Ore Geology Reviews 43 (2011) 203–216

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Porphyry Cu–Au–Mo–epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn–distal hydrothermal Au deposits in the

Dexing area, Jiangxi province, East China—A linked ore system
Jingwen Mao a,⁎, Jiandong Zhang a, c, Franco Pirajno a, b, Daizo Ishiyama c, Huimin Su d,
Chunli Guo a, Yuchuan Chen a
a
MLR Key Laboratory of Metallogeny and Mineral Assessment, Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
b
Geological Survey of Western Australia, 100 Plain Street, East Perth, WA 6004, Australia
c
Center for Geo-environmental Science, Faculty of Engineering and Resource Science, Akita University, Japan
d
China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100029, Beijing, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Based on previous studies and detailed field investigations of the Dexing porphyry copper deposit, the Yin-
Received 19 May 2010 shan Ag-Pb-Zn deposit and the Jinshan shear zone – hosted gold deposit in the Dele Jurassic volcanic basin,
Received in revised form 2 August 2011 in the northeastern Jiangxi province, East China, we propose that the three deposits share spatial, temporal
Accepted 13 August 2011
and genetic relationships and belong to the same metallogenic system. Dexing is a typical porphyry Cu–Au–
Available online 27 August 2011
Mo deposit in which both ore-forming fluid and metals are derived from the granite porphyry. The Yinshan
Keywords:
deposit consists of a porphyry copper ore located in the cupola of a quartz porphyry stock, in the lower part,
Porphyry Cu–Au–Mo deposits and Ag–Pb–Zn ore veins in the upper part. The hydrothermal fluids were mainly derived from the magma in
Epithermal Cu–Ag–Au–Zn–Pb deposit the early stages of the mineralizing event and became mixed with meteoric waters in the late stages. Its ore
Shear zone-hosted gold deposit metals are magma-derived. Both the Jinshan base metal veins and the Hamashi, Dongjie and Naikeng quartz
Mesozoic vein-type gold deposit are hosted by brittle–ductile structures, which are distal in relation to the porphyry
Dexing area intrusions and were formed by mixed magmatic fluids and meteoric water, whereas the gold was mainly
East China leached from the country rocks (Mesoproterozoic Shuangqiaoshan Group phyllite and schist). The deposits
show a distinct spatial arrangement from porphyry Cu, to epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn and distal Au. We suggest a
porphyry–epithermal–distal vein ore system model for this group of genetically related mineral deposits.
They were formed in a back-arc setting in a Middle Jurassic active continental margin, with magmas derived
from the subducted slab.
© 2011 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction 0.19 g/t, 1279 t Ag (Tongchang); 2.57 Mt Cu at 0.5%, 168,000 t Mo at

The Dele Mesozoic volcanic basin in the northern Jiangxin province,
Southeastern China (Fig. 1) hosts three significant ore deposits: the
Dexing porphyry Cu–Au–Mo deposit; the Yinshan Ag–Pb–Zn vein de-
posit; and the Jinshan shear zone-hosted gold deposit. Mining of these
deposits began in the Sui and Tang Dynasties (605–908 A.D.) for Dexing
and Yinshan, and in the Song Dynasty (960–1279 A.D.) for Jinshan. Ex-
tensive geological surveying and mineral exploration were conducted
in the Dexing and Yinshan areas by the Jiangxi Bureau of Geology, Min-
eral Resources, Exploration and Development from the 1950s to the
1970s and in the Jinshan area by the Jiangxi Bureau of Nonferrous Geol-
ogy and Mineral Resources in the 1980s. By 2000, the Dexing porphyry
Cu–Au–Mo deposit, which consists of three orebodies (Tongchang,
Fujiawu and Zhushahong) was reported to contain the following mea-
sured reserves: 5.2 Mt Cu at 0.45%, 128,000 t Mo at 0.01%, 215 t Au at
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 86 10 68327333; fax: + 86 10 68327142.
E-mail address: jingwenmao@263.net (J. Mao).
0.03% (Fujiawu) and 600,000 t Cu at 0.42% (Zhushahong) (Qian et al.,
1996). The Yinshan epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn vein deposit has measured
reserves of 2600 t Ag at 196 g/t, 382,886 t Pb at 1.75%, 418,201 t Zn at
1.91%, and 858,803 t Cu at 0.53%, and 114 t Au at 0.62 g/t. The Jinshan
shear zone gold deposit has Au reserve of 300 tat 6 g/t.
Previous and ongoing research addresses the geology and geochemis-
try of these deposits. The geochemical work encompassed stable isotope
studies and fluid inclusions, radiometric dating of ores and host rocks
(e.g., Fan and Li, 1992; Li et al., 1994, 1997; Wang et al., 1999; Wei,
1985). Zhu et al. (1983) and Ye (1987) provided comprehensive summa-
ries of the geology, geochemistry and prospecting techniques for the
Dexing porphyry Cu–Au–Mo and the Yinshan epithermal Ag–Cu–Zn–Pb
deposits. However, the essential features and characteristics of these de-
posits have not been described in English language journals. Rui et al.
(2005) first introduced the Dexing porphyry Cu–Au–Mo deposits in an
English language publication, based on data contributed by Zhu et al.
(1983). Li and Sasaki (2007), Zhang et al. (2007) and Li et al. (2010) con-
ducted fluid inclusion studies on the Dexing, Yinshan and Jinshan de-
posits. Lu et al. (2005), Wang et al. (2006) and Li et al. (2007b)

0169-1368/$ – see front matter © 2011 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2011.08.005
204 J. Mao et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 43 (2011) 203–216
Fig. 1. Simplified geology of Cathaysian Block and the distribution of the granitoid-related Cu–Au–Ag–Pb–Zn ore deposits along the Shihang (or Qinzhou–Hangzhou) rift belt and
adjacent areas (modified from Guo et al.(2010)).
reported on dating of molybdenite (Re–Os), mica (Ar–Ar), and zircon (U–
Pb) for both Dexing and Yinshan.
Since these three different deposits occur within a small area, a pos-
sible genetic link between them needs to be considered. In this paper,
based on detailed field investigations and, comprehensive reviews of
the available geology, geochemistry and exploration work, we attempt
to focus on the question of a genetic link between the three deposits
and propose a new model, which may aid further prospecting for new
deposits or extensions of the existing ones.
2. Geological setting
South China consists of the Yangtze Craton in the northwest and the
Cathaysia Block in the southeast, separated by Qinzhou–Hangzhou fault
zone (Fig. 1) in which the eastern part is well-known as the Jiangshan–
Shaoxing (simplified as Jiangshao) fault zone or shear zone (Pirajno and
Bagas, 2002). This is considered to be a Neoproterozoic suture zone,
along which the two tectonic units amalgamated at ~1.1 Ga to 0.9 Ga
(Chen and Jahn, 1998; Li et al., 2002, 2007a, 2007b, 2007c; Shui, 1988,
Ye et al., 2007; Zhou and Zhu, 1993). The Dexing ore cluster (or Dexing
area) is located in the Jiangnan shield, on the southern margin of the
Yangtze Craton, 50 km north of the Jiangshan–Shaoxing Neoproterozoic
fault zone. The basement of the Yangtze Craton consists of Archean to
Proterozoic rocks exposed in the Kangdian shield in the western margin,
the Jiangnan shield in the southern margin and the Dahongshan areas in
the north margin (e.g., Cheng, 1994; Greentree and Li, 2008; Qiu et al.,
2000; Wang and Mo, 1995). Zircons from Early Paleozoic lamproite dia-
tremes in the Dahongshan area give U–Pb ages of 2.9–2.8 Ga and Hf
model ages of 2.6–3.5 Ga (Zheng et al., 2006). Phanerozoic cover in
the Yangtze Craton comprises Cambrian to Early Triassic carbonates in-
tercalated with clastic rocks, and Jurassic to Cretaceous clastic rocks in-
tercalated with volcanic rocks. The Cathaysia Block has a Proterozoic
basement in the Wuyishan uplift in the east, the Dayaoshan uplift be-
tween the Guangdong and Guangxi provinces and the western Hainan
Island uplift. Sinian (Neoproterozoic) to Ordovician metasandstone
and slate occur in the Nanling region, central portion of the Cathaysian
Block, overlain by Devonian to Permian carbonate rocks. Jurassic clastic
rocks intercalated with volcanic rocks, as well as Cretaceous red-bed
sandstones, occur in a series of NE-trending rift basins (Cheng, 1994;
Jiangxi Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1984, 2005).
The stratigraphic sequence in the Dexing area consists of the Mesopro-
terozoic Shuangqiaoshan Group, the Neoproterozoic Dengshan Group,
the Lower Cambrian Hetang Formation, the Lower Jurassic Linshan and
Ehuling Formations and the Cretaceous Shixi Formation (Fig. 2). The
Mesoproterozoic Shuangqiaoshan Group has extensive outcrops, ac-
counting for about 70% of the total area, and consists of a lower greens-
chist facies of sandstone, volcaniclastic rocks, intercalated with basaltic
lavas. It can be further divided into an upper subgroup and a lower sub-
group. The lower subgroup comprises abyssal facies siltstone and mud-
stone intercalated with volcaniclastic rocks, characterized by a flysch
setting that is suggested to have developed in a marginal depression of
a stable continent at ca. 1515 Ma (Liu et al., 1989, 1993). The upper sub-
group is composed of gray–green turbidite and basaltic lavas developed
in a 1371 Ma active continent marginal depression setting (Jiangxi Bureau
of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1984). Neoproterozoic rocks out-
crop in the southeast of the area and overlie the Mesoproterozoic
Shuangqiaoshan Group along a sheared contact (Fig. 2). They are
composed of terrestrial volcaniclastic and clastic rocks of paralic
 J. Mao et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 43 (2011) 203–216
Fig. 2. Sketch map of geology and the distribution of granitoid-related Cu–Au–Ag polymetallic deposits in the Dele Mesozoic basin (or Dexing area), northeastern Jiangxi Province
(modified from Zhu et al.(1983) and Li and Sasaki(2007)).
swamp facies (the Dengshan Group). Lower Cambrian carbonate rocks
of the Hetang Formation occur in the southeastern corner of the Dexing
area and are overlain by Sinian clastic rocks (Fig. 2). The lower Jurassic
units can be divided into clastic rocks of alluvial flat and lake swampy
facies of the Linshan Formation in the lower part, and the Ehuling For-
mation, comprising from bottom upwards, conglomerate, rhyolitic ag-
glomerate breccias, hornblende rhyolite, dacitic agglomerate and
dacitic lava. The Cretaceous red-bed sandstone of the Shixi Formation
occurs in the NE-trending rift basins in the south of the area. Host
rocks for the mineralization are both Mesoproterozoic metamorphic
rocks and Lower Jurassic volcanic rocks.
The NE-trending Le'anjiang deep fault zone in the northwest,
northeastern Jiangxi deep fault (or Maoqiao ophiolite shear zone) in
the southeast and Sizhoumiao anticlinoria in the center constitute
the dominating structural features of the studied area (Fig. 2). The
Bashiyuan–Tongchang and Jiangguang–Fujiawu sub-parallel ductile
shear zones are developed between the Le'anjiang and northeastern
Jiangxi deep fault zone. The Jinshan shear zone, the major host for
the Jinshan gold deposit, consisting of several groups of sub-parallel
EW-trending brittle–ductile shear zones, occur as subordinate struc-
tures between Bashiyuan–Tongchang and Jiangguang–Fujiawu duc-
tile shear zones.
Rocks in the area mainly consists of Neoproterozoic marine facies vol-
caniclastic (dacitic) clastic rocks, basic volcanics and ophiolite fragments
dated at 929–1160 Ma, which developed along the Miaoqiao ophiolite
205
ductile shear zone (Xu and Qiao, 1989; Zhou and Zhao, 1991), and Mid-
dle Jurassic dacitic–rhyolitic volcanic rocks and associated subvolcanic
rocks, such as quartz porphyry, dacitic porphyry (183 Ma; Li and Sasaki,
2007) and granodiorite porphyry (171 Ma; Wang et al., 2004) in the
southwest and southeast.
3. Geology and geochemistry of the deposits
3.1. Dexing porphyry Cu ore system
The Dexing porphyry copper system lies in the northeastern part of
the Dele ore district (Fig. 2) and is hosted in the Tongchang, Zhushahong,
and Fujiawu granitic porphyries and surrounding county rocks (Zhu et
al., 1983). These granitic porphyries occur as small stocks and lie at the
intersections of NWW-trending and NE-trending faults (Fig. 1). Each
porphyry stock exhibits a pipe-like shape plunging to NW (Fig. 3). The
country rocks intruded by the granodiorite porphyries are sericitic phyl-
lite, tuffaceous phyllite and meta-sedimentary tuff of the Mesoprotero-
zoic Shuangqiaoshan Group.
3.1.1. Granitoids
The Tongchang granodiorite porphyry has a surface outcrop area of
ca. 0.7 km2; the Fujiawu granodiorite porphyry has a outcrop area of
0.2 km2; and the Zhushahong granodiorite porphyry occurs as a group
of dykes, in which the largest dykes has an outcrop area of ca. 0.06 km2.
206 J. Mao et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 43 (2011) 203–216
Fig. 3. Plans and sections of the Zhuashahong, Tongchang, and Fujiawu in the Dexing porphyry Cu–Au–Mo ore district, Northeastern Jiangxi (modified from Zhu et al.(1983) and Rui
et al.(2005)).
Zhu et al. (1983) recognized five magmatic phases: three phases of
granodiorite porphyry (major part) and two phases of diorite porphyry
(supplementary part). Li and Sasaki (2007) further suggested three
stages of emplacement, pre-mineralization aplite, mineralized granodio-
rite (major phase) and post-mineralization quartz diorite. Wang et al.
(2004) described granodiorite and quartz diorite porphyries in the Dex-
ing area. They are characterized by idiomorphic phenocrysts of andesine
(An30–45), 0.5–4 mm in length, which exhibit weak normal zoning. Other
phenocryst minerals are idiomorphic–hypidiomorphic hornblende (0.5–
2 mm) and biotite (0.5–3 mm), tabular K-feldspar (1–5 mm) and quartz
(1–3 mm). The matrix has a micro- or fine-granular (0.05–0.3 mm grain
size) texture and consists of hypidiomorphic oligoclase (An16–20), horn-
blende and biotite, and xenomorphic quartz and K-feldspar. The rock-
forming and accessory mineral contents of the different intrusive rocks
in the Dexing area show only small variations. For example, the Tong-
chang intrusive rocks consist of plagioclase (46–52%), quartz (16–23%),
K-feldspar (14–17%), amphibole (7–11%) and biotite (2–9%). Accessory
minerals in these rocks include magnetite, apatite, titanite, and rare
ilmenite, zircon, pyrite, chalcopyrite and molybdenite (Rui et al., 1984;
Zhu et al., 1983).
The Fujiawu intrusive rocks comprise plagioclase (43–55%), quartz
(18–23%), K-feldspar (13–18%), amphibole (7–10%) and biotite (3–
7%). Accessory minerals are magnetite, apatite, titanite, and zircon
(Rui et al., 1984; Zhu et al., 1983). The Zhushahong intrusive rocks are
composed of plagioclase (47–52%), quartz (19–21%), K-feldspar (13–
16%), amphibole (8–10%) and biotite (4–7%). Their accessory minerals
are magnetite, apatite, and zircon (Rui et al., 1984; Zhu et al., 1983).
Magnetite is the dominant accessory phase; ilmenite is absent in the
Dexing granitic porphyries. Granodiorite porphyries are characterized
by 62–63 wt.% SiO2, ~15 wt.% Al2O3, 1.94–2.07 wt.% K2O, low
K2O/(Na2O + K2O) (0.33–0.84), enrichment in large ion lithophile ele-
ments (LILE) and LREE, low high field strength elements (HFSE) and
HREE depletion (ΣREE = 24.9 ~ 216.2 ppm, LREE = 22.2 ~ 206.3 ppm,
HREE = 2.7 ~ 17.0 ppm, La/Yb= 8 ~ 44). Zhu et al. (1983) reported the
initial strontium isotopic value (Isr) of 0.7043, and a date of 171±
3 Ma using the SHRIMP zircon U–Pb method (Wang et al., 2004).
 J. Mao et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 43 (2011) 203–216
3.1.2. Orebodies and ore components
The orebodies of all of three deposits, form classic stockworks, and
disseminated ores, overprinted on both granodiorite and the country
rocks, and exhibit cylindrical shapes concentrated around the granodio-
rite porphyries. Cu–Au–Mo mineralization is developed at the endo-
and exo-contact zone, with main orebodies (about two thirds) in the
country rocks (exo-contact zone) (Rui et al., 2005; Zhu et al., 1983)
(Fig. 3). The Tongchang orebody is the largest of the three. It is oval-
shaped at the surface, with a NW–SE-strike 2.54 km length and an
inner barren core, measuring 400 m by 700 m. The Fujiawu orebody
has a round shape with a diameter of 100 m and an inner barren core di-
ameter of 800 m. Both the Tongchang and Fujiawu orebodies are about
1000 m deep, whereas the Zhushahong orebody comprises several
smaller en-echelon ore zones (Rui et al., 2005). The sulfides in the ores
are mainly pyrite and chalcopyrite, and lesser molybdenite, tennantite
and bornite, and minor chalcocite, galena, sphalerite, digenite, bismuthi-
nite, cubanite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, aikinite, carrollite, siegenite,
bravoite, millerite, gersdorffite, seligmannite and matildite. The gangue
minerals are mainly quartz, hydromuscovite (illite), chlorite and anhy-
drite. Silver, rhenium, sulfur, selenium, tellurium and cobalt also can
be recovered as by-products in addition to copper, molybdenum and
gold.
3.1.3. Alteration and mineralization
Rui et al. (1984, 2005) recognized three alteration zones: quartz–
sericite; chlorite–(epidote)–sericite; and chlorite–epidote–illite sur-
rounding the granodiorite porphyry outwards and upwards. There is
weak K-feldspar and biotite alteration in the Fujiawu, but these are not
present at Tongchang and Zhushahong. Li and Sasaki (2007) recognized
four types of vein systems as follows: (1) granular quartz–K-feldspar–
sulfide or K-feldspar veins (A vein); (2) quartz–molybdenite–chalcopy-
rite veins (B vein); (3) sulfide–quartz veins (D vein); and (4) carbonate–
sulfate–oxide veins (H vein). The D veins are the most important for the
mineralization in the Dexing porphyry deposit. Primary fluid inclusions
in the D vein include liquid-rich, vapor-rich and halite-bearing ones.
Based on the thermometric measurements of fluid inclusions and stable
isotope systematics Li and Sasaki (2007) suggested that the tempera-
tures of mineralization of D veins are between 115 and 430 °C, at a cor-
responding pressure range of 20–400× 105 Pa.
The hydrothermal fluids responsible for muscovite in the D vein
have an isotopic composition (δ18Ovalues = 3.6 to 5.4‰, δDvalues = −49
to −46‰), similar to that of typical magmatic fluids (δD = −80‰ to
−40‰; δ18Owater = 5.5‰ to 9.5‰), as suggested by Ohmoto (1986)
and Sheppard (1986), indicating that hydrothermal fluids of the late al-
teration stages are predominantly magmatic. Carbon and oxygen iso-
tope values for hydrothermal calcite in H veins are −4.8 to −6.2‰
and 6.8–18.8‰, respectively. The δ34S of pyrite in the D vein ranges
from −0.1 to 3‰, whereas δ34S for chalcopyrite in H vein ranges from
4 to 5‰, suggesting a magmatic origin for sulfur. The above data indicate
that the ore-forming fluids of the Dexing porphyry copper ore system
are derived from the exsolution of fluids from the cooling magma. The-
oretically, a connate fluid that circulates through the magmatic system
at low fluid rock ratios also would end up with the same isotopic signa-
ture. However, there are no evidences to prove a connate fluid kept in
the phyllite of the Mesoproterozoic Shuangqiaoshan Group, the host
rocks for the ore-related porphyries. The O, Nd and Sr isotopic composi-
tions of different altered rocks in the Tongchang (Jin et al., 2002) indi-
cate that there are three types of hydrothermal fluids: 1) magmatic; 2)
deep-seated non-magmatic; and 3) meteoric water. Magmatic fluids
play a predominant role in the ore-forming process. Jin et al. (2002)
also explained that strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr)i values increase grad-
ually from the interior of a porphyry body towards the contact with
country rocks (0.705→ 0.711), possibly indicating that the hydrother-
mal fluids carrying the ore-forming metals from the interior of the por-
phyry to the discharge zone along the contacts with country rocks.
207
The Re–Os molybdenite age of 170.4 ± 1.8 Ma (Lu et al., 2005) is
consistent with the granodiorite age of 171 ± 3 Ma (Wang et al.,
2004), indicating that the mineralization event occurred in the Mid-
dle Jurassic.
3.2. Yinshan Ag–Pb–Zn–Cu deposits
Yinshan Ag–Pb–Zn–Cu deposit is a volcanic–subvolcanic hydro-
thermal deposit or porphyry–epithermal deposit. The mineralization
is spatially, temporally and genetically related to the Middle Jurassic
volcanic and/or subvolcanic quartz porphyry.
3.2.1. Country rocks
The host rocks for the Yinshan orebodies are Middle Jurassic volcanic–
subvolcanic rocks (porphyry) of the Ehuling Formation and phyllite and
tuffaceous phyllite of the Mesoproterozoic Shuangqiaoshan Group.
Three discontinuous cycles of felsic, felsic–intermediate and intermediate
magmatic activities have been identified in the Yinshan area. Felsic and
felsic–intermediate magmatic activities began with pyroclastic eruptions,
to lava extrusion and ending with subvolcanic intrusions. During the first
cycle rhyolitic dacite and rhyolite erupted along fractures, at the intersec-
tions of approximately EW-trending structures and NE-trending struc-
tures in the northeastern and eastern parts of the deposit area.
Subvolcanic quartz porphyries were emplaced as EW-trending
dykes or small porphyries (Fig. 4), hosted by phyllite of the Meso-
proterozoic Shuangqiaoshan Group at the margin of the volcanic
basin in the Qiulongshangtian-Beishan area, in the northern part of
the mine area. The second cycle of magmatic rocks, comprising
dacite and dacitic porphyries (Fig. 4) dated at 181 ± 3 Ma by SHRIMP
zircon U–Pb method (Li et al., 2007b), are mainly distributed in
Xishan and surrounding areas. Volcanism in this stage started
along fractures and ended as calderas in Xishan (Fig. 4). The third
cycle of magmatic activity is characterized by only a small amount
of andesitic lava confined to the volcanic edifice of Xishan in the
west of the deposit area (No. 11 porphyry) (Ye, 1987).
3.2.2. Structures
The major structures in the Yinshan deposit area are the Yinshan
NE-plunging anticline and faults that controlled volcanic activity
and the formation of explosive breccias pipes. Major faults trend
NNE, NE and NNW, with subordinate NW- and NWW-trending
splays, as well as small scale N–S faults. A series of NNE-, NE-, and
NNW-trending faults hosts the mineralization (Ye, 1987). The quartz
porphyry associated with the ores was emplaced at intersections of
the NE-trending and the E–W-trending faults, exhibiting equidistant
right-lateral distribution along the NE-trending hanging wall (NW
side) of the Yinshan anticline axis (Li, 1994).
3.2.3. Orebodies and mineral assemblages
The Yinshan deposit can be divided into five ore sections and twelve
ore belts, comprising Nanshan, Yinshan, Jiulongshangtian (simplified as
Jiuqu) Xishan, and Beishan (Fig. 4) from south to north, where Ag–Pb–
Zn mineralization occurs as veins, that connect with the porphyry sys-
tem below (Fig. 5). The dominant ore belts are No. 7 and No. 8, in the
Nanshan section, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, and No. 5 in Yinshan area, No. 12
in the Xishan section, No. 9 and No. 11 in the Jiuqu section, No. 10 in
the Beishan area. Each of the belts comprises about ten ore veins. The
Pb–Zn–Ag ore veins occur in Beishan, Jiuqu and Yinshan. In the first
two, the ore veins show nearly E–W-trends with steep dips either to
the N or S. The ore veins in the Xishan section show NE- and NNE-strikes,
with steep dips to the NS or NNW, whereas in the Yinshan section they
strike NW with steep dips to the SW or SE. These ore veins are 300 and
600 m long, 1 to 15 m wide and extend to depths of 200 to 600 m (rarely
to 1050 m). The major ore minerals are galena, sphalerite, siderite, a
small amount of pyrite and arsenopyrite, and minor pyragyrite, chlorar-
gyrite native silver and a number of Pb–Ag–Sb-sulphosalts. Gangue
208 J. Mao et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 43 (2011) 203–216
Fig. 4. Plan of the Yinshan porphry Cu–Au vein-type Ag–Pb–Zn deposit in the Dele Mesozoic basin. There is an apparent mineralization zonation with the Cu–Au–S in the center and
Ag–Pb–Zn at the outer margin (modified from Ye(1987), and Li et al.(2007a, 2007b, 2007c)).
minerals include sericite, chlorite, quartz, dickite, kaolinite, illite, barite,
fluorite, dolomite and chalcedony (Ye, 1987).
Apart from these large Ag–Pb–Zn ore veins, there are also stringer
veins, veinlets and disseminated Cu–Au ores hosted by quartz porphyries
and andesitic volcanic rocks. Surrounding the quartz porphyry in the
Jiuqu and Xishan sections, Cu–Au orebodies are present in the altered por-
phyry in the roof pendants, then along the south and north contacts, to
the explosive breccia pipes nearby, with stringer veins, stockworks and
disseminated ores. The larger Cu–Au orebodies exhibit tabular shapes.
Major ore minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite, tennantite, enargite, tetrahe-
drite, galena, and sphalerite; gangue mineralogy is dominated by quartz,
sericite, chlorite, calcite and kaolinite. In past 2 years a new orebody
with Cu reserve of 200,000 t was explored at depth within the Jiuqu sec-
tion, where pyrite–chalcopyrite assemblages occur along the shear zone
(Fig. 6).
3.2.4. Mineralization and alteration
Ye (1987) reported the presence of two mineralization episodes: 1)
early Cu-pyrite stage; and 2) late Pb–Zn–Ag stage. Li et al. (2007b) applied
muscovite 40Ar/39Ar methods to obtain ages for these two mineralization
stages, resulting in an early age of 178.2±1.4 Ma and a late age of 175.4±
1.2 Ma. After detailed investigation Zhang et al. (2007) recognized four
stages, from early to late: 1) barren quartz; 2) pyrite–quartz; 3) pyrite–
chalcopyrite–quartz; and 4) pyrite–sphalerite±galena–quartz.
Ye (1987) recognized alteration zoning of sericitization, sericitization–
carbonation and chloritization–carbonation, and associated metal zoning
of Cu, Cu–Pb–Zn, Pb–Zn, Pb, surrounding the quartz porphyry or dacitic
porphyry. Yang et al. (2004) proposed a similar zoning, characterized by
(from the dacitic porphyry outwards): (weak) sericitized dacite porphyry
zone→pyritic and sericitized dacite porphyry zone and phyllite zone→-
pyritic, sericitized and chloritized (carbonate) phyllite zone →chloritized
and carbonated phyllite zone→carbonated and chloritized pyroclastic
rocks zone. The mineralization also shows a metal zoning of Cu→Cu–
Pb–Zn→Pb–Zn→Pb (Ag) from the dacitic porphyry outwards. These al-
teration and metal zoning are similar to those in the classic porphyry Cu
systems (Seedorff et al., 2005; Pirajno, 2009).
Zhang et al. (2007) carried out systematic fluid inclusion studies in
the Yinshan district area, and recognized that three major types of fluids
were involved in the ore-forming process. They are: type I vapor-rich;
type II liquid-rich (accounting for N90% of total); and type III halite-
bearing inclusions within the H2O–NaCl system. Textural characteristics
indicative of boiling are commonly seen in the Yinshan deposit. The
early fluids exsolved from such silicate melts (represented by type I in-
clusions) have a very low salinity due to the low pressure conditions.
Such a dilute hot fluid is considered responsible for the development
of early barren and possibly some pyrite-bearing quartz veins. With
continued crystallization saline fluids were then exsolved from the
crystallizing magmas. Under high pressure conditions (N900 bar)
high-salinity fluids were trapped. Collapse of the overpressured system
through explosion and accompanied by introduction of meteoric water
resulted in the generation of low to moderate salinity fluid inclusions.
Therefore, the latter two mineralization stages are mainly dominated
by vapor–liquid inclusions, locally with coexisting high-salinity and
low to moderate salinity fluid inclusions indicating boiling. Zhang et al.
(1997) obtained δ18O values of fluids from 6.6 to 9.5‰ and δD values
of inclusion fluids from −48 to −34‰ with calculated temperatures
from 390 °C to 270 °C. Zhang et al. (1996) proposed that the isotopic
compositions of the late mineralization fluids related to galena and
 J. Mao et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 43 (2011) 203–216
Fig. 5. Section through the Yinshan ore deposit showing the mineralization zoning with Cu–Au–S in the depth and Ag–Pb–Zn upward (after Ni(2010)).
calcite, are characteristics of meteoric waters (δ18OH2O = 0.5‰ and
δDH2O =−70‰). The fluid inclusion characteristics of the Yinshan de-
posit area are typical of porphyry Cu polymetallic deposits.
3.3. Jinshan Au deposits
The Jinshan gold deposit, located about 3–4 km SW of Dexing, is
hosted in the Jinshan brittle–ductile E–W, and NE-trending shear
zone, which also hosts other gold deposits, including Huaqiao and
Bashiyuan (Fig. 2). The country rocks in the Jinshan mine area are
Fig. 6. Photograph showing the porphyry Cu–Au ore taken in the adit in the Jiuqu mine,
Yinshan ore deposit. The ore displays a structure of orientation arrangement mainly
consisting of quartz, sericite and pyrite.
209
Mesoproterozoic metamorphic rocks, which are similar to those in
the Dexing porphyry Cu deposit area.
3.3.1. Structures
The Jinshan brittle–ductile shear zone is composed of several parallel
deformation bands at scales ranging from 0.1 m to 650 m in width that
consist of mylonite, protomylonite and ultramylonite, having dip angles
of 5° to 35°NW, N and NE, locally enclosing lenses of undeformed rocks,
linking the regional NE-trending strike-slip shear zone along the margins
of the deposit area.
3.3.2. Orebodies and mineral assemblages
The gold orebodies in the Jinshan mine are layer-like, tabular and
lenticular and parallel to the main shear plane (C foliation). They have
thicknesses ranging from 1.2 m to 16 m, averaging 3.5 m, and are
confined within the quartz–pyrite–ankerite alteration zone at the
center of the Jinshan shear zones (Fig. 7). The Au grade is irregular,
averaging 6 g/t, with the single highest value of 1687 g/t. Gold miner-
alization occurs in altered rocks (silica, pyrite and ankerite) and in
quartz veins. Ore mineral assemblages are simple, including mainly
pyrite, subordinate magnetite, hematite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite and galena. Gangue minerals are quartz, subordinate
sericite, albite, ankerite and chlorite. Pyrite is the most important
gold-bearing mineral host. Native gold has a fineness of 953.6–969.4
(Wei, 1995). The fine-grained and xenomorphic native gold occurs
as disseminations or as micro-veinlets hosted in pyrite and quartz
coexisting with chalcopyrite, galena and tetrahedrite.
3.3.3. Mineralization and alteration
Alteration of country rock in the Jinshan gold deposit is expressed as
silicification, albitization, pyritization, sericitization, chloritization and
210 J. Mao et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 43 (2011) 203–216
carbonation; both silicification and pyritization are closely associated
with gold mineralization. Wei (1996) recognized a distinct alteration
zoning along the Jinshan shear zone, from the margin to the center of
the shear zone, consisting of a chlorite–calcite zone, a quartz–sericite–
dolomite zone and a quartz–pyrite–ankerite zone. Based on the meta-
morphism and deformation of the rocks and mineral paragenesis, Li et
al. (2007a, 2010) proposed that alteration patterns can be divided into
three zones from the center of the shear zone outward, as follows: (1)
quartz–albite–ankerite–pyrite, occurring around the main shear zone
with the highest strain and a vertical thickness of several meters to
tens of meters, but generally less than 50 m, and containing the highest
gold grades; (2) quartz–sericite–ankerite, developed on both sides of
the first alteration zone with vertical thickness of ca. 100 m; and (3)
chlorite–calcite–sericite, occurring in the outermost parts of the shear
zone but not extending beyond it.
Fan and Li (1992) divided the mineralization into three stages, and
then determined the fluid inclusion characteristics of each: (1) quartz–
pyrite, with trapping temperatures of quartz fluid inclusions ranging
from 250 °C to 215 °C; (2) quartz–sulfide, with homogenization temper-
atures ranging from 225 °C to 190 °C; and (3) carbonate with homogeni-
zation temperatures ranging from 190 °C to 160 °C. Salinities of 12.3 to
14.5 wt.% NaCl were determined for medium- and low-temperature
fluids. Fan and Li (1992) reported a large number of universally small
fluid inclusions dominated by liquid-dominant or liquid-only fluid inclu-
sions. Zhang and Tan (1998) recognized four types of fluid inclusions: (1)
gas–liquid brine inclusions, making up 80–85% of the total; (2) pure hy-
drocarbon inclusions (10–15%); (3) saline daughter mineral-bearing
polyphase inclusions (~1%); and (4) pure CO2 inclusions, as well as liquid
CO2-bearing three-phase inclusions (b1%). Zou (1993), Zhang and Tan
(1998) proposed that high contents of organic matter in ore-forming
fluids are important for gold transportation and precipitation. According
to the characteristics of fluid inclusions, Fan and Li (1992), Zhang and
Tan (1998) suggested that mineralization in the Jinshan gold deposit is re-
lated to a granitic intrusion at depth. He/Ar isotopic systematics investi-
gated by Li et al. (2009) suggest that the ore-forming fluids are mainly
crustally-derived, but with involvement of a small amount of mantle
fluids. Hydrogen and oxygen isotopic systematics have led researchers
to propose several different and contradictory sources of ore-forming
fluids such as mixtures of magmatic and meteoric waters (Fan and Li,
1992; Zhang and Tan, 1998), mixture of magmatic and metamorphic
water (Huang and Yang, 1990; Yang et al., 2000), metamorphic waters
(Li et al., 2007a, 2009; Wei, 1996), mixtures of metamorphic and meteoric
Fig. 7. Section through the Jinshan shear zone-hosted gold deposit, reflecting the relationship of the gold orebodies to the mylonitic rocks (modified from Wei(1996); Li et al.
(2007a)).
water (Ji et al., 1994), and finally mixtures of magmatic water, metamor-
phic water and meteoric water (Liu et al., 2005).
Apart from the three large deposits mentioned above, other quartz
vein-type gold deposit include Hamashi, Dongjia and Naikeng—also
within a NE-trending shear zone, to the northeast of the Yinshan deposit
and southwest of the Zhushahong (Fig. 2). Small-scale auriferous quartz
vein-type gold mineralization is also developed along a steep strike-slip
brittle–ductile shear zones. The altered wall rocks have low grade gold
on both sides of the auriferous quartz veins. Wall rock hydrothermal al-
teration consists of silicification accompanied by arsenopyrite and
pyrite.
Li et al. (2009) suggested that mineralization in the Hamashi gold
deposit can be divided into three (a) quartz–pyrite stage—comprising
dominant quartz and a small amount of pyrite and native gold; (b)
sulfide stage—characterized by massive sulfide (pyrite, arsenopyrite,
chalcopyrite, minor galena and sphalerite); and (c) carbonate–sulfide
or sulfate–sulfide stage—consisting of abundant calcite, siderite and
ankerite. Ore minerals are native gold, pyrite and arsenopyrite, with
small amounts of galena and sphalerite; gangue minerals comprise
quartz, calcite and sericite.
4. Discussion and conclusions
4.1. Porphyry copper–epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn–distal hydrothermal Au
deposits: a new mineral system
Porphyry mineral systems are usually divided into porphyry Cu–Au
and porphyry Cu–Mo, but most porphyry deposits in China are porphyry
Cu–Mo and Cu–Mo–Au deposits; porphyry Cu–Au deposits are quite rare.
These differences in the element associations of porphyry systems can be
related to tectonic setting and its implications to the composition of the
magmatic system. Copper could be derived from the mantle (including
remelting of subducted slab and mantle or basaltic underplates), whereas
Mo would be mainly from the lower crust. In the southwest Pacific
islands arcs there are many porphyry Cu–Au deposits and these are usu-
ally associated with epithermal Au and/or Au–Ag deposits. Along the
western South American continental margin and in the southwestern
part of the United States of America and the northwestern part of Mexico
Cu–Mo porphyry deposits are dominant (Cooke et al., 2008). Recently,
the Pebble porphyry Cu–Au–Mo deposit in southwest Alaska (Kelley et
al., 2010; Lang et al., 2008; Rebagliati and Payne, 2005) has been shown
to contain a similar element association as the Dexing porphyry deposit.
 J. Mao et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 43 (2011) 203–216
Porphyry Cu–Au deposits are associated with low-K, mid-K and high-K
calc-alkaline granitoids, whereas porphyry Cu–Mo deposits are related
to alkali-rich granitoids (Cooke et al., 2008). If the denudation of a metal-
logenic belt is comparatively shallow, one can observe the coexistence of
a porphyry copper deposit developed in the lower part of the volcanic ed-
ifice, evolving upward to epithermal systems in andesitic to dacitic volca-
nic rocks (Seedorff et al., 2005) and laterally to base metal (Cu–Pb–Zn)
vein systems (Pirajno, 2009). Comparable systems are known, for exam-
ple, from the Metaliferi Mts., Romania (Cook and Ciobanu, 2004).
In the recent past, almost all calc-alkaline granitoids related to
porphyry (or porphyry–skarn) Cu deposits have been argued to be
adakitic rocks (Zhang et al., 2001), which used to be classified as
magnetite-series granitoids (Ishihara, 1977) or crust–mantle syn-
tectic granitoids (or syntexis type) (Xu et al., 1982). These granitoids
are derived from a deep source (lower crust), high level of emplace-
ment and high oxidation degree. As mentioned above, these porphy-
ry deposits are also associated with epithermal Au–Ag deposits,
skarn deposits (if carbonate rocks are present), and vein-like Ag–
Pb–Zn deposits. The Yinshan Ag–Pb–Zn deposit in Northeastern
Jiangxi province is genetically related to the Mesozoic volcanic–sub-
volcanic rocks, similar to deposits in Mexico (Simmons et al., 2005).
More specifically, the epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn ore veins in the Yinshan
mine are connected with the porphyry Cu–Au at depth, forming a
mineral system.
Dexing is a typical porphyry Cu–Au–Mo deposit. In outlining a ge-
netic model, Rui et al. (1984) and Pei et al. (1998) proposed that
when 35–60% of phenocrysts crystallized from the magma in a shallow
chamber, secondary boiling would lead to exsolution of an independent
critical–supercritical magmatic fluid phase. This fluid phase is alkali and
silica-rich, and has high concentration of volatiles (i.e., H2O, HCl, HF,
SO2, and P2O5) as well as ore-forming metals. At temperatures of
650 °C to 750 °C and salinities of 0.1–55 wt.% NaCl equiv., the nature
and composition of this fluid has two remarkable implications for the
deposition of mineralization. Firstly, the fluids replaced (altered) the
porphyry and country rocks, resulting in a hydrothermal alteration
that is expressed as spotted biotite and K-feldspar (alkali metasoma-
tism). Secondly, its large volume triggers formation of a stockwork frac-
ture system in the roof pendants of the porphyry intrusion which, in
turn, is conducive to extensive convective circulation of magmatic fluids
and meteoric water and the precipitation of ore. In fact, the fluids that
exsolved from the magma adjusted or changed constantly with temper-
ature decrease, depressurization, immiscibility of brine and gas (phase
separation), water/rock reaction and mixing with meteoric water. All
these contribute to the formation of significant mineralization, hydro-
thermal alteration and their zoning from the intrusion outwards (see
Pirajno, 2009, and reference therein).
Since the Dexing porphyry and Yinshan porphyry Cu–Au–epithermal
Ag–Pb–Zn deposits occur within a small area and share the same Middle
Jurassic age it can be reasonably assumed that they belong to the same
mineralizing system (Chen et al., 1989; Pei et al., 1998; Ye, 1987). Follow-
ing a comparative study of available geochemical data and Sr/Nd isotopic
systematics, we can safely assume that the granodiorite in the Dexing
area and the andesitic volcanic–subvolcanic rocks in the Yinshan area
are part of the same magmatic event. The igneous rocks of the Yinshan de-
posit plot in the fields of both high-K calc-alkaline granitoids and shosho-
nite, whereas those of the Dexing deposits plot in the field of high-K calc-
alkaline granitoids (Fig. 8). Igneous rocks from both deposits have similar
REE patterns (Fig. 9) and both have an adakitic signature (Fig. 10), sug-
gesting that they originated from enriched mantle with some mixing
with upper crustal material (Fig. 11). We therefore propose that the Dex-
ing porphyry and Yinshan porphyry Cu–Au–epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn de-
posits belong to the same mineral system, with Dexing porphyry Cu–
Au–Mo at depth and epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn at shallow levels.
Whether the Jinshan gold deposit is genetically associated with the
Dexing porphyry Cu–Au–Mo—Yinshan porphyry—vein Cu–Ag–Au–Mo
deposit system remains debatable. This is because of the lack of suitable
211
minerals for sufficiently precise dating to reveal the age of mineralization
and consequently provide some constraints for a genetic model. In the
past 30 years a large number of dating attempts have resulted in a variety
of different age data. For example, Wu and Liu (1989) obtained a whole
rock Rb–Sr isochron age of 168 Ma on illite taken from auriferous sili-
ceous mylonite. Zhang (1994) dated a whole rock chloritized phyllite
by Rb–Sr methods, yielding 161±6 Ma. However, Zhang (1994) also ap-
plied the whole rock Rb–Sr method to date ultramylonite and quartz
veins and obtained an age of 717 ±6 Ma. Mao et al. (2008a) reported a
Rb–Sr isochron age of 838 Ma for pyrite from the quartz ore vein. Li et
al. (2007a) reported two K/Ar ages of 299.5±2.7 Ma and 317.9±
1.8 Ma from illite in the auriferous mylonite, and a K/Ar age of 269.9±
1.7 Ma for illite in the auriferous quartz veins. Wang et al. (1999)
obtained a Rb–Sr isochron age of 406±25 Ma from fluid inclusions in
quartz vein and shear zone rocks. Mao et al. (2008b) used the same
method to date the auriferous quartz vein, but obtained an age of
379 ± 49 Ma. Due to the limitation of these dating techniques, it is
difficult to verify the reliability of these data. However, although
not accurate, the age data are nevertheless consistent with impor-
tant tectonic events in the geological history of South China. Thus,
the age of 717 ± 6 Ma and 838 Ma coincide with the period of con-
vergence of the Yangtze Craton and Cathaysia block, possibly reflect-
ing the earliest stages of the formation of the ENE-trending strike-
slip fault. The 406 ± 25 Ma age is associated with uplift of the Cath-
aysia Block. The age range between 317.9 ± 1.8 and 269.9 ±1.7 Ma
are not concordant with the convergence between the North China
Craton and South China Block, although the research area is located
far from the continent margin. The ages ranging from 167.9 Ma to
161 ± 6 Ma are consistent with the Late Jurassic magmatism and re-
lated Dexing and Yinshan porphyry–epithermal mineralization,
respectively.
Although there are four different opinions about the source of the
ore-forming fluids responsible for the Jinshan gold deposit, the principal
difference is that they are either related to Neoproterozoic metamor-
phism or to Middle Jurassic granitic magmatism. This implies that the
Jinshan is either an orogenic gold or intrusion-related gold deposit. Li
et al. (2007a) pointed out that the formation of the Jinshan gold deposit
is mainly associated with Proterozoic metamorphic fluids, possibly
overprinted by Mesozoic magmatic fluids. Through field investigations
and the examination of existing data, we propose that the NE-trending
strike-slip shear zones throughout the Dexing area were initiated in the
Neoproterozoic and were subsequently reactivated several times. Ex-
cept for the ages above, the other evidence (below) all points to a
Fig. 8. SiO2 vs. K2O (wt.%) diagram for the igneous rocks in the Dexing area. The chem-
ical analyzed data are from Zhu et al. (1983), Liu (1994), Ye et al. (1998), Le et al.
(2000), Zhang (2001), and Wang et al. (2004).
212 J. Mao et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 43 (2011) 203–216
Fig. 9. REE patterns of igneous rocks from the Dexing area. Data are from Ye et al.
(1998), Le et al. (2000), Ling and Liu (2001), Zhang (2001), Wang et al. (2004), and
Qian and Lu (2005).
Middle–Late Jurassic age of mineralization. First, the mineralized struc-
tures in Dexing area closely match the Late Jurassic regional tectonic
events. As the Izanagi plate began to subduct beneath the Eurasian con-
tinent at ca. 180 Ma (Dong et al., 2007, Mao et al., 2007, 2008a, 2008b,
2008c; Maruyama et al., 1997; Zhang et al., 2009), oblique compression
from the southeast triggered strike-slip movement on the Anlejiang,
Sizhoumiao, Bashiyuan–Tongchang and Jiangguang–Fujiawu faults in
the Dexing area. Furthermore, the Jinshan shear zone and its parallel
shear zones, which are oblique to the above mentioned regional
strike-slip shear zones appeared as extensional (Fig. 2). Li et al.
(2007a) identified three types of orebodies in Jinshan ore district: 1)
veins associated with fracture-filling; 2) extensional veins; and 3)
stockwork veins. These three types of veins indicate that they are the
products of hydrothermal filling and precipitation in an extensional tec-
tonic regime.
The nature of the ore-forming fluid system must exclude an orogenic-
type gold model. The most prominent features of orogenic-type gold de-
posits are ore-forming fluids enriched in CO2 and 18O, low- to medium-
salinity, and a temperature range from 250 to 350 °C (Goldfarb et al.,
2005). Ore fluids in the Jinshan gold deposit, as revealed by abundant
but small fluid inclusions, are, however, of significantly lower tempera-
ture, medium- to high-salinity and are significantly depleted in CO2
(Fan and Li, 1992; Hua et al., 2002; Zhang and Tan, 1998). Stable isotope
Fig. 10. La/Yb vs. Yb diagram distinguishing the types of the igneous rocks in the
Dexing area. Data are from Liu (1994), Ye et al. (1998), Le et al. (2000), Ling and
Liu (2001), Wang et al. (2004) and Qian and Lu (2005).
Fig. 11. εNd(t) vs. (87Sr/86Sr)i diagram showing the source of the igneous rocks in the
Dexing area. The fields in the diagrams are from Jahn et al. (1999) and Zindler and
Hart (1986). Isotopic data are from Zhu et al. (1983), Ye (1987), Zhu et al. (1990)
and Jin et al. (2002).
systematics suggests the involvement of magmatic fluids. The sulfur iso-
topic values for pyrite in the Jinshan deposit (δ34S=+2.1 to +6.7‰; Fan
and Li, 1992) and for pyrite in Hamashi gold deposit (δ34S=+2.8 to +
3.4‰), are sufficiently close to those of pyrite from the Dexing porphyry
deposit (δ34S=−2.8 to −3.1‰; Zhu et al., 1983). However, isotopic ex-
change with the sulfur from the country rocks during ore formation
caused an increase of 34S, as has been shown for lode gold systems of
the Jiangnan Shield (Mao et al., 2002c). Hydrogen and oxygen isotope
compositions show a small range of values in the δOH2O vs. δD plot,
which are different from metamorphic fluids, typically characterized by
a relative wide range. This suggests that the gold mineralization-related
fluids are initially magmatic, and then gradually become dominated by
meteoric water. In the Dexing area, shear zones not only control the for-
mation of gold deposits, but also are major controlling structures for por-
phyry Cu–Au and epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn mineralization. For example, a
shear zone in the Yinshan mine hosts the epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn ore
veins in the open pit, and also hosts disseminated and orientated Cu–
Au ores (Fig. 6) in the quartz porphyry in the underground workings be-
neath the open pit. In both the North China Craton and the South China
block, Precambrian metamorphic rocks are the most important host
rocks for gold mineralization (Hart et al., 2002; Liu et al., 1993; Mao et
al., 2002a, 2002b; Mao and Li, 1997; Nie et al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2002)
and these rocks are thought to have originally contained more leachable
gold. This is probably a feature of Precambrian metamorphic rocks that
have been subjected to later tectonic–magmatic–thermal events, during
which gold is leached out and transported into a new fluid system, and
then deposited in a lode system. However, the question remains whether
granite intrusions could induce and maintain a high-heat in a localized
area, which is available to mineralization. Seedorff et al. (2005) estimated
that the activity of a porphyry ore-forming system can last from 50,000 to
500,000 years, during multistage emplacement of intrusions over a peri-
od of a few million years. Thus, during the Late Jurassic, the emplacement
of deeply-sourced high-K calc-alkaline granites in the Dexing area not
only formed a porphyry Cu–Au–Mu deposit–epithermal-type Ag poly-
metallic deposit system after strong fractionation, but also triggered a
temperature increase in the whole area, leading to a series of convective
hydtrothermal cells (Fig. 12). The magmatic hydrothermal fluids migrat-
ed from high potential energy to low potential energy, along ancient frac-
tures or shear zones, away from the magma chamber, increasingly
becoming mixed with meteoric water and leaching out gold from the
country rocks. These fluids precipitated gold ores within suitable struc-
tural host zones upon change in the physico-chemical conditions.
In summary, the Dexing porphyry Cu–Au–Mo deposit, Yinshan
porphyry Cu–Au-epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn deposit and Jinshan distal
hydrothermal gold deposits formed in the Middle Jurassic and are
 J. Mao et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 43 (2011) 203–216
genetically associated with high-K calc-alkaline granitoids. They are
thus different from classic porphyry Cu and porphyry Cu–epithermal
Au–Ag deposit systems. They may represent a new ore system, as sche-
matically illustrated in Fig. 12.
4.2. Metallogenic geodynamic setting
In the past 15 years, studies of the metallogenic and geodynamic pro-
cesses in South China have made important progress. Shu et al. (2004),
Shu and Wang (2006) proposed that before the Middle Jurassic, South
China block was part of the Tethyan domain and was strongly influenced
by Indosinian orogenesis, characterized by EW-trending faults and folds.
From the Middle Jurassic, South China become part of the Pacific domain
and was mainly influenced by Paleo-Pacific plate subduction and associ-
ated back-arc extension, associated with intracontinental deep struc-
tures, NNE-trending faults and basin-and-range type rift systems, as
well as forming a large granite province. Gilder et al. (1996) recognized
a low TDM and high εNd(t) belt from Shiwandashan (or Qinzhou City) in
Guangxi Province, to the northeastern Guangxi Province, Hunan Prov-
ince, central Jiangxi Province to Hangzhou in Zhejiang Province. This is
commonly referred to as the Shihang belt or Qinzhou–Hangzhou belt
and is presumed to be a Mesozoic rift zone. Chen and Jahn, 1998 and
Hong et al. (1998) further pointed out that there are a few belts of low
TDM and high εNd(t) on the eastern side of the Qinzhou–Hangzhou belt,
which can be considered as the result of lithospheric extension and
crust/mantle interaction. Li and Li (2007) proposed that South China ex-
perienced flat subduction during 250–190 Ma, affecting a large area with
a width of 1300 km. This was followed by slab break off at 180–155 Ma,
triggering large scale magmatism. Support for this hypothesis comes
from the ca. 500 km long 178–173 Ma volcanic belt, extending from
southern Hunan Province, through southern Jiangxi Province to the
southwest Fujian Province (Chen et al., 1999, 2002; Li et al., 2003; Tao
et al., 1998; Wang et al., 2003; Xu, 1992; Zhao et al., 1998; Zhou et al.,
2006). The belt includes bimodal volcanic rocks (alkali basalt, tholeiitic
basalt, rhyolite and a small amount of andesite). This was followed by
the intrusion of Jurassic highly-differentiated I-type granitoids (Li et al.,
2007a, 2007b, 2007c), containing W-Sn ore deposits along NE-trending
faults in South China. Mao et al. (2007, 2008) indicated that Nanling in
the center of the Cathysian block and adjacent northeastern areas, east-
wards from the regional Qinzhou–Hangzhou fault zone is a large W-Sn
metallogenic province, inferred to be related to a Middle–Late Jurassic
slab window event.
Fig. 12. Schematic model of porphyry Cu–Au, epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn and distal hydrothermal Au deposits in the Dexing area.
213
In contrast, studies on the metallogenic setting for the porphyry Cu–
epithermal Ag polymetallic–distal hydrothermal gold deposits in the
Dexing area are relatively rare, although Zhu et al. (1983) speculated
that it is an intracontinental mineral system. Mao et al. (2004) and Hou
et al. (2007) inferred that this mineralization is related to post-collision
extension, between the North China and South China plates. Wang et
al. (2006) concluded that granodiorite porphyries have adaktic affini-
ties—that is they represent a product of remelting caused by delaminated
lower crust, along the Shihang rift valley. The Dexing porphyry copper
deposit occurs 50 km north of the Shihang rift zone (Wang et al., 2006),
whereas the Yongping Middle–Late Jurassic skarn-type Cu-deposit occurs
ca. 30 km south of Dexing. Mao et al. (2004, 2007, 2008c) noted that there
is a NE-trending polymetallic metallogenic belt extending for more than
1000 km, which includes the Dexing porphyry Cu–Au–Mo, Yinshan por-
phyry–epithermal-type silver polymetallic deposit, Lengshuikeng
epithermal-type Ag–Pb–Zn, Yongping skarn-type copper, Dongxiang hy-
drothermal copper, Qibaoshan and Baoshan porphyry Cu, Shuikoushan
hydrothermal vein Pb–Zn, Tongshan porphyry copper, Yuanzhuding por-
phyry Cu–Mo and Dabaoshan porphyry–skarn Cu–Mo deposits (Fig. 1)
inboard of the South China continental margin. The deposits in this metal-
logenic belt along the Qinzhou–Hangzhou rift belt (or Neoproterozoic su-
ture zone) have ages ranging from 180 Ma to 165 Ma (2008a, 2008b,
2008c, Li et al., 2007b; Mao et al., 2004), and are spatially, temporally
and genetically associated with high oxidation magnetite-series granodi-
orite and diorite, as defined by Ishihara (1977) or crust–mantle syntectic-
type granites, as defined by Xu et al. (1982). Recently, Guo et al. (2010)
carried out petrological and geochemical studies on these granitic rocks
and summarized their characteristics as follows. (A) The mafic minerals
of these granitic rocks are predominatly hornblende with lesser biotite;
plagioclase shows zonal textures, K-feldspar is mostly microcline, and
the magnetite content is larger than that of ilmenite. (B) These granitoids
are peraluminous high-K calc-alkaline with 56.24%–68.8% SiO2, 4.02%–
10.55% (K2O+Na2O), K2ON Na2O and A/CNK=0.79–1.57. (C) Their REE
distribution patterns show generally a right inclined smooth curve,
(La/Yb)N =4.43–29.07, a weak negative Eu anomaly, δEu=0.62–1.36,en-
richment of LILE and depletion of Nb–Ta, Ba, Sr and Ti. (D) Their initial
(87Sr/86Sr)i =0.705028–0.722376, εNd =−12.3–1.80, are related to high
εNd(t) values, lowTDM of high-K calc-alkaline series rocks. (E). The ore-
forming elements are Cu, Mo, Fe, Au, Ag, Pb, and Zn. These granitoids
may be derived from the upwelling mantle, which produced partial melt-
ing of mixed crust–mantle materials (Arnaud et al., 1992; Thompson,
1996; Wang et al., 2003). In comparison with melts formed by simple
214 J. Mao et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 43 (2011) 203–216
granulite anatexis, they are characterized by positive Eu anomalies, low
K2O, high Na2O (N4.3%), Nd=−6.0 to −5.8 (Kong et al., 2000, Rapp
and Watson, 1995; Sen and Dunn, 1994). Therefore, the granitoids in
the South China belt cannot have formed by anatexis of granulite facies
lower crust. The e εNd vs. 87Sr/86Sr diagram shows that these granitoids
plot on the evolutionary line of the mantle and lower crust in which it is
shown that the Dexing granodiorite porphyry is derived from the mantle,
whereas other granitoids have varying degrees of contamination with
crustal materials. The metal associations and the components of the relat-
ed granitoids, indicate that as more crustal materials were involved in the
formation of the mantle-derived magmatic systems, the metal associa-
tions typically evolve from Cu–Au–Mo→Cu–Ag–Pb–Zn→Ag–Pb–Zn.
Considering that the 1000 km long NE-trending metallogenic belt of
porphyry–skarn and epithermal Cu–Au–Mo–Pb–Zn deposits and related
magmatic rocks is oblique to the subduction zone of the Izanagi plate
(or Paleo-pacific plate), the presence of Jurassic extensive transpressional
structures and thrust nappes in the belt can be considered to have formed
in the back-arc setting of an active continental margin. In contrast, the
aforementioned 500 km long belt of 178–173 Ma bimodal volcanic
rocks in southern Hunan Province, through southern Jiangxi Province to
the southwest Fujian Province, is perpendicular to the line of subduction.
Thus, unlike these bimodal volcanic rocks the magmatic rocks in the poly-
metallic ore belt are possibly the product of partial remelting of the sub-
ducted slab or underplating mantle in an active continental margin.
When the magma derived from the mantle rises to a shallow level in
the crust, porphyry Cu–Au–Mo deposits are formed. After more contam-
ination with the crust these magmas will form porphyry Cu–Au–Mo to
epithermal Ag–Pb–Zn deposits, and locally skarn-vein Ag–Pb–Zn de-
posits. Where Precambrian metamorphic rocks are present, leachable
gold is extracted and precipitated in suitable fractures, such as existing
ductile–brittle shear zones.
Acknowledgments
This research was jointly supported by the Projects 2007CB411405 of
the State Key Fundamental Program, Geological Survey Project
(1212010634001) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. 40434011). We thank Dr. Xiangyun Chen and Prof. Shuibao Huang
and their teams, as well as local geologists from the mines visited, for pro-
viding invaluable assistance and constructive discussions during our field
investigations. We are also grateful to Dr. Xiaofen Li and Prof. Zongyao Rui
for their constructive discussions and suggestions. We are indebted to the
two anonymous referees for their constructive and critical reviews, which
greatly helped us to improve this paper.
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