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org/wiki/F-number

F-number
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In optics, the f-number (sometimes called focal ratio, f-ratio, f-stop, or

relative aperture[1]) of an optical system expresses the diameter of the
entrance pupil in terms of the focal length of the lens; in simpler terms,
the f-number is the focal length divided by the "effective" aperture
diameter. It is a dimensionless number that is a quantitative measure of
lens speed, an important concept in photography.

Diagram of decreasing apertures, that is, increasing

f-numbers, in one-stop increments; each aperture has
Contents half the light gathering area of the previous one.

1 Notation
2 Stops, f-stop conventions, and exposure
2.1 Fractional stops
2.1.1 Standard full-stop f-number scale
2.1.2 Typical one-half-stop f-number scale
2.1.3 Typical one-third-stop f-number scale
2.1.4 Typical one-quarter-stop f-number scale
2.2 T-stops
2.3 Sunny 16 rule
3 Effects on image quality
4 Human eye
5 Focal ratio in telescopes
6 Working f-number
7 History
7.1 Origins of relative aperture
7.2 Aperture numbering systems
7.3 Typographical standardization
8 See also
9 References
10 External links

Notation
The f-number is given by

where is the focal length, and is the diameter of the entrance pupil. By convention, "f/" followed by a number is treated as a
single symbol; for example, if the focal length is 16 times the pupil diameter, the f-number is f/16. The greater the f-number, the
less light per unit area reaches the image plane of the system; the amount of light transmitted to the film (or sensor) decreases
with the f-number squared. Doubling the f-number increases the necessary exposure time by a factor of four.

The pupil diameter is proportional to the diameter of the aperture stop of the system. In a camera, this is typically the diaphragm
aperture, which can be adjusted to vary the size of the pupil, and hence the amount of light that reaches the film or image sensor.
The common assumption in photography that the pupil diameter is equal to the aperture diameter is not correct for many types of
camera lens, because of the magnifying effect of lens elements in front of the aperture.

A 100 mm focal length lens with an aperture setting of f/4 will have a pupil diameter of 25 mm. A 200 mm focal length lens with
a setting of f/4 will have a pupil diameter of 50 mm. The 200 mm lens's f/4 opening is larger than that of the 100 mm lens but
both will produce the same illuminance in the focal plane when imaging an object of a given luminance.

In other types of optical system, such as telescopes and binoculars, the same principle holds: the greater the focal ratio, the
fainter the images created (measuring brightness per unit area of the image).

Stops, f-stop conventions, and exposure

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The term stop is sometimes confusing due to its multiple meanings. A stop can be a
physical object: an opaque part of an optical system that blocks certain rays. The aperture
stop is the aperture that limits the brightness of the image by restricting the input pupil
size, while a field stop is a stop intended to cut out light that would be outside the desired
field of view and might cause flare or other problems if not stopped.

In photography, stops are also a unit used to quantify ratios of light or exposure, with one
stop meaning a factor of two, or one-half. The one-stop unit is also known as the EV
(exposure value) unit. On a camera, the f-number is usually adjusted in discrete steps,
known as f-stops. Each "stop" is marked with its corresponding f-number, and represents
a halving of the light intensity from the previous stop. This corresponds to a decrease of
the pupil and aperture diameters by a factor of or about 1.414, and hence a halving of
the area of the pupil.
A Canon 7 mounted with a 50 mm
Modern lenses use a standard f-stop scale, which is an approximately geometric sequence lens capable of an exceptional f/0.95
of numbers that corresponds to the sequence of the powers of the square root of 2: f/1,
f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, f/32, f/45, f/64, f/90, f/128, etc. The
values of the ratios are rounded off to these particular conventional numbers, to make
them easier to remember and write down. The sequence above can be obtained as

following: f/1 = , f/1.4 = , f/2 = , f/2.8 = ...

In the same way as one f-stop corresponds to a factor of two in light intensity, shutter
speeds are arranged so that each setting differs in duration by a factor of approximately
two from its neighbour. Opening up a lens by one stop allows twice as much light to fall
on the film in a given period of time, therefore to have the same exposure at this larger
aperture as at the previous aperture, the shutter is opened for half as long (i.e., twice the
speed); the film will respond equally to these equal amounts of light, since it has the
A 35 mm lens set to f/11, as indicated
property known as reciprocity (this is less true for extremely long or short exposures,
by the white dot above the f-stop
where we have reciprocity failure). Aperture, shutter speed, and film sensitivity are
scale on the aperture ring. This lens
linked: for constant scene brightness, doubling the aperture area (one stop), halving the
shutter speed (doubling the time open), or using a film twice as sensitive, has the same has an aperture range of f/2.0 to f/22
effect on the exposed image. For all practical purposes extreme accuracy is not required
(mechanical shutter speeds were notoriously inaccurate as wear and lubrication varied, with no effect on exposure); it is not
significant that aperture areas and shutter speeds do not vary by a factor of precisely two.

Photographers sometimes express other exposure ratios in terms of 'stops'. Ignoring the f-number markings, the f-stops make a
logarithmic scale of exposure intensity. Given this interpretation, one can then think of taking a half-step along this scale, to
make an exposure difference of "half a stop".

Fractional stops

Most old cameras had a continuously variable aperture scale, with each full stop marked. Click-stopped aperture came into
common use in the 1960s; the aperture scale usually had a click stop at every whole and half stop.

On modern cameras, especially when aperture is set on the camera body, f-number is often divided more finely than steps of one
stop. Steps of one-third stop (1/3 EV) are the most common, since this matches the ISO system of film speeds. Half-stop steps
are used on some cameras. Usually the full stops are marked, and the intermediate positions are clicked. As an example, the
aperture that is one-third stop smaller than f/2.8 is f/3.2, two-thirds smaller is f/3.5, and one whole stop smaller is f/4. The next
few f-stops in this sequence are

f/4.5, f/5, f/5.6, f/6.3, f/7.1, f/8, etc.

To calculate the steps in a full stop (1 EV) one could use

20×0.5, 21×0.5, 22×0.5, 23×0.5, 24×0.5 etc.

The steps in a half stop (1/2 EV) series would be

20/2×0.5, 21/2×0.5, 22/2×0.5, 23/2×0.5, 24/2×0.5 etc.

The steps in a third stop (1/3 EV) series would be

20/3×0.5, 21/3×0.5, 22/3×0.5, 23/3×0.5, 24/3×0.5 etc.

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As in the earlier DIN and ASA film-speed standards, the ISO speed is defined only in one-third stop increments, and shutter
speeds of digital cameras are commonly on the same scale in reciprocal seconds. A portion of the ISO range is the sequence

... 16/13°, 20/14°, 25/15°, 32/16°, 40/17°, 50/18°, 64/19°, 80/20°, 100/21°, 125/22°...

while shutter speeds in reciprocal seconds have a few conventional differences in their numbers (1/15, 1/30, and 1/60 second
instead of 1/16, 1/32, and 1/64).

In practice the maximum aperture of a lens is often not an integral power of (i.e., to the power of a whole number), in
which case it is usually a half or third stop above or below an integral power of .

Modern electronically-controlled interchangeable lenses, such as those used for SLR cameras, have f-stops specified internally in
1/8-stop increments, so the cameras' 1/3-stop settings are approximated by the nearest 1/8-stop setting in the lens.

Standard full-stop f-number scale

Including aperture value AV: f/# =

AV −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
f/# 0.7 1.0 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 22 32 45 64 90 128 180 256

Typical one-half-stop f-number scale

f/# 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.7 2 2.4 2.8 3.3 4 4.8 5.6 6.7 8 9.5 11 13 16 19 22 27 32

Typical one-third-stop f-number scale

f/# 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.2 3.5 4 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.3 7.1 8 9 10 11 13 14 16 18 20 22

Typical one-quarter-stop f-number scale

f/# 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.2 3.4 3.7 4 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.6 6.2 6.7 7.3 8 8.7 9.5 10 11 12 14 15

Sometimes the same number is included on several scales; for example, f/1.2 may be used in either a half-stop[2] or a
one-third-stop system;[3] sometimes f/1.3 and f/3.2 and other differences are used for the one-third stop scale.[4]

T-stops

F-stops are purely geometrical, the ratio of aperture to focal length, regardless of actual light transmitted. Since all lenses absorb
some portion of the light passing through them (particularly zoom lenses containing many elements), f-numbers do not
accurately correlate with light transmitted. F-numbers corrected to measure light transmission rather than aperture ratio, called
T-stops (for Transmission-stops), are sometimes used instead of f-stops for determining exposure.[5] A real lens set to a
particular T-stop will, by definition, transmit the same amount of light as an ideal lens with 100% transmission at the
corresponding f-stop.

Use of f-numbers leads to exposure inaccuracy, particularly for lenses with many elements. This is particularly problematical in
cinematography, where many images are seen in rapid succession and even small changes in exposure will be noticeable. To
avoid the problem, lenses used in cinematography were bench-tested individually for actual light transmission and calibrated in
T-stops, allowing fixed-focal-length turret-mounted lenses to be changed without affecting the overall scene brightness due to
differences in transmission for the same f-number. Many modern cinematographic lenses are factory-calibrated in T-stops. In still
photography, without the need for rigorous consistency of all lenses and cameras used, slight changes in exposure are less
important, and are largely masked except for the highest-absorption lenses by film and sensor exposure latitude.

Since all lenses absorb some light, the T-number of any given aperture on a lens will always be greater (less light transmission)
than the f-number. The T-stop corrects exposure for absorption of light, but the depth of field is determined by geometry;
consequently, the depth of field for a given T-number will be slightly less than for the corresponding f-number; the discrepancy
will be different for lenses of different degrees of absorption.

Sunny 16 rule

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An example of the use of f-numbers in photography is the sunny 16 rule: an approximately correct exposure will be obtained on
a sunny day by using an aperture of f/16 and the shutter speed closest to the reciprocal of the ISO speed of the film; for example,
using ISO 200 film, an aperture of f/16 and a shutter speed of 1/200 second. The f-number may then be adjusted downwards for
situations with lower light.

Effects on image quality

Depth of field increases with f-number, as illustrated in the
image here. This means that photographs taken with a low
f-number will tend to have subjects at one distance in focus,
with the rest of the image (nearer and farther elements) out of
focus. This is frequently useful for nature photography,
portraiture, and certain special effects. The depth of field of
an image produced at a given f-number is dependent on other
parameters as well, including the focal length, the subject
distance, and the format of the film or sensor used to capture
the image. Depth of field can be described as depending on
just angle of view, subject distance, and entrance pupil
diameter (as in von Rohr's method). As a result, smaller
formats will have a deeper field than larger formats at the
same f-number for the same distance of focus and same angle
of view since entrance-pupil diameter goes by the format size
Comparison of f/32 (top-left corner) and f/5 (bottom-right corner)
at a given f-number. Therefore, reduced–depth-of-field
effects, like those shown below, will require smaller
f-numbers (and thus larger apertures and so potentially more
complex optics) when using small-format cameras than when
using larger-format cameras.

Picture sharpness also varies with f-number. The optimal

f-stop varies with the lens characteristics. For modern Shallow focus with a wide open lens
standard lenses having 6 or 7 elements, the sharpest image is
often obtained around f/5.6–f/8, while for older standard lenses having only 4 elements (Tessar formula) stopping to f/11 will
give the sharpest image. The reason the sharpness is best at medium f-numbers is that the sharpness at high f-numbers is
constrained by diffraction,[6] whereas at low f-numbers limitations of the lens design known as aberrations will dominate. The
larger number of elements in modern lenses allow the designer to compensate for aberrations, allowing the lens to give better
pictures at lower f-numbers. Light falloff is also sensitive to f-stop. Many wide-angle lenses will show a significant light falloff
(vignetting) at the edges for large apertures. To measure the actual resolution of the lens at the different f-numbers it is necessary
to use a standardized measurement chart like the 1951 USAF resolution test chart.

Photojournalists have a saying, "f/8 and be there", meaning that being on the scene is more important than worrying about
technical details. The aperture of f/8 gives adequate depth of field, assuming a 35 mm or DSLR camera, minimum shutter-speed,
and ISO film rating within reasonable limits subject to lighting.[7]

Human eye
Computing the f-number of the human eye involves computing the physical aperture and focal length of the eye. The pupil can
be as large as 6–7 mm wide open, which translates into the maximum physical aperture.

The f-number of the human eye varies from about f/8.3 in a very brightly lit place to about f/2.1 in the dark.[8] The presented
maximum f-number has been questioned,[9] as it seems to only match the focal length that assumes outgoing light rays.
According to the incoming rays of light (what we actually see), the focal length of the eye is a bit longer, resulting in maximum
f-number of f/3.2.

Note that computing the focal length requires that the light-refracting properties of the liquids in the eye are taken into account.
Treating the eye as an ordinary air-filled camera and lens results in a different focal length, thus yielding an incorrect f-number.

Toxic substances and poisons (like Atropine) can significantly reduce the range of aperture. Pharmaceutical products such as eye
drops may also cause similar side-effects. Tropicamide and Phenylephrine are used in medicine as mydriatics to dilate pupils for
retinal and lens examination. These medications take effect in about 30–45 mins after instillation and last for about 8 hours.
Atropine also is used in such way but its effects can last up to 2 weeks, along with the mydriatic effect; it produces cycloplegia
(a condition in which the crystalline lens of the eye cannot accommodate to focus near objects). This effect goes away after 8
hours. Other medications offer the contrary effect. Pilocarpine is a miotic (induces miosis); it can make a pupil as small as 1 mm

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in diameter depending on the person and their ocular characteristics. Such drops are used in certain glaucoma patients to prevent
acute glaucoma attacks.

Focal ratio in telescopes

In astronomy, the f-number is commonly referred to as the focal ratio (or f-ratio)
notated as . It is still defined as the focal length of an objective divided by its
diameter or by the diameter of an aperture stop in the system.

Even though the principles of focal ratio are always the same, the application to
which the principle is put can differ. In photography the focal ratio varies the Diagram of the focal ratio of a simple
focal-plane illuminance (or optical power per unit area in the image) and is used to optical system where is the focal length
control variables such as depth of field. When using an optical telescope in and is the diameter of the objective
astronomy, there is no depth of field issue, and the brightness of stellar point sources
in terms of total optical power (not divided by area) is a function of absolute aperture
area only, independent of focal length. The focal length controls the field of view of the instrument and the scale of the image
that is presented at the focal plane to an eyepiece, film plate, or CCD.

For example, the SOAR 4m telescope has a small field of view (~f/16) which is useful for stellar studies. The LSST 8.4m
telescope, which will cover the entire sky every 3 days has a very large field of view. Its short 10.3 meter focal length (f/1.2) is
made possible by an error correction system which includes secondary and tertiary mirrors, a three element refractive system and
active mounting and optics.[10]

Working f-number
The f-number accurately describes the light-gathering ability of a lens only for objects an infinite distance away.[11] This
limitation is typically ignored in photography, where objects are usually not extremely close to the camera, relative to the
distance between the lens and the film. In optical design, an alternative is often needed for systems where the object is not far
from the lens. In these cases the working f-number is used. The working f-number Nw is given by

where N is the uncorrected f-number, NAi is the image-space numerical aperture of the lens, and is the absolute value of
[11]
lens's magnification for an object a particular distance away. In photography, the working f-number is described as the
f-number corrected for lens extensions by a bellows factor. This is of particular importance in macro photography.

History
The system of f-numbers for specifying relative apertures evolved in the late nineteenth century, in competition with several
other systems of aperture notation.

Origins of relative aperture

In 1867, Sutton and Dawson defined "apertal ratio" as essentially the reciprocal of the modern f-number:[12]

In every lens there is, corresponding to a given apertal ratio (that is, the ratio of the diameter of the stop to the focal
length), a certain distance of a near object from it, between which and infinity all objects are in equally good focus.
For instance, in a single view lens of 6 inch focus, with a 1/4 in. stop (apertal ratio one-twenty-fourth), all objects
situated at distances lying between 20 feet from the lens and an infinite distance from it (a fixed star, for instance)
are in equally good focus. Twenty feet is therefore called the 'focal range' of the lens when this stop is used. The
focal range is consequently the distance of the nearest object, which will be in good focus when the ground glass is
adjusted for an extremely distant object. In the same lens, the focal range will depend upon the size of the
diaphragm used, while in different lenses having the same apertal ratio the focal ranges will be greater as the focal
length of the lens is increased. The terms 'apertal ratio' and 'focal range' have not come into general use, but it is
very desirable that they should, in order to prevent ambiguity and circumlocution when treating of the properties of
photographic lenses.

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In 1874, John Henry Dallmeyer called the ratio the "intensity ratio" of a lens:[13]

The rapidity of a lens depends upon the relation or ratio of the aperture to the equivalent focus. To ascertain this,
divide the equivalent focus by the diameter of the actual working aperture of the lens in question; and note down the
quotient as the denominator with 1, or unity, for the numerator. Thus to find the ratio of a lens of 2 inches diameter
and 6 inches focus, divide the focus by the aperture, or 6 divided by 2 equals 3; i.e., 1/3 is the intensity ratio.

Although he did not yet have access to Ernst Abbe's theory of stops and pupils,[14] which was made widely available by
Siegfried Czapski in 1893,[15] Dallmeyer knew that his working aperture was not the same as the physical diameter of the
aperture stop:[13]

It must be observed, however, that in order to find the real intensity ratio, the diameter of the actual working
aperture must be ascertained. This is easily accomplished in the case of single lenses, or for double combination
lenses used with the full opening, these merely requiring the application of a pair of compasses or rule; but when
double or triple-combination lenses are used, with stops inserted between the combinations, it is somewhat more
troublesome; for it is obvious that in this case the diameter of the stop employed is not the measure of the actual
pencil of light transmitted by the front combination. To ascertain this, focus for a distant object, remove the focusing
screen and replace it by the collodion slide, having previously inserted a piece of cardboard in place of the prepared
plate. Make a small round hole in the centre of the cardboard with a piercer, and now remove to a darkened room;
apply a candle close to the hole, and observe the illuminated patch visible upon the front combination; the diameter
of this circle, carefully measured, is the actual working aperture of the lens in question for the particular stop
employed.

This point is further emphasized by Czapski in 1893.[15] According to an English review of his book, in 1894, "The necessity of
clearly distinguishing between effective aperture and diameter of physical stop is strongly insisted upon."[16]

J. H. Dallmeyer's son, Thomas Rudolphus Dallmeyer, inventor of the telephoto lens, followed the intensity ratio terminology in
1899.[17]

Aperture numbering systems

At the same time, there were a number of aperture numbering systems designed with the goal of making exposure times vary in
direct or inverse proportion with the aperture, rather than with the square of the f-number or inverse square of the apertal ratio or
intensity ratio. But these systems all involved some arbitrary constant, as opposed to the simple ratio of focal length and
diameter.

For example, the Uniform System (U.S.) of apertures was adopted as a standard by the Photographic Society of Great Britain in
the 1880s. Bothamley in 1891 said "The stops of all the best makers are now arranged according to this system." [18] U.S. 16 is
the same aperture as f/16, but apertures that are larger or smaller by a full stop use doubling or halving of the U.S. number, for
example f/11 is U.S. 8 and f/8 is U.S. 4. The exposure time required is directly proportional to the U.S. number. Eastman Kodak
used U.S. stops on many of their cameras at least in the 1920s.

By 1895, Hodges contradicts Bothamley, saying that the f-number system has taken over: "This is called the f/x system, and the
diaphragms of all modern lenses of good construction are so marked." [19]

Here is the situation as seen in 1899:

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Piper in 1901[20] discusses five different systems of aperture marking: the old and new Zeiss systems based on actual intensity
(proportional to reciprocal square of the f-number); and the U.S., C.I., and Dallmeyer systems based on exposure (proportional
to square of the f-number). He calls the f-number the "ratio number," "aperture ratio number," and "ratio aperture." He calls
expressions like f/8 the "fractional diameter" of the aperture, even though it is literally equal to the "absolute diameter" which he
distinguishes as a different term. He also sometimes uses expressions like "an aperture of f 8" without the division indicated by
the slash.

Beck and Andrews in 1902 talk about the Royal Photographic Society standard of f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11.3, etc.[21] The R.P.S. had
changed their name and moved off of the U.S. system some time between 1895 and 1902.

Typographical standardization

By 1920, the term f-number appeared in books both as F number and f/number. In modern publications, the forms f-number and f
number are more common, though the earlier forms, as well as F-number are still found in a few books; not uncommonly, the
initial lower-case f in f-number or f/number is set in a hooked italic form: f, or f.[22] Notations for f-numbers were also quite
variable in the early part of the twentieth century. They were sometimes written with a capital F,[23] sometimes with a dot
(period) instead of a slash,[24] and sometimes set as a vertical fraction.[25]

The 1961 ASA standard PH2.12-1961 American Standard General-Purpose Photographic Exposure Meters (Photoelectric Type)
specifies that "The symbol for relative apertures shall be f/ or f : followed by the effective f-number." Note that they show the
hooked italic f not only in the symbol, but also in the term f-number, which today is more commonly set in an ordinary non-italic
face.

See also
Circle of confusion
Depth of field
Group f/64
Exposure value
Optical telescope
Photographic lens design
Pinhole camera
Printer points
Telescope

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References
1. ^ Smith, Warren Modern Lens Design 2005 McGraw-Hill
2. ^ Harry C. Box (2003). Set lighting technician's handbook:
film lighting equipment, practice, and electrical distribution
(http://books.google.com/?id=YjAzP4i1oFcC&pg=PA136&
lpg=PA136) (3rd ed.). Focal Press. ISBN 9780240804958.
http://books.google.com/?id=YjAzP4i1oFcC&pg=PA136&
lpg=PA136.
3. ^ Paul Kay (2003). Underwater photography
(http://books.google.com/?id=DvYMl-s1_9YC&pg=PA19) .
Guild of Master Craftsman. ISBN 9781861083227.
http://books.google.com/?id=DvYMl-s1_9YC&pg=PA19.
4. ^ David W. Samuelson (1998). Manual for cinematographers
(http://books.google.com/?id=IWkpoJKM_ucC&pg=PA145&
lpg=PA145) (2nd ed.). Focal Press. ISBN 9780240514802.
http://books.google.com/?id=IWkpoJKM_ucC&pg=PA145&
lpg=PA145.
5. ^ Eastman Kodak, "H2: Kodak Motion Picture Camera Films"
(http://www.kodak.com/US/en/motion/support
/h2/intro01P.shtml) , November 2000 revision. Retrieved 2
September 2007.
6. ^ Michael John Langford (2000). Basic Photography. Focal
Press. ISBN 0240515927.
7. ^ Levy, Michael (2001). Selecting and Using Classic Cameras:
A User's Guide to Evaluating Features, Condition & Usability
of Classic Cameras. Amherst Media, Inc. p. 163.
ISBN 978-1584280545.
8. ^ Hecht, Eugene (1987). Optics (2nd ed.). Addison Wesley.
ISBN 0-201-11609-X. Sect. 5.7.1
9. ^ http://www.clarkvision.com/imagedetail/eye-resolution.html
10. ^ Charles F. Claver; et al. (2007-03-19). LSST Reference
Design (http://lsst.org/files/docs/LSST-RefDesign.pdf) . LSST
Corporation. pp. 45–50. http://lsst.org/files/docs/LSST-
RefDesign.pdf. Retrieved 2011-01-10
11. ^ a b Greivenkamp, John E. (2004). Field Guide to Geometrical
Optics. SPIE Field Guides vol. FG01. SPIE.
ISBN 0-8194-5294-7. p. 29.
12. ^ Thomas Sutton and George Dawson, A Dictionary of
Photography, London: Sampson Low, Son & Marston, 1867,
(p. 122).
13. ^ a b John Henry Dallmeyer, Photographic Lenses: On Their
Choice and Use—Special Edition Edited for American
Photographers, pamphlet, 1874.
External links
f Number Arithmetic (http://fcalc.net/manual/fnumbers.html)
Large format photography—how to select the f-stop (http://www.largeformatphotography.info/fstop.html)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=F-number&oldid=477912866"
Categories: Optics Science of photography Dimensionless numbers
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14. ^ Southall, James Powell Cocke (1910). The principles and
methods of geometrical optics: Especially as applied to the
theory of optical instruments (http://books.google.com
/?id=-r6LPy-nWPwC&pg=RA3-PA537&dq=theory-of-stops) .
http://books.google.com/?id=-r6LPy-nWPwC&pg=RA3-
PA537&dq=theory-of-stops.
15. ^ a b Siegfried Czapski, Theorie der optischen Instrumente,
nach Abbe, Breslau: Trewendt, 1893.
16. ^ Henry Crew, "Theory of Optical Instruments by Dr.
Czapski," in Astronomy and Astro-physics XIII pp. 241–243,
1894.
17. ^ Thomas R. Dallmeyer, Telephotography: An elementary
treatise on the construction and application of the
telephotographic lens, London: Heinemann, 1899.
18. ^ C. H. Bothamley, Ilford Manual of Photography, London:
Britannia Works Co. Ltd., 1891.
19. ^ John A. Hodges, Photographic Lenses: How to Choose, and
How to Use, Bradford: Percy Lund & Co., 1895.
20. ^ C. Welborne Piper, A First Book of the Lens: An Elementary
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21. ^ Conrad Beck and Herbert Andrews, Photographic Lenses: A
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22. ^ Google search (http://books.google.com
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23. ^ Ives, Herbert Eugene (1920) (Google). Airplane
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http://books.google.com/?id=ypakouuKvwYC&
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24. ^ Mees, Charles Edward Kenneth (1920). The Fundamentals of
Photography (http://books.google.com
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http://books.google.com/?id=V7MCVGREPfkC&
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25. ^ Derr, Louis (1906) (Google). Photography for Students of
Physics and Chemistry (http://books.google.com
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pp. 83. http://books.google.com/?id=AN6d4zTjquwC&
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