obliterated writing, burnt, dirty documents or blackout photography.
e. It is otherwise known as heat light

E. Sources of Light

1. Natural Light – These are light produced without the intervention of man. With this, it is the usual
source of light for out door photography. Most common are those produced by sun (daylight), moon, star,
lightning, fire and other heavenly bodies.

The most common type of natural light is the daylight. Daylight can be classified based on their
intensity. Intensity simply means the amount or quantity of light that at present at the scene. Hence, to
determine the light’s intensity, the appearance of the shadow of an object under various daylight conditions shall
be considered.

The following are the classification of daylight according to their intensity:

a. Bright Sunlight – Object in an open space cast a deep, uniform and distinct shadow.

b. Hazy Sunlight – Object in an open space cast a transparent shadow. In hazy sunlight the sun partially
covers the sun.

c. Dull Sunlight – Object in an open space cast no shadow, at this time the sun is totally covered by the
clouds.
 c. 1. Cloudy Bright – Objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at far distance are
clearly visible.

c. 2. Cloudy Dull – Objects in open space cast no shadow and visibility of distant objects are
already limited.

2. Artificial Light – Light sources of this category are man made. Incandescent are the type of artificial
light that are mostly preferred for photography. These are light produce by means of heat. It is usually called as
tungsten light in photography.

The following are the common types of artificial light:

a. Photo flood Lamp – Also known as “reflectorized” light or spot light. For the reason that it uses
reflector to focus the light to the object being photograph.

b. Flash Bulbs

c. Fluorescent light – These are tube lamps wherein the walls are coated with materials that are capable
of fluorescence. These are commonly used by everybody but not merely in photography, for the light it
produces is not incandescent.

d. Infra – Red Lamp – A special type of lamp capable of producing infra – red radiation. Useful in
photographing objects at dark places.

e. Electronic Flash – Produces light by instantaneous electrical discharge between two electrodes in a
glass filled glass bulb. This can be fired by attaching it to the camera by means of camera “hot shoe contact” or
“sync cord”.

Note: When using a flash unit, “Guide Numbers” helps the operator to determine the right exposure for a certain film.
Guide Number is the product when the distance from the source of light to the subject is multiplied to the suitable aperture for a
certain film speed.

f. Ultra Violet Lamp – Its bulb is made up of a glass transparent to ultraviolet light, and such bulb is
common to all people as “black light”

F. When Light Falls to an Object

1. Reflected – Reflected light rays are the one that affects the eyes. The object is seen as white when all
the various wavelength of the visible light are reflected.

2. Absorbed – When there is no reflection from the subject and all of the various wavelengths of the
visible rays are absorbed, this will produce black color.

3. Transmitted – When the rays of light pass trough a transparent material, such ray will be transmitted
to the other side.

G. Kind of Object as to How They Behave to Light

1. Transparent Objects – Allow sufficiently visible light to pass thorough them that the object on the
other side can be clearly seen.

2. Translucent Objects – Allows light to pass, however diffused it sufficiently that objects on the other
side may not be clearly distinguished. In some cases the object on the other side maybe recognizable but sharp
detail and outline are obscured.

3. Opaque Objects – so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is very
difficult if not impossible.
H. Bending of Light

Light travels in straight line in an open space. However when lights come in contact with an object it
may be bended in the following manner:

a. Reflection – It is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.

a. 1. Regular Reflection – Happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface.

a. 2. Irregular or Diffused Reflection – Happens when light hits a rough or uneven but glossy
object.

b. Refraction – Refers to the bending of light when passing form one medium to another.

c. Diffraction – The bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object.

IV. The Sensitized material

A. Definition

Refers to a material that is sensitive to light and can easily be affected once exposed to it at a given time.
There are two kinds of sensitized material; a) The FILM that produces the negative after chemical
development and the b) PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER that produces the photograph or positive print after
printing and chemical development. Both were coated by a thin layer of “Emulsion”.

Note: Emulsion is a part of the sensitized material that is actually sensitive to light

B. The Film

a. Basic Parts of the Film

a. 1. Consists of flexible transparent base with a thin layer of light sensitive emulsion
a. 2. Emulsion is consists of silver halide particles suspended in an animal gelatin and coated
by a celluloid material to prevent abrasion
a. 3. Gray or Anti Halation Backing is the layer placed between the emulsion and the plastic
base of the film to prevent whatever light that passes through the emulsion and reflected by the base back to the
emulsion which forms a “halo”.

Note: Silver halides, being a light sensitive compound darken when exposed to light

b. The Black and White Film

b. 1. Consists of one sensitive layer of emulsion

b. 2. Results of the negative is in black and white (light parts of the original scene appears dark
and vice versa)
b. 3. The Spectral Sensitivity – This refers to the characteristic of the film to response into the
different wavelength of light source.

1. Blue Sensitive film (Orthonon) – Sensitive to UV rays and blue color

2. Orthochromatic – Sensitive to UV rays, blue and green except in red
3. Panchromatic – Sensitive to UV rays, blue, green and red and to all colors except in infra – red

Fine Grain – Permits short exposure under average lighting condition and has the advantage of fine grain
structure
Process – Low in speed and high in contrast
High Speed – Use under adverse lighting condition

4. Infra – red – Sensitive to UV rays and Infra Red rays

 c. Color Film

c. 1. Consists of similar layers with the black and white film except that color film are consists of
three layers of light sensitive emulsion. One for each primary color of light (blue, green and red).

c. 2. The result after processing is a colored negative image, and the colors are reversed to their
compliments. Meaning blue color of the object in the original scene will appear yellow, red becomes cyan and
green to magenta.

d. The Film Speed

d. 1. The film speed is the measure of the film sensitivity to light. The higher the sensitivity of the film,
the higher the film speed rating number.

d. 2. Fast speed film contains numerous numbers of large grains of silver halides that usually develop
into groups. It is advisable in photographing places with poor lighting condition

d. 3. Types of Speed Rating

1. ASA Rating – Stands for “American Standard Association”. Their seed rating is expressed
in Arithmetical Value like; ASA 12, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600. Each speed rating doubles the sensitivity
of the next preceding number.
2. DIN Rating – “Stands for Deutche Industri Normen”, this is expressed in Logarithmic
Value. In DIN each increase of three times towards the higher speed rating, doubles the sensitivity of the film.
Common DIN ratings are 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 degrees. It is the European member of ISO.
3. ISO Rating – Short for “International Standard Organization”. This is a group of standard
- setting bodies from many countries. Both ASA and DIN are members of the ISO. Thus, ISO are expressed in
combination of Arithmetical and Logarithmic value. Among the ISO ratings are ISO 100/21 degree or 400/27
degree.

C. The Photographic Paper

a. Sensitized paper serves as the permanent place of the photographic image after chemical
development.

b. It has the same layers (one emulsion for black and white photographic paper and three for color) with
the film except that its (photographic paper) base is an opaque material such as paper.

c. Characteristics of Photographic Paper

c. 1. According to Types of Emulsion or Chemical Contents

1. Silver Bromide Emulsion – Has a fast speed and is recommended for projection
printing or enlarging (commonly used in forensic photography)
2. Silver Chloride Emulsion – Its sensitivity to light is low and commonly used in
contact printing.

Note: Contact Printing is a process wherein the photographic image from the negative is transferred to the photographic paper
through a direct contact with each other under a certain amount of light.

3. Silver Chloro - Bromide – Sensitivity to light could either be slow or fast. Therefore
could be used both for contact printing and projection process.

c. 2. According To Contrast
Note: Contrast of the photographic paper depend upon its “grade”

1) 0 or Very Soft – Very Low contrast, No pure black and white to create impact so the
print looks flat and dull
2) 1 or Soft – Low Contrast with little separation between highlights and shadows area.
Contain detail in mid tone areas but not much impact
 3) 2 or Medium – Tones begin to separate, more differences between shadow and
highlight, with some pure black and with some pure white
4) 3 or Medium/Hard – Crisp clean appearance with good tonal separation. Highlight
and shadows clearly differentiated
5) 4 or Hard – More contrast and differentiation between highlight and shadow. Gives
print impact but details in mid tones areas can be lost
6) 5 or Very Hard – High contrast, maybe no mid tone grays at all, the content of print is
either black or white
Note: Grade 0 to 1 are use on over exposed or low contrast negative, while 2 are used on normal exposed or normal contrast negative
and 3 to 5 are used in under exposed or high contrast negatives. This is only available for black and white printing process.

c. 3. According to Physical Characteristics

a. Weight

 Single Weight – Thin and flimsy suitable for making paper negatives
 Medium Weight – Used for most general purposes
 Double Weight – Used for large size high quality fiber based papers

b. Surface/Degrees Gloss and Sheen

 Glossy – Have a smooth surface (widely used in law enforcement

photography)
 Semi Matte/ silk
 Matte - Characterized by rough surface

c. Tone

 Cold – Gives a blue black tone

 Warm/Cream – Gives a brown black tone
 Neutral – Gives Neutral black and grays on a pure white base paper

Note: The Tone of the paper refers to the color or tint of the emulsion and the base paper

V. Exposure

A. Definition

It is defined as the product of illumination and time. “Illumination”, refers to the intensity of light that
falls on the film, while “Time” is the length of the period that the shutter remains open for exposure. Therefore
exposure is quantitative.

B. Calculating Film Exposure

There is no such thing as correct exposure, but only ideal or proper exposure. Exposure is therefore
subjective and errors in calculation could result in either “over exposure” or “under exposure”. Error in
exposure might affect the details, tone reproduction and contrast of the photograph.

A universal exposure guide for color and black and white films are based on the following factors:

a. Film Speed
b. Lighting Condition
c. Type of Subject

A general formula used in exposure setting of an average or normal subject in the sun or open sky.
FILM SPEED LIGHTING CONDITION

BRIGHT SUNLIGHT HAZY DULL

ISO 100/21 Deg. 1/25 f11 f8 f5.6

ISO 200/24 Deg. 1/250 f11 f8 f5.6
Or 1/125 f16 f11 f8
ISO 400/27 Deg. 1/500 f11 f8 f5.6
Or 1/250 f16 f11 f8
Or 1/125 f22 f16 f11

C. Bracketing

This technique is used when exposure calculation that will give a desired result is uncertain. This is done
by increasing or decreasing exposure than the calculated exposure by two or four f- stops each.

Ex. An exposure setting of 125 at f8 produced an ideal exposure, so will setting of 250 at f 5.6

D. The Exposure Meter

A device capable of measuring light intensities and equip with calculators to find camera settings that
will produce an ideal exposure for a given lighting condition. These are operated by a light sensitive cells
mostly selenium or cadmium sulfide cells.

d. 1. Kinds of Light Meter

a. Reflected Light Type

1. Most hand held meters and built in ones is reflected type

2. This measures the light being reflected by the subject

b. Incident Light Meter

1. This light meter measures the light incident on, or falling from the subject from one side

VI. Chemical Processing

A. Definition

Chemical Processing refers to the process of making latent photographic image visible and
permanent. This involves the production of negatives from an exposed film and positive prints from the
negative.

B. Stages Involves in Processing

There are three stages in processing, namely;

a. Development – It is the process of reduction. Exposed silver halides are reduced into metallic silver.
There is a separate developer for Film which uses D – 76, and another for Photographic Paper that uses Dektol.
The normal developing time is 6 -7 minutes.

The factors that affect developing time are;

1. Exposure/Characteristic of Negative Material

2. Strength, Composition and Concentration of chemicals
> Less use of the chemical, the less developing time while the more number of used the more
developing time.
The chemical compositions of the developer are the following:

a. Reducer or Developing Agent – Elon or Hydroquinone reduced the exposed silver halide to
metallic silver.
b. Preservative – Sodium Sulfite prevents the formation of stains to the developer product
c. Accelerator – Sodium Carbonate accelerates the process of reduction
d. Restrainer or Fog Preventer – Potassium Bromide reduce fog on the latent image

3. Temperature of the Developing Solution

> The higher the temperature the less developing time, the lower the temperature the lower the
developing time.
4. Agitation or Stirring During Development
> The more the agitation the less developing time, the less the agitation the more developing
time.
b. Stop – Bath – An intermediate bath between the developer and fixer, it is usually a combination of
water plus acetic acid or just plain water. Primarily its function is to prevent the contamination of the two
chemical solutions. This is done up to 30 seconds.

c. Fixation – The process of removing unexposed silver halides remaining in the emulsion after the first
stage of development of the latent image. This is done from 20 to 30 minutes.

The chemical compositions of the Fixer are the following:

a. Dissolving Agent – Hypo or Sodium Thiosulfate, responsible for dissolving the unexposed
silver halide. This is done to eliminate the light sensitive characteristics of the sensitized material.
b. Preservative – Sodium Sulfite prevents the precipitation of sulfur. It also prevents the
oxidation of the developing solution carried over in the fixing bath.
c. Neutralizer – Boric and Acetic acid is the anti – staining agent of the fixing solution. They
neutralize carried over chemicals from the developer. This will prevent the weakening of the fixing solution and
staining of the image produced on the surface of the sensitized material.
d. Hardening Agent – Potassium Alum hardens the gelatin of the sensitized material, which
was softened in the developing solution.This makes the metallic silver permanent.

C. Development of Photographic Paper

The laboratory for developing photographic paper is divided into dry and wet area. Development
process involves enlarging process. This involves the use of projection or Enlarger.

c. 1. Four Essential Parts of an Enlarger

1. Base stand
2. Lamp House
3. Condenser or Diffuser
4. Lens

c. 2. Accessories of the Enlarger

1. Negative Holder
2. Easel – for photographic paper

c. 3. Steps in Enlarging

Dry Area:

1. Preparation of the dark room, chemical and enlarger

2. Put off white light, switch on red light
3. Place the negative in the negative holder with the dull side of the negative facing down
4. Insert the negative holder to enlarger
5. Switch on the enlargers light
 6. Adjust the easel to the desired size of the photograph
7. Focus the lens of the enlarger
8. Switch off the light of the enlarger
9. Insert the photographic paper in the easel with the shinny side
10. Make the exposure

Wet Area:

1. Immerse the exposed photographic paper in the developer. The usual developing time for normally
exposed paper is about 60 to 90 seconds ( 1 to ½ minutes). Dektol is used as the developer
2. Transfer the develop print in the stop bath for 30 seconds
3. Place the prints in the acid fixer. The fixing time is about 20 to 30 minutes
4. Drying
5. Mounting

D. Remedying Chemical Defects in Negatives

1. Underdevelopment – intensifier
2. Overdevelopment – reducer
3. Stains – Stain remover

Note: Cropping is the excluding or omitting some images on the negative from the final print, Burning – in is the adding of exposure
time on a specific area to bring out details, while Dodging is the holding back of some lights to a specific area to make it lighter in
density.

Note: Density is the degree of darkness of the image developed, while Contrast is the difference between one tones to another which
is apparent when density is viewed.

VII. Photography in Criminal Investigation

A. Police Photography
Is an art or science which deals with the study of the principles of photography, the preparation of
photographic evidence and its application to police work.

B. Forensic Photography
Is the art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene and evidence for laboratory
examination and analysis for purposes of court trials.

C. Function of Photography in Police Investigative Work

c. 1. Application to Investigative Work

a. Identification

 Person subject of investigation

 Missing person
 Lost or stolen properties
 Civilian

Note: The first use of photography in police work was intended for identification

b. Recording and Preserving

 Crime scenes
 Vehicular Accidents
 Homicide or Murder
 Robbery Cases
 Fires or Arson
 Object of evidence
 Evidential trace
 c. Discovering and Proving

>Contrast control by lighting, use of filters, use of different films and papers
> Magnification of minute objects through Photomicrography and
Photomacrography.

Note: Photomacrography or Macrophotography and Photomicrography both involve the process of providing an enlarged
photographic image of minute objects. The only difference is that Photomicrography utilizes microscope to perform its function while
Macro or Photomacrography utilizes short focus lens or Macro lens.

Note: Microphotography is the taking of a photograph of an object in a very reduced sized, or providing tiny images of large
objects.

> Use of invisible radiations such as X – rays, ultra violet rays and infra red rays

d. Recording Action of Offenders

 Surveillance
 Entrapment
 Extra Judicial Confession
 Re Enactment of a crime

e. Court Exhibits

 Individual Photographs
 Slide Projections
 Comparison charts
 Motion picture presentation

f. Crime Prevention

 Visual presentation for lectures on traffic education and MO’s

g. Public Information and Relation

 Posters of wanted criminals

 Crime Alerts
 Photographs of humanitarian services

h. Police Training

 Prepared training films (investigation techniques)

 Traffic studies
 Documentaries

D. Crime Scene Photography

d. 1. General Considerations
 Provides Photographic image that will give information to assist the investigation and
subsequent prosecution of criminal cases
 Serves as visual permanent record of location and condition of different aspects of the scene
and the vital evidences of proof
 It must be done completely and accurately before touching anything from the crime scene

d. 2. Function of Crime Scene Photography

 To provide the investigator and prosecutor with an accurate pictorial presentation of the crime
scene
 To aid in questioning the suspect and witnesses when their sworn statement are being taken
 To present to the court the accurate picture of the scene

 d. 3. Crime Scene Photographs

 The photographs must shows WHERE and HOW the crime was committed
 Photographs should not be only limited to the immediate vicinity where the crime took place
(Crime Scene), but as well as to those adjacent areas where important acts took place before
or after the commission of the crime
 Photographs taken must establish the elements of the offense. (This can be done by consulting
the investigator on case)
 It is wise to take more pictures that few
 The photographic process must be from General to Specific ( which consists of a.
LONGRANGE or GENERAL VIEW, b. MEDIUM RANGE or VIEW, c. CLOSE UP
and d. EXTREME CLOSE UP)
 The photographic range or views includes the:

1. Location – photographs should includes various places which are part of the
crime scene.

2. Nature – photographs must clearly shows the type of crime committed.

3. Result – it must be taken in sequential fashion to establish relevance of

evidence to the other to establish their connection to the accused.

4. Follow up – photographs represents the outgrowth of the investigation.

(Autopsy, Bruises and Wounds on live victims or suspects)

d. 4. Perspective/Camera Position

> Crime scene Photographs must meet the eye of an average observer. In order to do this,
photographs should be taken in Straight Forward.

 The size and distance of objects in the photographs must convey a

normal impression to the average viewer.
 Photographs should be taken at an “Eye Level Position”

d. 5. Lenses
 Wide angle lens and Normal lens are best suited for crime scene
photography
 Wide angle lens are used to photograph the location of the crime scene
especially its narrow areas. While normal lens are used for taking medium
shots.
d. 6. Lighting
 Illumination form slave or flash units are often utilized

d. 7. Markers in the Field of View

 Ruler or measuring device

 Identification data
 Location Markers

d. 8. Photographs Log

 It is a record of data regarding the circumstances surrounding or related to the

picture taking of the crime scene must be noted for instant recollection.

E. The Photographic Evidence

e. 1. Basic Rules on Admissibility

  The photograph should be the True and Faithful representation of the scene
or subject matter as seen by the naked eye. (does not mislead in any aspect)
 The court have taken judicial notice that “the process to which the lens of a
camera forms an image are dependent upon or governed by the same natural
law as an image is formed by the human eye”. (Justice Sison of the Supreme
Court)
 It must undergo verification as to its exactness and accuracy either by the
photographer himself, or any other person who has personal knowledge
and have seen the subject.
 “Accuracy” is not mathematical but substantive

e. 2. Techniques for Demonstrating Evidence Prints

 Composite Exhibit – Two photographs shows side by side to show points of

similarities or differences
 Matching Photographs – This is done by placing a part of one photograph
over and in careful alignment with the other
 Matching transparencies – A positive transparency of one is placed over the
other until the outline coincide

e. 3. Degree of Enlargement or Size of Photographic Exhibits

 A large display print should have a print size of 11” x 14” or even 16” x 24”.
 A hand held print must have a size of 4” x 5” or 5” x 7”

e. 4. Gruesome Pictures

 These are admitted provided that the intent must be to simply illustrate
relevant facts and not to prejudice the judge against the defendant
Photographs beyond this, will be considered as “inflammatory” photographs
which are not admitted

e. 5. Qualification

 In testifying, his purpose should be to explain not to defend his photographs.

 He should be presented as an experienced photographer proficient in the
technique that was used in producing the evidence photograph.
 To be considered as an “expert”, must be leave to the discretion of the
honorable court
 Before his pictures are admitted in evidence, the photographer maybe asked
certain questions to establish his competence on the basis of his experience
and training. He must be prepared to prove the satisfaction of the court that
training and experience have qualified him for the work related to physical
evidence.