CHAPTER 4

PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS
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4.1 Introduction
When structural materials are subjected to compression, tension, shear or bending etc,
they offer a degree of resistance in terms of their shape, size or the strength of particular
material they are made of.
Structural sections are usually manufactured to some standard shapes, and possess the
following properties by virtue of their shape alone:

(i) Cross-sectional area.

(ii) Centre of area (or centre of gravity or centroid).
(iii) Moment of inertia (or second moment of area).
(iv) Radius of gyration.
(v) Modulus of section.

Since it is relatively easy to calculate the cross-sectional area of standard shapes for
structural members, this will not need further description.

4.2 Centre of gravity

The centre of gravity of a body is defined as that point in space through which the
resultant pull of the earth , i.e. weight of the body acts, for all possible positions of the body.
In the case of plane figures, the term ‘centroid’ is often used instead of ‘centre of
gravity’ since strictly speaking a figure having no mass will not be affected by gravitational
force. The centre of gravity of area is often required in structural calculations and may be
determined graphically or normally by calculation.

4.2.1 Centre of gravity of plane figures

The centre of gravity of solid figures is not generally required in structural calculations,
but the centres of areas of such plane figures are required. Fig 4.1 shows the positions of
centre of gravity for some common shapes, as obtained by inspection.
In some cases, the centre of gravity of a body may not necessarily be in the material of
the body itself (Fig 4.2), and in other cases it may be difficult to balance a shape to lie in the
horizontal plane.
 CG CG b
d
d/2 b/3 CG

b/2 a/3
b a

(a) Rectangle (b) Parallelogram (c) Triangle

R R
CG CG R
CG 4R
D
3π
4R
3π

(d) Semi-circle (e) Circle (f) Quadrant of circle

CG h
3h
8

(g) Hemisphere

Fig 4.1: Centre of gravity of common plane figures

Y
x1
a1

x3
a3
y1 A

CG
x a2
y y3
x2 y2

O X

Fig 4.2 Fig 4.3

2
 In the case of laminar shapes (i.e. plane sheet metal of regular or irregular shape) the
centre of gravity can be obtained using a method as shown in Fig 4.4.

A Resultant B
weight of
sheet

D B A CG C

C D

Pendant weight with

string tied at A

(a) Sheet metal suspended at A (b) Sheet metal suspended at B

Fig 4.4: Centre of gravity of laminar shape

4.2.2 Centre of gravity by calculation

The general method used for the determination of the centre of gravity of a compound
structural section is an analytical method. The compound shape is first divided into common
geometrical figures i.e. square, circle etc with known centres of areas as shown in Fig 4.3.
Assuming a compound shape with three parts, the procedure would be as follows:
• Consider the areas as a1, a2 and a3 for the compound structural section.
• Total area, A=a1+a2+a3.
• Assume the areas and their respective centres of areas positioned as shown in
Fig 4.3 with reference to Y-Y and X-X axes.
Note: The same result would be obtained if volumes or weights of individual parts
were considered instead of areas. By considering areas only, a simplified
analysis is obtained.
• Taking moments of areas:
(i) Moments about Y- axis (O -Y),
Ax = a 1x1 + a 2 x 2 + a 3 x 3
= ∑ ax (i.e. sum of all the quantities ‘a × x’).
∑ ax
∴x = …(4.1)
A
(ii) Moments about X- axis (O -X),
Ay = a 1 y1 + a 2 y 2 + a 3 y 3
= ∑ ay (i.e. sum of all the quantities ‘a × y’).
∑ ay
∴y = …(4.2)
A
When the above procedure is applied to compound shapes, the steps may be
summarized thus:
(i) The body is divided into several parts such that the centre of gravity of each part
is known.

3
 (ii) Determine the area of each part. This acts at its centre of area.
(iii) Take moments of areas about each of the axes (X- axis and Y- axis) to determine
the centre of gravity of the whole compound shape.
The above procedure is illustrated in Example 4.1.

Example 4.1: Determine the position of the centre of gravity in the case of the angle section
shown in Fig 4.5 (a).
20
Y
a1
40

x
CG

y2
20

y a2

y1
X
120 O x1
x2

(a) (b)

Fig 4.5 Note: All dimensions in mm

Solution:
The angle section in Fig 4.5 (a) is divided into two geometrical shapes, each of area a1,
and a2, as shown in Fig 4.5(b).

Components of areas Centre of gravity from

(mm2) X-axis (mm) Y –axis (mm)
a1 = 40 × 20 = 800 40
20 + = 40 100 + 20 = 110
2 2
a 2 = 120 × 20 = 2400 20 = 10 120 = 60
2 2

Total area, A = a 1 + a 2 = 800 + 2400 = 3200mm 2

Taking moments of areas about X- axis:
3200y = 800 × 40 + 2400 ×10
y = 56000 = 17.5mm
3200
Taking moments of areas about Y- axis:
3200x = 800 ×110 + 2400 × 60
x = 232000 = 172.5mm
3200
∴ Centre of gravity is at x = 172.5mm and y = 17.5mm .

4
4.2.3 Centre of gravity of sections with holes
In these sections, the holes are treated as negative superimposed areas, and the
procedure is as illustrated in Example 4.2.

Example 4.2: Determine the position of the centre of gravity for the section shown in Fig
4.6.

φ 75
CG
300

y
125

X
O 250 450
x

Fig 4.6 Note: All dimensions in mm

Solution:

Components of areas (mm2) Centre of gravity from

X-axis (mm) Y–axis (mm)
Rectangle (with hole): 150 300
600 × 300 = 180 000
Hole:
π 125 250
× 75 2 = 4418
4

Actual area, A = 180000 − 4418 = 175582mm 2

Taking moments of areas bout X- axis:
175582y = 180000 ×150 + 4418×125
26.45 × 106
y= = 150.63mm
175582
Taking moments of areas about Y- axis:
175582x = 180000 × 300 + 4418 × 250
52.90 × 106
x= = 301.26mm
175582
∴ Centre of gravity is at x = 301.26mm and y = 150.63mm .

5
4.2.4 Graphical method for centre of gravity
The link polygon method may be used to give a graphical solution when a body is
composed of several component parts. The component parts are then treated as ‘forces’
acting in any desired direction. The procedure to be followed is as follows:
(i) Draw the compound shape (section) to a convenient scale.
(ii) Divide the compound shape into several parts such that the centre of gravity of each
component part is known.
(iii) Calculate the area of each component part.
(iv) Draw parallel lines passing through the centres of gravity of each component part.
(v) Number the spaces between the parallel lines using Bows’ notation.
(vi) Set off lines to represent the areas taken in order according to Bows’ notation, the
areas being drawn to scale.
(vii) Choose any pole ‘O’ and construct the polar and link polygons.

The centre of gravity of the compound shape lies on the line of symmetry of the section.

The above procedure is illustrated in Example 4.3 and 4.4..

Example 4.3: Determine graphically by the link polygon method the position of the centre of
gravity for the section shown in Fig 4.7. Check your results by calculation.
130
20

20 180
Note: dimensions in mm
Fig 4.7

Solution:
Procedure for graphical solution (Fig 4.8):
(1) Divide the compound shape into common geometrical shapes.
(2) Calculate the areas of geometrical shape.
a1 = 150 × 20 = 3000
a 2 = 180 × 20 = 3600
(4) Mark off spaces using Bows’ notation.
(5) Draw polar polygon to an appropriate scale:
- Set off ‘ab’ to represent ‘AB’ (3000mm2), and ‘bc’ to represent ‘BC’(3600mm2)
to an appropriate scale.
- Choose any pole ‘O’ on the right or left of ‘ac’, and construct the polar polygon.

6
 (6) Draw link polygon:
- Starting from the left side, draw lines parallel to ‘oa’, ‘ob’ and ‘oc’ in succession
so as to obtain the required link polygon. By extending lines ‘oa’ and ‘oc’ on the
link polygon, the position of the line of centre of gravity about Y- axis is obtained.
(7) Repeat steps 1-6 with reference to X- axis so as to obtain the line of centre of
gravity about X- axis.

Y Areas: a1=3000mm2 o'

a2=3600mm2
a1 Polar polygon
130

A' a' b' c'

3000mm2
CG
y B' Link polygon
20

39.5 a2 3600mm2
X

O 20 180 C'
a
A x = 64.5mm
B 3600mm2 C
2
3000mm
Line of CG
b
o (any point)

Note: Dimensions in mm
Areas plotted to scale
c
Link polygon Polar polygon

Fig 4.8: Graphical solution for centre of gravity

By calculation (as check):

Components of Centre of gravity from

areas (mm2) X-axis (mm) Y –axis (mm)
10 10
a1 =150 × 20 = 3000
20 + 180 = 110 20 + 130 = 85
a 2 = 180 × 20 = 3600 2 2

Total area A = 3000 + 3600 = 6600mm 2

Taking moments of areas about X-X axis:
6600x = 3000 ×10 + 3600 ×110
x = 64.5mm

7
 Taking moments of areas about Y-Y axis:
6600y = 3000 × 75 + 3600 ×10
y = 39.5mm
∴ Centre of gravity is at x = 64.5mm and y = 39.5mm .

Example 4.4: Determine graphically by the link polygon method the position of the centre of
gravity for the T- section shown in Fig 4.9. Check your results by calculation.

200
25

25
150

Note: Dimensions in mm

Fig 4.9

Solution:
200
A
a1 5000mm2
25

y
B

x = 100
150

3750mm2
Link polygon
C

a2
o
25

Polar polygon

a b c

Fig 4.10: Graphical solution for centre of gravity

8
 Procedure for the graphical solution (Fig 4.10):
(1) Divide the compound shape into common geometrical shapes.
(2) Calculate the areas of geometrical shape.
a1 = 200 × 25 = 5000mm 2
a 2 = 150 × 25 = 3750mm 2
(4) Mark off spaces using Bows’ notation.
(5) Draw polar polygon to an appropriate scale:
- Set off ‘ab’ to represent ‘AB’ (5000mm2), and ‘bc’ to represent ‘BC’(3750mm2)
to an appropriate scale.
- Choose any pole ‘O’ on the right or left of ‘ac’, and construct the polar polygon.
(6) Draw link polygon:
- Starting from the right side, draw lines parallel to ‘oa’, ‘ob’ and ‘oc’ in
succession so as to obtain the required link polygon. By extending lines ‘oa’ and
‘oc’ on the link polygon, the position of the line of centre of gravity about X- axis
is obtained.
Note: In this example, y =50mm due to symmetry of figure about Y- axis.

By calculation (as check):

Components of Centre of gravity from

areas (mm2) Top (mm) Extreme left (mm)
a1 = 200 × 25 = 5000 12.5 100
a 2 = 25 × 150 = 3750 150 100
25 + = 100
2

Total area, A = 5000 + 3750 = 8750mm 2

Taking moments of areas about X-X axis:
8750y = 5000 × 12.5 + 3750 × 100
y = 50mm
x = 100mm about Y-axis due to symmetry of figure.
∴ Centre of gravity is at x = 100mm and y = 50mm .

4.3 Second moment of area

If δA be an element of an area distant x from a given axis, ∑ xδA , where the sum is
taken over the area, is called the first moment of area about the axis. The first moment of
area about an axis in the plane of the area, ∑ xδA = Ax , where A is the total area and x the
distance of its centroid from the given axis.
The sum ∑ x 2δA in which each element of area is multiplied by the square of its
distance from the axis, is called the second moment of area about the given axis. If the
surface density of the area be σ, so that the mass of an element δA is σδA, then ∑ σx 2δA is
called the moment of inertia of the area about the given axis.
The units of moment of inertia are mass × (dis tan ce )2 , and hence writing,
Mk 2 = ∑ σx 2 δA ,

9
where M is the total mass, k is a length which is called the radius of gyration of the area
about the axis. If the surface density is constant, so that M = Aσ , where A is the total area,
then the second moment of area is
∑ x 2 δA = Ak 2
It is more usual to calculate second moment of area of plane areas, and this concept is
to be considered in this chapter.
The second moment of area as applied to a plane figure such as a beam (without
weight) is a property which measures the efficiency of that shape in its resistance to
bending.

Derivation of general expressions:

Consider the plane figure shown in Fig 4.11:
Y δA Total area, A

y
x

O X

Fig 4.11
The first moment of area about a given axis is the product of the area and the distance
from its centroid to the axis. For the Fig 4.11, the first moment of area about the X- axis,
A
= ∫ yδA
0
The second moment of area about a given axis is the product of the area and the square
of the distance from its centroid to the axis. For Fig 4.11, and assuming that it consists of
infinite number of small elements of area δA, the second moment of area about the X- axis,
= δA× y 2
Total second moment of area about X- axis,
A
I XX = ∑(δAy 2 ) = ∫ y 2δA … [4.3(a)
0
About the Y- axis,
A
I YY = ∫ x 2 δA … [4.3(b)
O

Parallel axes theorem:

It is often necessary to obtain the second moment of area of a standard shape section
about an axis parallel to one of the centroidal axis. In that case, the second moment of area
with respect to any axis parallel to the centroidal axis is equal to the moment of inertia with
respect to the central axis plus the product of area of the figure and the square of the distance
between the axes.
Considering Fig 4.12:

10
 Total area, A
Area, δA
δy
CG y
X X

A B

Fig 4.12

For an elementary area δA at a distance y from the neutral axis,

I XX = ∑ y 2 δA
Also I AB = ∑(h ± y )2 ⋅ δA, in which the minus sign stands for the area
δA below the neutral axis (X- axis).
∴ I AB = ∑(h 2 + y 2 ± 2hy )⋅ δA
= ∑ h 2δA + ∑ y 2 δA ± 2h ∑ yδA
in which, ∑ h 2δA = Ah 2 , where A is the area of section. The quantity ± 2h ∑ yδA = 0 and
∑ y 2δA = I XX .
Hence, I AB = I XX + Ah 2 …(4.4)
which proves the theorem and the expression is known as the parallel axes theorem or
principle.

Moment of area about Z- axis:

The Moment of area about an axis (Z-axis) perpendicular to the plane and passing
through the intersection of the other two axes, X and Y contained by the plane is equal to
the sum of moments of inertia about X and Y axes.
Considering Fig 4.13:
Let X and Y axes contained in the plane figure of the section intersect at O, through
which axis Z-axis perpendicular to the section passes. The co-ordinates of the elementary
area δA with respect to X, Y and Z axes are x, y and r respectively.
I XX = ∑ y 2 δA , I YY = ∑ x 2 δA and I ZZ = ∑ r 2 δA
But r 2 = x 2 + y 2
Hence, I ZZ = ∑(x 2 + y 2 )δA
Or I ZZ = I XX + I YY …(4.5)

Y δA Total area, A

r y
x

O X

Fig 4.13

11
Second moment of area (or inertia) of simple sections:

(a) Rectangular section

Consider an elementary strip of thickness δy at distance y from the X-axis as shown in
Fig 4.14.

b
Y
d/2 δy

y
d

X G X
d/2

Y
Fig 4.14

Second moment of area of strip is,

Ay 2 = bdy × y 2 = by 2 ⋅ dy
Second moment of area of rectangle is the sum of all such quantities
(by 2 ⋅ dy )between the limits, y = − d and y = + d .
2 2
+ d/2
∴ I XX = ∫ by 2 ⋅ dy
− d/2
+ d/2
 y3 
= b 
 3  −d/2
b  d   d  
3 3
=   −  −  
3  2   2  
b  d3 d3  b d3
=  + = ×
3  8 8  3 4
bd 3
∴ I XX = …[4.6(a)]
12
db 3
Similarly, I YY = …[4.6(b)]
12

(b) Triangular section

Consider a triangle with base b, and height d as shown in Fig 4.15.
From symmetry of triangles;
by d − y d−y
= , or by = b 
b d  d 

12
 by C

δy

d
X X
y
d/3
A B
b

Fig 4.15
For an elementary strip of thickness δy at distance y from the X-axis,
Area of elementary strip,
b
δA = by ⋅ δy = (d − y)δy
d
d
b
∴ I AB = ∑ y 2 δA = ∫ y 2  (d - y )dy
0 d
d
b
( )
= ∫ y 2 d − y 3 dy
d0
d
b  y3d y 4 
=  − 
d  3 4  0
b  d4 d4  b  1 4 
=  − =  d 
d  3 4  d 12 
bd 3
Or I AB =
12
The moment of inertia I XX about the axis passing through the centre of gravity of the
section can be obtained by the parallel axes theorem;
I AB = I XX + Ah 2
Or I XX = I AB − Ah 2 (where h=distance of axis from AB = d/3 ).
2
bd 3  1  d 
= −  bd  
12  2  3 
bd 3 bd 3
= −
12 18
bd 3
∴ I XX = …(4.7)
36

(c) Circular section

(i) Method 1: Consider circular section shown in Fig 4.16 (a):
The second moment of area about X-axis can easily be found by first determining
the moment of area about Z-axis, and then applying the equation for the second moment of
area about Z-axis.

13
 Y Y b
δx
δy

x y r
X O X X O X

Y Y

(a) (b)

Fig 4.16

For the concentric elementary ring of thickness δx and at distance x from the centre,
area of the ring,
δA = 2πxδx
r
∴ I ZZ = ∑ x 2δA = ∫ x 2 ⋅ 2πxdx
0
r
 x4  2πr 4 πd 4
= 2π   = =
 4  0 4 32
But I ZZ = I XX + I YY = 2 × I XX (due to symmetry).
I ZZ πd 4
∴ I XX = = , (where d is the diameter of the circle)
2 64
πd 4
Hence I XX = I YY = …(4.8)
64

(ii) Method 2 (alternative method): Consider Circular section shown in Fig 4.16 (b):
For an elementary strip of thickness δy parallel to the axis, and at distance y from
the X-axis,
y = r sinθ , where r=radius of circular section.
∴ δy = r cosθ dθ
Width of strip, b = 2r cosθ
∴ δA = b ⋅ δy = 2r cosθ ⋅ rcos θ δθ = 2r 2 cos 2θ δθ
+ π/2
∴ I XX = ∑ y 2 δA = ∫ r 2 sin 2θ ⋅ 2r 2 cos 2θ δθ
− π/2
π/2
= 4r 4 ∫ sin 2θ 1 - sin 2θ dθ ( )
0

 π/2 π/2

= 4r 4  ∫ sin 2θdθ - ∫ sin 4θdθ 
0 0 

14
  π 3π  πr 4
= 4r 4  −  =
 4 16  4
πd 4
∴ I XX =
64

Note: For hollow circular section, having inside diameter d and outside diameter D;
π 4 4
I XX =
64
(
D -d ) …(4.9)

4.4 Section modulus

This is a geometrical property of a shape (section) which measures its efficiency
against bending. The property is used in problems involving bending stress, especially in
beams to design the beams or to express the relationship between the bending moment and
the bending stress.
I I
Section modulus, Z XX = XX , and Z YY = YY .
y max x max
Rectangular Section:
I XX bd 3 /12 bd 2
Z XX = = = …(4.10)
y max d/2 6
Circular Section:
I πd 4 /64 πd 3
Z XX = XX = = …(4.11)
y max d/2 32
Hollow Circular Section:
π  D4 − d 4 
Z XX =  …(4.12)
32  D 

4.5 Radius of gyration

The radius of gyration is a single dimensionless point about a given axis where the
area of a section can be assumed to be concentrated without altering the value of the second
moment of area about the given axis. If the distance between the point and the axis is r, then
Ar 2 = I = ∫ y 2 dA
I
Or r = , where r is termed the radius of gyration, and is used in the design of
A
compression members such as columns.

Rectangular section:
I XX bd 3 /12 d d
rXX = = = = …[4.13 (a)]
A bd 12 2 3
b
Similarly, rYY = …[4.13 (b)]
2 3

15
 Circular Section:
πd 4 /64 d
rXX = = …(4.14)
πd 2 /4 4
Hollow Circular Section:
D2 + d 2
rXX = …(4.15)
16

Typical Examples

Example 4.5: Determine the following properties for the shape shown in Fig 4.16:
(a) Position of the centre of gravity, (b) IXX and IYY, (b) ZXX and ZYY, (b) rXX and rYY.

50
Y
a
10

5
b 73.75
x
100

G
X

y =46.5mm
10

c
Note: All dimensions in mm
P Y
100

Fig 4.16

Solution:
Consider the compound shape subdivided into rectangles a, b, and c as shown.
(a) Centre of gravity:
Areas: a = 50 × 10 = 500mm 2
b = 100 × 50 = 500mm 2
c = 100 × 10 = 1000mm 2
Total area, A = 2000mm 2
∑ MP = 0
2000y = 500 ×115 + 500 × 60 +1000 × 5
∴ y = 46.5mm
x = 50mm ( due to symmetry of the figure).

16
(b) Second moment of area:
I XX = I a + I b + I c
 10
3
2  100
3
2  10
3
2
= 50 × + 500 × 68.75  + 5 × + 500 × 13.75  + 100 × + 1000 × 41.25 
 12   12   12 
= 10 [2.367 + 0.511 + 0.178] = 3.056 × 10 6 mm 4
6

I YY = I a + I b + I c
 503   53   1003 
= 10 ×  
+ 1 00 ×  
+ 10 × 
 12   12   12 

= 106 [0.104 + 0.001 + 0.833] = 0.938 × 10 6 mm 4

(c) Section modulus:

I XX 3.056 × 10 6
Z XX ( TOP ) = = = 41.55 × 10 3 mm 3
73.55 73.55
I 3.056 × 10 6
Z XX ( BOTTOM ) = XX = = 66.08× 10 3 mm 3
46.25 46.25
I 0.938 × 10 6
Z YY = YY = = 18.76 × 10 3 mm 3
50 50

(d) Radius of gyration:

I XX 3.056 × 10 6
rXX = = = 39.09mm
A 2000
I YY 0.938 × 10 6
rYY = = = 21.66mm
A 2000

Example 4.6: Determine the following properties for the shape shown in Fig 4.17:(a)
Position of the centre of gravity, (b) IXX and IYY ,(c)ZXX and ZYY ,(d) rXX and rYY.

Solution:

(a) Centre of gravity:

Area, A = 80 × 120 − 60 × 100 = 3600mm 2
Due to symmetry of the figure, x = 40mm and y = 60mm

(b) Second moment of area:

1203 1003
I XX = 80 × − 60 × = 6.52 × 106 mm 4
12 12
3
80 603
I YY = 120 × − 100 × = 3.32 × 10 6 mm 4
12 12

17
(c) Section modulus:
6.52 × 10 6
Z XX = = 0.1087 × 10 6 mm 3
60
3.32 × 10 6
Z YY = = 83 × 10 3 mm 3
40
Y

X G X
120
100

x
y

60
80

Fig 4.17

(c) Radius of gyration:

6.52 × 10 6
rXX = = 42.56mm
3600
3.32 × 106
rYY = = 30.37mm
3600

18