Ethernet

IEEE project 802

In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started 802
project, to set standards to enable intercommunication
among equipment from a variety of manufacturers by
specifying functions of the physical and data link layer of
major LAN protocols.
Relationship between 802 and OSI model
The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sublayers:
• logical link control (LLC) that handles framing, flow control, and error
control. A LLC protocol can serve several MAC protocols.
• media access control (MAC).

IEEE also created several physical layer standards for different LAN
protocols.
Ethernet Evolution
 Standard Ethernet Frame Format
Ethernet does not provide any mechanism for acknowledging received
frames, making it what is known as an unreliable medium.
Acknowledgments must be implemented at the higher layers.
 Standard Ethernet Frame Format
 Preamble is the first field of the 802.3 frame and contains
7 bytes (56 bits) of alternating 0s and 1s that alerts the
receiving system to the coming frame and enables it to
synchronize its input timing. The preamble is actually
added at the physical layer.
 Start frame delimiter (SFD) field (1 byte: 10101011)
signals the beginning of the frame. The SFD warns the
station or stations that this is the last chance for
synchronization. The last 2 bits is 11 and alerts the
receiver that the next field is the destination address.
 Standard Ethernet Frame Format
 Destination address (DA) is 6 bytes and contains the
physical address of the destination station or stations to
receive the packet.
 Source address (SA) is 6 bytes and contains the
physical address of the sender.
 Length or type
 Data field carries data encapsulated from the upper-
layer protocols. Its length is 46 - 1500 bytes.
 CRC is the last field and contains error detection
information, in this case a CRC-32.
 Physical Address
• Each station on an Ethernet network has its network
interface card (NIC). Each NIC has a distinct 6-byte
physical address that is normally written in hexadecimal
notation, with a colon between the bytes.
• If the least significant bit of the first byte in a destination
address is 0, the address is unicast; otherwise, it is
multicast.
• The broadcast address is a special case of the multicast
address; the recipients are all the stations on the LAN. A
broadcast destination address is all 1s.
 Standard Ethernet Physical Layer
Implementation
• Standard Ethernet uses 1-persistent CSMA/CD
• The Standard Ethernet defines several physical layer
implementations
 10Base5: Thick Ethernet
• 10Base5 was the first Ethernet specification to use a bus
topology with an external transceiver connected via a tap to a
thick coaxial cable.
• The transceiver is connected to the station via a transceiver
cable that provides separate paths for sending and receiving.
This means that collision can only happen in the coaxial cable.
• The maximum length of the coaxial cable must not exceed 500
m, otherwise, there is excessive degradation of the signal. If a
length of more than 500 m is needed, up to five segments, each
a maximum of 500-meter, can be connected using repeaters.
 10Base2: Thin Ethernet
• 10Base2 uses a bus topology.
• The cable is much thinner and more flexible than 10Base5.
• The transceiver is normally part of NIC, which is installed inside the station.
• This implementation is more cost effective than 10Base5 because thin
coaxial cable is less expensive than thick coaxial and the T connections are
much cheaper than taps.
• Installation is simpler because the thin coaxial cable is very flexible.
• The length of each segment cannot exceed 185 m due to the high level of
attenuation in thin coaxial cable.
 10BaseT: Twisted-Pair Ethernet
• 10Base-T uses a physical star topology. The stations are connected to a
hub via two pairs of twisted cable
• The maximum length of the twisted cable here is defined as 100 m.
 10BaseF: Fiber Ethernet
• There are several of fiber 10-Mbps Ethernet but
10BaseF is the most common.
• 10Base-F uses a star topology to connect stations to
a hub.
• The stations are connected to the hub using two fiber-
optic cables.
Ethernet Address
 Bridges and Collision Domains
• The first step in the Ethernet evolution was the division of a LAN by
bridges.
• Bridges separate collision domains and raise the bandwidth.
 Switched Ethernet
• A layer 2 switch is an N-port bridge with additional sophistication that
allows faster handling of the packets.
• The collision domain is divided into N domains.
• The bandwidth is shared only between the station and the switch (5
Mbps each for 10-Mbps Ethernet).
 Full-Duplex Ethernet
• One of the limitations of 10Base5 and 10Base2 is that communication is
half-duplex (10Base-T is always full-duplex); a station can either send or
receive.
• The next step in the evolution was to move from switched Ethernet to full-
duplex switched Ethernet.
• The full-duplex mode doubles the capacity of each domain.
• There are two links between the station and the switch: one to transmit and
one to receive.
• There is no need for the CSMAICD method as each station or switch can
send and receive independently without worrying about collision.
• Each link is a point-to-point dedicated path between the station and the
switch.
 Fast Ethernet
IEEE created Fast Ethernet under the name 802.3u. The
goals of Fast Ethernet can be summarized as follows:
 Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps.
 Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet.
 Keep the same 48-bit address.
 Keep the same frame format.
 Keep the same minimum and maximum frame
lengths.
 Fast Ethernet MAC
Fast Ethernet dropped the bus topology and kept only the
star topology. For the star topology, there are two choices:
 half-duplex approach, the stations are connected via a
hub which uses CSMAlCD.
 full-duplex approach, the connection is made via a
switch with buffers at each port. There is no need for
CSMAlCD but it is kept for backward compatibility with
Standard Ethernet.
 Fast Ethernet Physical Layer
Implementation
If there are only two stations, they can be connected point-
to-point. Three or more stations need to be connected in a
star topology with a hub or a switch at the center
 Fast Ethernet Physical Layer
Implementation
 Fast Ethernet implementation at the physical layer can
be categorized as either two-wire or four-wire.
 The two-wire implementation can be either:
• category 5 UTP (100Base-TX)
• fiber-optic cable (100Base-FX)
 The four-wire implementation is designed only for
category 3 UTP (100Base-T4).
 Fast Ethernet Encoding
100Base-TX uses two pairs of twisted-pair cable (either
category 5 UTP or STP). MLT-3 scheme was selected
since it has good bandwidth performance. However, since
MLT-3 is not a self-synchronous line coding scheme, 4B/5B
block coding is used.
 Gigabit Ethernet
The IEEE Standard for gigabit Ethernet is 802.3z. The
goals of the Gigabit Ethernet design can be summarized as
follows:
 Upgrade the data rate to 1 Gbps.
 Make it compatible with Standard or Fast Ethernet.
 Use the same 48-bit address.
 Use the same frame format.
 Keep the same minimum and maximum frame
lengths.
 To support autonegotiation as defined in Fast
Ethernet.
 Gigabit Ethernet Duplex Modes
 Almost all implementations of Gigabit Ethernet follow the
full-duplex approach.
 A central switch connected to all other devices. In this
mode, each switch has buffers for each input port in
which data are stored until they are transmitted.
 There is no need for CSMAlCD as there are no
collisions in this mode.

 Half-duplex is also supported so that Gigabit Ethernet

can be compatible with the previous generations.
 A switch can be replaced by a hub.
 CSMAlCD is used
 Gigabit Ethernet Topologies
 If there are only two
stations, they can be
connected point-to-point.
 Three or more stations
need to be connected in
a star topology with a
hub or a switch at the
center.
 Several star topologies
can connected or a star
topology can be part of
another to form a
hierarchy.
 Gigabit Ethernet Implementations
Gigabit Ethernet can be categorized as either a two-wire
or a four-wire implementation.
• The two-wire implementations use fiber-optic cable
(1000Base-SX, short-wave, or 1000Base-LX, long-
wave), or STP (1000Base-CX).

• Four-wire version uses category 5 twisted-pair cable

(1000Base-T).
 10 Gigabit Ethernet
The IEEE committee created Ten-Gigabit Ethernet and
called it Standard 802.3ae. The goals of the Ten-Gigabit
Ethernet design can be summarized as follows:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 10 Gbps.
2. Make it compatible with Standard, Fast, and
Gigabit Ethernet.
3. Use the same 48-bit address.
4. Use the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame
lengths.
6. Allow the interconnection of existing LANs into a
MAN or a WAN.
7. Make Ethernet compatible with technologies such
as Frame Relay and ATM.
 10 Gigabit Ethernet
 10-Gigabit Ethernet operates only in full duplex mode
which means CSMA/CD is not needed.

 The physical layer in Ten-Gigabit Ethernet is designed

for using fiber-optic cable over long distances. Three
implementations are the most common:
• 10GBase-S
• 10GBase-L
• 10GBase-E