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Reliability, long-term stability and gage performance of vibrating wire sensors

with reference to case histories

Article · January 1999

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Reliability, long-term stability and gage performance of vibrating wire
sensors with reference to case histories
P.Choquet & F.Juneau
Roctest Ltd, Montreal,Canada
P.J.Debreuille
Telemac s.a., Gretz-Armainvilliers (77), France
J.Bessette
Roctest Inc.,Plattsburgh, N.Y.,U.S.A.

ABSTRACT: Recent evolution of automatic data acquisition system and data interpretation has enabled read-
ings to be taken automatically on instruments. This emphasizes the need for reliable instruments to monitor in
real time the behaviour of structures. The use of vibrating wire sensors in the field of geomechanics is par-
ticularly considered for these applications where long-term monitoring is expected. The paper describes some
experiences about long-term stability and reliability of different kinds of vibrating wire instruments such as
pressure sensor, strain gage and displacement transducer. Special tests are described to verify the influence of
artificialy aging the sensor during manufacturing. The accuracy over time and gage performance is also re-
ported with reference to case histories. The effects of disturbing factors like temperature change, impact and
vibration are also analyzed. Information on electrical connection cables and lightning protection is also pro-
vided in the paper.

1 INTRODUCTION especially if decisions concerning performance and

safety are to be taken with any degree of accuracy
Automatic data acquisition and data interpretation and confidence.
have become an integral part of all medium and This paper presents some results of laboratory ex-
large-scale instrumentation projects and monitoring periments, field tests and case histories for different
programs. Automatic data acquisition is of funda- types of vibrating wire sensors to verify their behav-
mental benefit, because the measurements are auto- iour and their reliability. Different factors affecting
matically taken and the data stored in a compatible gage performance such as zero drift, repeatability,
format for computer-assisted data processing, visu- temperature change, impact and vibration were
alization and reporting (Choquet et al. 1998). The evaluated.
instruments and the people being the only two as-
pects of the monitoring performance; the reliability
of the instruments becomes the overriding feature in 2 VIBRATING WIRE GAGES
the selection of a technology. Reliability takes its
most important sense when the instrumentation pro- The vibrating wire gages are particularly known to
ject is located in a remote area or when the instru- give superior performance in geomechanical applica-
ments are embedded in concrete, grouted in place, tions where long-term reliability, minimum zero drift
buried in ground or down in a borehole and therefore and signal immunity to electrical noise are of prime
inaccessible. importance (Bordes & Debreuille 1985, Tunbridge
Good instrument design, manufacturing tech- & Oien 1988, McRae & Simmonds 1991, Larive et
niques and quality control can usually create ade- al. 1995).
quate durability at the installed environment. If the The sensor operating principle is to calculate a
instrument reliability is defined as the probability of physical parameter by measuring the change in the
a measuring assembly to work properly, other impor- frequency of a vibrating wire stretched on a frame
tant factors for the sensors are accuracy, resolution, deforming with or by the quantity to be measured. A
repeatability, reproducibility which depends on zero length of high strength resistant steel wire is clamped
drift and hysteresis. The sensor is the essential link at its ends and tensioned so that it is free to vibrate at
that generates the electrical signal and hence pro- its natural frequency. Figure 1 shows the operating
vides a record of the quantity being measured. Thus principle of a Roctest strainmeter mounted between
a good long-term reliability is of utmost importance two welded end blocks.
th
Published in: Proceedings of the 5 International Symposium on Field Measurements in Geomechanics,
1-3 December 1999, Singapore
 3 LONG-TERM STABILITY TESTS

If a vibrating wire sensor is to be used for long-term

Figure 1: Schematic principle of Roctest vibrating wire strain-
meter
applications, it is important to be sure that there will
be no zero drift and a minimum change in sensitiv-
ity. To achieve this goal, advanced manufacturing
techniques and artificial aging procedures are neces-
sary to minimize drift. Many comparative tests were
done in laboratory to improve these techniques. In
this section we will present some test results on three
transducers types to show the beneficial influence of
artificial aging process.

As with a guitar string, the frequency of vibration 3.1 Pressure transducer

varies with the wire tension, and thus with the small In a pressure transducer the vibrating wire is at-
relative movements between the two end blocks. tached and measures the deformation of a sensitive
Therefore this movement can be monitored with the membrane. The pressure acting on the membrane
pluck and read method by magnetically plucking the causes a change in wire frequency. A calibration is
wire with an electrical coil placed at its mid-point, necessary for each sensor to correlate the applied
by measuring the natural frequency of the wire with pressure versus the frequency change. Three barriers
the same coil and by relating the frequency change to of protection against water infiltration protect the
microstrain. Then the vibrating wire theory can be PWS sensor from Roctest as shown in Figure 2. In-
expressed with the following equation: side the piezometer we have a bulkhead seal, epoxy
∆L 4 L2 ρ 2 resin and watertight connector is used around the ca-
ε=
L
=
E
(
f − f 02 ) (1) ble. The initial tension of the wire is about 10% of
yield which minimizes any creep tendencies.
Where
f = resonant frequency of wire vibration
∆L = change in length of vibrating wire
L = initial length of vibrating wire
ρ = volumetric weight of wire
E = Young’s modulus of the steel wire

The vibration of the wire induces in the plucking

coil an alternative current of identical frequency as
the frequency of vibration of the wire. The frequency
Figure 2: Schematic principle of a vibrating wire piezometer
signal can be transmitted over long lead cables and
displayed by a portable readout or monitored by a
In the following example a piezometer was in-
data acquisition system.
stalled in a water column of 4.5 m and readings were
Use of this principle then called acoustic indica-
taken with a portable MB-6T vibrating wire readout
tor, was patented in 1931 in France by André Coyne,
unit manufactured by Roctest over a period of 600
founder of the French consulting engineering firm
days. Before each reading measurement, the column
Coyne et Bellier and designer of more than 55 arch
was filled up with water up to 4.5 m in order to
dams. After World War II, various vibrating wire in-
compensate for evaporated water and a period of
struments were developed by a number of manufac-
time was allowed to stabilize the reading. Figure 3
turers including Telemac, founded in 1947 by André
shows the readings after corrections for temperature
Coyne, and Irad Gage, founded in 1970 by Dr. Ivor
and barometric pressure variations. The response of
Hawke. Those firms were acquired respectively in
the transducer remains well within the ±0.5% full
1991 and 1988 by Roctest, which has carried on the
scale (F.S.) accuracy of the sensor. Similar results
manufacturing and design improvement and widened
were obtained with two others sensors.
the line of vibrating wire instruments.
The vibrating wire principle is utilized in differ-
ent configurations to make many types of sensors
and instruments for various applications in which
strain, displacement, piezometric level, force and
pressure are the required quantities to be measured.
 7.500 3.3 Displacement transducer
Pressure variation (kPa). 5.000
± 0.5%F.S. In a displacement transducer the vibrating wire is
2.500 connected in series with a spring and a connecting
0.000
rod. This spring is used to achieve a displacement of
25 to 100 mm. Movement of the rod changes the
-2.500
tension in the spring and consequently the frequency
-5.000 of vibrating wire. A ball joint assembly allows the
-7.500
fixation of the transducer on the structure as shown
in Figure 5.
0
22
50
69
120
231
254
281
293
302
310
320
331
345
370
400
429
467
518
586
Time (Days)
Figure 3: Long-term test of a pressure transducer in a water col-
umn

3.2 Strain gage

In a strainmeter the vibrating wire is clamped be-
tween two end blocks as illustrated in Figure 1.
Strainmeters from Roctest have been studied in labo-
ratory to evaluate the reliability of the measurement.
Two gages were fixed to an unloaded steel I-beam Figure 5: Vibrating wire displacement transducer
which was placed on a stable base. This test was
done to observe the stability of the reading over Figure 6 shows readings of a vibrating wire
time. The gages were set initially at a frequency be- jointmeter monitored over a period of 1215 days.
tween 787 and 789 Hz corresponding to 2520 and The initial tension of the transducer is set to 50% of
2530 linear unit or around the mid-range of the sen- full scale. As can be seen on the figure, no signifi-
sor (784.5 Hz). Gage readings were taken during cant zero drift was detected and the reading re-
1400 days with a portable MB-6T vibrating-wire mained well within the ±0.5% F.S. accuracy rating
readout unit. Figure 4 shows the excellent stability of of the gage
the reading over time, well below the ±0.5% F.S. ac-
curacy rating of the gage. One reason of a zero drift
in the field can be attribuated to the external support 6775
of the gage. Careful precautions must be done to 6755
6735
check the loosening of the support nuts for one type 6715 ±0.5%F.S.
of bracket and welded connection between the gage
Reading (linear unit).

6695
block and the structure for another type of bracket. 6675
Under controlled environnemental condition like in 6655
6635
laboratory investigation we do not have this kind of 6615
problem and it is easier to evaluate the stability of 6595
the reading. 6575
6555
6535
2600.0
3
10
19
41
63
101
147
168
203
227
262
279
301
342
367
388
409
479
500
521
543
564
584
606
626
668
702
731
845
914
1215

0.5%F.S.
Reading (microstrain)

2560.0
Time (Days)
2520.0 Figure 6: Long-term test of a vibrating wire displacement trans-
ducer
2480.0

2440.0
4 GAGE PERFORMANCE
2400.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 The performance and accuracy of vibrating wire
Time (Days)
strain gages and pressure sensors depend on several
factors. Among these factors we have gage sensitiv-
Gage A Gage B
ity to strain changes, repeatability, reproducibility,
zero drift, temperature change, impact and vibration.
Figure 4: Long-term test of vibrating wire strain gages under Different tests were done to evaluate each of the
laboratory conditions
Published in: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Field Measurements in Geomechanics,
1-3 December 1999, Singapore
previous characteristics and some tests will be sum- gages and those from the electrical strain gages and
marized in this section. shows that strain response is very linear.
The average slope of the best fit straight line of
10 sensors is 1.009 µε/µε and means that the gage
4.1 Repeatability and reproducibility factor of the SM-5A is in good agreement with vi-
Generally it is difficult or even impossible to brating wire theory as explained is section 2.0. The
check the reproducibility of a vibrating wire piezo- experiment was repeated several times with different
meter over long period of time because the sensor is sensors during short period of time and long period
often inaccessible. Three piezometers were installed of time of 2 years and similar results were always
in three differents boreholes in a project in U.S.A. obtained. Then it appears that the strainmeter is very
After five years in the field we have retrieved the repeatable and reproducible.
sensors to evaluate the gage sensitivity and maxi-
mum error of non-linearity. Table 1 shows the varia-
tion of the calibration factor after five years and the
maximum non-linearity error in percentage full
scale. The reference pressure sensor used for the re-
calibration was different from the original calibration
but its precision is 0.025% full scale, which means
20 times more precise than the rated linearity of
±0.5% full scale of the sensor. The variation of the
calibration factor for the three sensors is between
0.09% and 0.11% and these values are better than
the accuracy of the sensor which confirms the stabil-
ity of the transducer calibration factor.

Table 1: Recalibration of piezometers after five years in field.

Sensor Original Calibration
Calibration 5 years later
C.F. A 0.11999 0.11987
B 0.06616 0.06610
C 0.07122 0.07114 Figure 7: Experimental setup for traction test on vibrating wire
%F.S. A 0.15 0.17 gage
B 0.08 0.04
1800
C 0.03 0.06
Electrical strain gage reading.

1600
1400
*C.F.= Calibration factor in psi/linear unit
(microstrain)

1200
%F.S.= Maximum error of non-linearity 1000
800
A mechanical test was carried out to assess and 600
characterize the strain sensitivity and repeatability of 400
a vibrating wire strain gage. The strainmeter investi- 200
gated was the surface-mounted type SM-5A of Roc- 0

test Ltd. The setup shown in Figure 7 allows to elon- 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

gate axially two strainmeters while maintaining their

two end blocks to a steel square bar. Six conven-
tional resistive strain gages were bonded in the mid-
dle section of the square bar as reference strain sig-
nal. The steel bar was loaded up to 1600
microstrains. Figure 8 shows the comparison for
both the vibrating wire gage and the electrical strain
gage during the calibration test. The result of the vi-
brating wire gage is calculated by averaging the
readings of the two strain gages located on opposite
sides of the strut. The result is thereafter correlated
to the average of the six electrical strain gages read-
ing. The graphic shows a perfect correlation between
the measurements obtained from the vibrating wire
Vibrating wire strain gage reading (microstrain)
Figure 8: Comparison of strain measured by SM-5A vibrating
wire gage and electrical strain gage
A test of reproducibility was also done with four
displacement transducers as presented in Figure 5.
These transducers were placed in a structure in Por-
tugal. After four years on field structure, these sen-
sors came back to the factory for a recalibration. Ta-
ble 2 shows the comparison of the original
calibration factor and the new calibration factor. The
difference in gage sensitivity is between 0.15% and
0.38%.
Table 2: Reproducibility test of displacement transducer of 25 is almost compensated because the coefficient of
mm range. steel is about 11.5 microstrain/oC. The small varia-
Sensor Original Calibration tion comes from the difference in the thermal coeffi-
Calibration 4 years later cient of expansion between the components of the
C.F. A 0.0044151 0.0044242 gage and the coefficient of the host material on
B 0.0044110 0.0043941 which the gage is fixed. The sensor were tested un-
C 0.0041000 0.0040937 der no-load condition. The temperature of the gage
D 0.0041620 0.0041467
2750
%F.S. A 0.06 0.09

Vibrating wire strain gage reading.

2700
B 0.05 0.06
2650
C 0.05 0.07

(microstrain)
D 0.06 0.06 2600
2550
y = 0.2472x + 2558.5
*C.F.= Calibration factor in mm/linear unit 2500
%F.S.= Maximum error of non-linearity 2450
2400
4.2 Temperature change 2350
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
4.2.1 Pressure sensors o
Temperature ( C)
Laboratory tests were conducted to determine the was measured internally by means of a thermistor.
effect of temperature during the calibration of a vi-
brating wire piezometer. Different calibrations were Figure 10: Thermal test on SM-5A vibrating wire strainmeter
done at four temperatures of 0, 20, 40 and 60oC as
shown in Figure 9. The difference in gage sensitivity
between 0 and 60oC is 0.2% and remains within the 4.3 Impact and vibration test on piezometer
rated linearity of ±0.5% full scale of the sensor. Some tests were done with PWS piezometers of
Roctest to evaluate the influence of zero drift when
350 the transducer is subjected to vibration and shocks.
300
Many piezometers transducers were installed on a
shaking table to simulate vibration. A vibration test
Pressure (kPa).

250
at 5g during one hour lead to insignificant zero drift
200
for different ranges from 200 to 7000 kPa.
150 To evaluate the influence of impact many piezo-
100 meters transducers were dropped at different posi-
50 tions and height on cement floor. Laboratory tests
0 have showed that the sensor is not sensitive to verti-
0 200 400 600 800 1000 cal shocks when dropped from a height of up to 0.5
Reading variation (Linear Unit)
meter. For horizontal shocks a more detailed investi-
gation needed to be conducted. For this test the
0°C 20°C 40°C 60°C transducer was held horizontally or parallel to the
Figure 9: Influence of temperature during calibration of PWS floor at a known height. The transducer was released
piezometer from rest and accelerated under its own weight until
it impacted on the floor. Table 3 summarizes the test
4.2.2 Strain gage for different sensors with different ranges. After each
The difference in thermal expansion between vi- impact, the output reading was recorded and com-
brating wire strain gage and the structure on which pared with the initial reading. Similar results were
the gage is attached can influence the accuracy of obtained with others piezometers but the lower range
measurements. The following test has been done to sensor is more sensitive to horizontal impact than
evaluate the influence of a temperature change by higher range as presented in Table 3.
observing the response of a vibrating wire strain As we can see there is a zero drift after horizontal
gage to a fluctuation of –15oC to 105oC. impact for lower range sensors especially the 175
First two end blocks have been welded to a steel kPa range sensors. Therefore it is important to han-
structure as shown in Figure 1 and thereafter the vi- dle the sensor with care before installation. During
brating wire sensor has been attached to the weldable shipment the sensor is protected with a foam. The
end blocks. Figure 10 shows temperature dependen- same horizontal test as before was repeated with a
cies of 0.25 microstrain/oC. As we can see the gage protective foam and the results are presented in Ta-
Published in: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Field Measurements in Geomechanics,
1-3 December 1999, Singapore
ble 4. The results demonstrate that there is no sig- 6 CONCLUSION
nificant shift with the foam if the sensor is dropped
horizontally from a height of 30 cm and even from a The characteristics and the behaviour of different
height of 100 cm. kinds of vibrating wire sensors have been presented
After these impacts tests all sensors were recali- in this paper. We have seen the importance of an ap-
brated to evaluate the influence on the stability of the propriate artificial aging process during manufactur-
calibration factor. The results demonstrated that even ing to minimize the zero drift.
if there is a zero drift of up to 125 linear units due to Many tests in laboratory, including long-term
shocks loads there is insignificant shift in the gage tests, have been done to evaluate the gage perform-
sensitivity. ance. Long-term tests of piezometers, strainmeters
and displacement transducers over a period varying
Table 3: Influence of horizontal impact on piezometer if sensor between 600 and 1400 days have presented good
is dropped at different height without any protection stability of readings. Recalibration of PWS piezome-
Gage 5 cm 10 cm 15 cm 30 cm ters after 5 years in field have presented a small
variation of 0.1% of the gage sensitivity. Another
175 kPa 3754.5 3670.5 3660.9 3631.9 test proves that the strainmeter SM-5A was repeat-
350 kPa 2658.4 2658.1 2641.1 2605.7 able and reproducible and the strain measured was in
700 kPa 3211.4 3210.4 3208.2 3207.5 good agreement with electrical strain gage reading.
3500 kPa 3309.3 3309.4 3309.3 3309.2 We have seen that temperature has almost no influ-
ence in the calibration factor of a piezometer. The
* The readings presented in Table 3 and 4 are in lin- slight temperature dependencies of 0.25 mi-
ear unit and have been recorded with a MB-6T port- crostrain/oC for a strainmeter is due to the slight
able readout unit. mismatch in the coefficient of thermal expansion be-
tween the vibrating wire gage and the host material
Table 4: Influence of horizontal impact on piezometer if sensor on which the gage is attached. Even if there is a zero
is dropped at different height with a protective foam drift of a piezometer due to shocks loads there is in-
Gage 5 cm 10 cm 15 cm 30 cm significant shift in the gage sensitivity. Vibrating
wire gages are suitable for use with long cable
350 kPa 3359.6 3359.6 3359.8 3359.7 lengths and in situations where they are not accessi-
700 kPa 2961.7 2961.7 2961.8 2961.8 ble for recalibration.
700 kPa 3374.1 3373.9 3374.1 3374.0 Many vibrating wire gages have been installed in
different civil engineering structures for many years
and we can conclude that their response is stable, ac-
5 CABLE AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION curate and offers highly valued reliability features
for geomechanics uses. However proper care is al-
One advantage of vibrating wire sensors is that ways necessary during installation to take adavan-
the frequency signal is imperturbable and can be tage of their long-term performance.
transmitted over long cable length. To prove this fact
a piezometer has been tested with a cable length of
2.7 km. The reading was stable and was within 0.1% REFERENCES
compared with 1.5 m. This proves that no booster
Choquet, P., Dupuis, M., Dadoun, F. & J.M. Klebba 1998. Inte-
amplifier is necessary with long cable length and it grated automatic data acquisition systems for dam monitor-
does not affect the reading. Materials like polyethyl- ing. In C.V.J. Varma, N.Visvanathan, A.R.G. Rao (eds),
ene and polypropylene are good insulators and must Proc. Symposium on Rehabilitation of Dams: 163-172. New
be used for individual conductor insulation. Delhi: 4 November 1998.
Lightning protection is very important for protec- Larive, C., Joly, M., Dubois, J.P. & P.Choquet. 1995. Theoreti-
tion against external disturbances. It is for this rea- cal and experimental validation of the vibrating wire princi-
ple. Application to a low stiffness strainmeter for embed-
son that all Roctest’s piezometer come with a gas ment in concrete. 4th Proc.International Symposium on
discharge tube. This device is made of two elec- Field Measurements in Geomechanics. Bergamo, 10-12
trodes isolated by a small gas chamber that will pro- April 1995: 341-348.
duce an electric arc if there is overvoltage. However Tunbridge, L.W., & K. Oien 1988. The advantages of vibrating
it must be emphasized that even with best lightning wire instruments in geomechanics. In Sukurai (ed.), 2nd
protection device, 100% effectiveness cannot be Proc. International Symposium on Field Measurements in
Geomechanics. Vol.1 :3-16, Rotterdam: Balkema.
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term reliability of vibrating-wire instruments Transporta-
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Published in: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Field Measurements in Geomechanics,
1-3 December 1999, Singapore
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