COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION

FEATI UNIVERSITY
HELIOS ST., STA CRUZ, MANILA 1003 PH

EXPERIMENT NO. II

ENERGY: COUNTING CALORIES

NAME: TUGADI, ELEAZAR, N.

COURSE/YEAR: BSAE 1ST YEAR
DATE OF ACTIVITY: OCTOBER / 8 / 2019
DATE OF SUBMISSION: NOVEMBER / 7 / 2019
INSTRUCTOR: Mrs. Rossie Rose Pardo
I. OBJECTIVE:
1. To investigate the relationship between volume of reactants and temperature.
2. To determine the amount of energy in calories used up per hour of these various
activities.
3. To calculate the time needed to burn the calories when engaged in these activities.
4. To calculate the heat of reaction between HCI and NaOH.

II. THEORY:
Energy is the ability to do work. Energy changes always occur in a chemical
change. Energy flow is studied in terms of production of heat and performance of work.
These two (production of heat and performance of work) are the effects of energy. Energy
that is involved in a chemical change is either absorbed or released by the system. This
energy is in the form of heat. When heat is absorbed by the system, the reaction is described
as endothermic. When heat is released by the system, the reaction is described as
exothermic. The amount of heat energy is measured in terms of calories or joules with the
corresponding conversion value; 1 cal = 4.18 Joules.

III. DISCUSSION:
The History of the Word "Energy"
The word “energy” comes from the Greek enérgeia.
Developed by Aristotle (384 BC − 322 BC), enérgeia has no direct translation to English,
although it is frequently described as “being at work”.
Although the term English “energy” acquired its current definition (meaning the
quantitative property that must be transferred to an object to perform work or heat the
object) in the 19th century, the ideas behind the concept began forming at the end of the
17th century, when the term was first used in English to refer to “power”.
By 1686, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646 − 1716), had developed concepts that
correspond to our current understanding of kinetic and potential mechanical energy.
However, he didn’t use the term “energy”.
Thomas Young (1773 − 1829) first introduced the word “energy” to the field of physics in
1800, but the word did not gain popularity.
Thomas Young later established the wave nature of light through interference experiments.
 The related term “work” was defined in 1828/29 by Gustave Gaspard de Coriolis (1792 −
1843), Jean-Victor Poncelet (1788 − 1867),
Between 1842and 1847, Julius Robert von Mayer, James Prescott Joule, and Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz discovered and formulated the basics of what we refer
to today as the law of conservation of energy:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to
another.
Instead of the word “energy”, however, they used the terms “living force”, “tensional
force” or “fall-force”.
Julius Robert von Mayer
(1814 − 1878)
James Prescott Joule
(1818 − 1889)
Hermann von Helmholtz
(1821 − 1894)
In 1851 − 1852, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and William J. M. Rankine began to use
the word “energy” to denote any kind of “force” across all branches of science.
Finally, in 1905, Albert Einstein established the general equivalence of energy and mass
with his theory of relativity. From there, the concept of “energy” was generalized into the
form used today.
Lord Kelvin
(1824 − 1907)
William J. M. Rankine
(1820 − 1872)
Albert Einstein
(1879 − 1955)
Alongside scientific usage, however, the concept of "energy” has entered common speech
in ways that are often confusing and contradictory. Everyday expressions such as “energy
production” or “renewable energy” contradict the energy conservation law which, as we
recall, asserts that energy cannot be created or destroyed. The scientific definition of energy
by the law of energy conservation also does not do much to help us understand expressions
like “an energetic person”.
For an everyday working definition of "energy", we might look back to Aristotle for
inspiration. Stated simply, he said: “Energy is a condition that describes the capacity to do
work.”
No citation. https://home.uni-leipzig.de/energy/energy-fundamentals/01.htm

Kinetic energy is energy of motion. Atoms and their components are in motion, so all
matter possesses kinetic energy. On a larger scale, any object in motion has kinetic energy.
A common formula for kinetic energy is for a moving mass:
KE = 1/2 mv2
KE is kinetic energy, m is mass, and v is velocity. A typical unit for kinetic energy is the
joule.
Potential energy is energy that matter gains from its arrangement or position. The object
has the 'potential' to do work. Examples of potential energy include a sled at the top of a
hill or a pendulum at the top of its swing.
One of the most common equations for potential energy can be used to determine the
energy of an object with respect to its height above a base:
E = mgh
PE is potential energy, m is mass, g is acceleration due to gravity, and h is height. A
common unit of potential energy is the joule (J). Because potential energy reflects the
position of an object, it can have a negative sign. Whether it is positive or negative depends
on whether work is done by the system or on the system.
Other Types of Energy
While classical mechanics classifies all energy as either kinetic or potential, there are other
forms of energy.
Other forms of energy include:
 gravitational energy - the energy resulting from the attraction of two masses to
each other.
 electric energy - energy from a static or moving electrical charge.
 magnetic energy - energy from the attraction of opposite magnetic fields, repulsion
of like fields, or from an associated electric field.
 nuclear energy - energy from the strong force that bonds protons and neutrons in
an atomic nucleus.
  thermal energy - also called heat, this is energy that can be measured as
temperature. It reflects the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules.
 chemical energy - energy contained in chemical bonds between atoms and
molecule.
 mechanical energy - the sum of the kinetic and potential energy.
 radiant energy - energy from electromagnetic radiation, including visible light and
x-rays (for example).
An object may possess both kinetic and potential energy. For example, a car driving down
a mountain has kinetic energy from its movement and potential energy from its position
relative to sea level. Energy can change from one form into others. For example, a lightning
strike can convert electrical energy into light energy, thermal energy, and sound energy.
Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. "The 2 Main Forms of Energy." ThoughtCo, Jun. 22,
2018, thoughtco.com/kinetic-and-potential-energy-609257.
https://www.thoughtco.com/kinetic-and-potential-energy-609257

IV. MATERIALS:
 2 Styrofoam cups
 Thermometer
 Stirring rod
 Hydrochloric acid (HCI)
 Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

V. PROCEDURE:
1. Construct an improvised by pilling two(2) Styrofoam cups, one on the top of the
other. Cover the cup with a two-holed stopper. Insert thermometer in one hole and
a stirring rod in the other. Both the thermometer and stirring rod should fit snugly
in the holes to prevent loss of heat generated by the reaction.
2. Place 5 mL of 1.0 M HCI (Solution A) in the improvised calorimeter. Record its
initial temperature. In another Styrofoam cup, place 35mL of 1.0M NaOH
(Solution B) and record its initial temperature. Make sure the initial temperature of
both solutions are the same.
3. Pour solution B into solution A. Cover the mixture immediately, mix and record
the final temperature.
4. Repeat the above procedure using different quantities of solution A and B as
specified in the table.
 Volume of Solution A 10 15 20 25 30 35
(1 M HCI)

Volume of Solution B 30 25 20 15 10 5
(1 M NaOH)

5. Graph the data obtained using the final temperature of the mixture as ordinate
(y-axis) and the mixture number as abscissa (x-axis).

VI. DATA AND RESULTS

Volume of Final
Mixture Volume of HCI NaOH Temperature
℃
1 5 35 30℃
2 10 30 32℃
3 15 25 33℃
4 20 20 32℃
5 25 15 32℃
6 30 10 31℃
7 35 5 31℃

VII. EXPLANATION OF RESULTS:

The first mix was the lowest temperature where the chemical change slowly occur
The second mix increases to 32℃
The third mix is the highest temperature of 33℃
And the in the 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th slowly decreases its temperature as it slowly adapts in the
room temperature or already had completely reach its maximum release of temperature or
energy in the third mixture.

VIII. CONCLUSIONS:
This experiment provide understanding on how energy occur in chemical change, each
number of mix of solution has different temperature which is higher than the room
temperature which signifies that it releases heat so the energy occurs exothermic. The only
data I know in the relationship of volume of reactant and temperature is its opposite volume
and it’s reaction. Also in my observation in mixing the solution more than 7 times assuming
that it can increase the temperature but it slowly decrease temperature.
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION
FEATI UNIVERSITY
HELIOS ST., STA CRUZ, MANILA 1003 PH

EXPERIMENT IV

CHEMICAL KINETICS
I. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the factors that tend to influence the rate of the reaction

II. THEORY:
The laws of thermodynamics predict whether a reaction will proceed or not. A reaction that
proceeds is called a spontaneous reaction. It is useful if it occurs at a reasonable and
measurable rate. A study of reaction rates may be carried out in two ways:
 By measuring the rate of disappearance of reactant molecules; or
 By measuring the rate of appearance of product molecules.
Some factors that are known to influence the rate of a reaction are:
 Nature of the reactants;
 Surface area of reactants;
 Concentration of reactants;
 Temperature; and
 Presence or absence of catalysts.
Thus, in biological systems, enzymes catalyst biochemical reactions so that they proceed
at rates that are sufficient to sustain life at body temperature. Generally, increasing the
temperature increases reaction rates but in a few of specific factors on reaction rates must
be evaluated in terms of the equality specific nature of the reaction.

III. DISCUSSION:
Chemical Kinetics
Chemical kinetics is an important phenomenon in physical chemistry. The term kinetics is
referred to as the study of motion. It is derived from the Greek word “kinesis”. It is a study
of chemical reaction with respect to reaction rates, effect of different variables such as
temperature and concentration. It also describes about the formation and deformation of
bonds and formation of products via intermediates or transition state.

Many properties like order of a chemical reaction, rate of the reaction, or concentration of
the components can be easily calculated from the study of chemical kinetics. Chemical
kinetics explains the mechanism of a chemical reaction. It gives an idea about the activation
energy of a chemical reaction.
For a chemical reaction,
According to Arrhenius equation, k = Ae-Ea/RT
Where, A is pre-exponential factor, R is universal gas constant, and Ea is activation energy
of the reaction.
Chemical kinetics explains the collision theory and gives proper idea about the reaction
mechanism.
2003-2019 Chegg Inc. https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/chemical-
kinetics-6

Brief historical background to chemical kinetics

“Chemistry should not only be a science and profession but also an art. And it is only as an
artist that the personality of a scientist can survive.” J. von Liebeg1 [4]
The first quantitative study in chemical kinetics has been done by German scientist Ludwig
Ferdinand Wilhelmy (1812–1864) in 1850 [5] who used polarimetry to investigate the acid-
catalyzed conversion of sucrose. In this early study, Wilhelmy recognized that the reaction
rate (dZ/dt) was proportional to the concentration of sucrose (Z) and acid (S) according to
the differential equation [5]:

−dZdt=MZS⇒logZ=−MSt+CE1
where M is the transformation coefficient of sucrose, which is related to the unit of time,
i.e., the reaction rate constant and C is the constant of integration.
However, the English chemist Augustus George Vernon Harcourt2 (1934–1919, Figure
2a) is considered to be the first scientist who made a significant contribution in the field of
chemical kinetics3. He was one of the first who planned the experiments to follow the
course of a chemical change [6]:
In order to measure the velocity of a reaction. Despite Harcourt’s lack of skill with
mathematics, he had a great respect for it and recognized the importance of applying
mathematics to chemical problem4 [7, 8, 9]. Harcourt himself wrote that [10]:
Harcourt then played a great part in raising chemistry from its descriptive area into its
quantitative one [7]. As early as 1868 he defined chemistry as the science which [11]:
and which is also concerned with the changes, which occur when substances are placed
under different conditions or are placed with one another [7, 11].
The first reaction was investigated by Harcourt in cooperation with British mathematician
William Esson4 (1838–1916, FRS in 1869) is the process [6, 7, 12]:

K2Mn2O8+3H2SO4+5H2C2O4→K2SO4+2MnSO4+10CO2+8H2OE2
This reaction, which occurs in a very dilute aqueous solution, proceeds at a convenient
speed at room (constant) temperature and it could be started at a given instant and stopped
abruptly by the addition of hydrogen iodide, which liberates iodine. The extent of reaction
could be then determined by titrating the amount of iodine with thiosulfate solution.
Harcourt also realized that the reaction is accelerated by manganous sulfate being formed,
i.e., it occurs in more than one step, and proposed the following reaction sequence [7, 12,
13]:

K2Mn2O8+3MnSO4+2H2O→K2SO4+2H2SO4+5MnOE3
MnO2+H2SO4+H2C2O4→MnSO4+2H2O+2CO2E4
Esson then tried to find mathematical equations which would interpret the results, on the
basis of the hypothesis that:
Because of the complexities of reactions Eqs. 2–4 (please also refer to the works of H.F.
Launer [14, 15]), Harcourt and Esson only had limited success in interpreting their results.
On the other hand, their works [16] are important in containing a clear mathematical
treatment of the first-order and the second-order reactions, and of certain types of
consecutive reactions. Esson’s mathematical procedures are those being used today. He set
up appropriate differential equations expressing the relationship between the time
derivative of the concentration of reacting substance and the concentration remaining and
then obtained the solutions by integration [7].
By 1865 Harcourt and Esson had started to work on the kinetically simpler reaction
between hydrogen peroxide and hydrogen iodide [6, 7, 17]:
H2O2+2HI→2H2O+I2.E5
When the solutions of potassium iodide and sodic peroxide are brought in the presence of
either an acid or an alkaline bicarbonate, a gradual development of iodine takes place. If
sodic hyposulfite (sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3) is added to the solution, it reconverts
(reduces) iodine, as soon as it is formed, into iodide, but appears in no other way to affect
the course of reaction. Consequently, if peroxide is present in the excess over the
hyposulfite, the whole of the latter is changed by the action of nascent iodine into
tetrathionate.5 After this conversion, free iodine appears in the solution, and its liberation
can be observed with the help of a little starch (indicator, formation of iodine-starch
clathrate) previously added to the liquid [17].
Esson found satisfactory equation, which described the results of Harcourt’s experiments.
Their first paper on this appeared in 1866 [12], and although they continued their work on
this reaction for another 30 years they did not publish any data on this until 1895 when
Harcourt and Esson jointly wrote the Bakerian Lecture6 [18] delivered at the Royal Society
[19].
Much of the work was concerned with the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction [7,
20, 21]:
k=A′TmE6
where k is the rate constant and pre-exponential (prefactor or frequency factor) A´ as well
as m (ratio dk/k to dT/T [21]) are temperature independent constants.
July 18th 2018, Petr Ptáček et al. https://www.intechopen.com/books/introducing-the-
effective-mass-of-activated-complex-and-the-discussion-on-the-wave-function-of-this-
instanton/a-brief-introduction-to-the-history-of-chemical-kinetics

Reaction rate, the speed at which a chemical reaction proceeds. It is often expressed in
terms of either the concentration (amount per unit volume) of a product that is formed in a
unit of time or the concentration of a reactant that is consumed in a unit of time.
Alternatively, it may be defined in terms of the amounts of the reactants consumed or
products formed in a unit of time. For example, suppose that the balanced chemical
equation for a reaction is of the form
A + 3B → 2Z.
In the Arrhenius equation, the activation energy (E) represents the minimum amount of
energy required to transform reactants into products in a chemical reaction. On a potential
energy curve, the value of the activation energy is equivalent to the difference in potential
energy between particles in an intermediate configuration (known as the activated
complex, or transition state) and particles of reactants in their initial state. The activation
energy thus can be visualized as a barrier that must be overcome by reactants before
products can be formed.

chemical kinetics: Reaction rate

The rate of a reaction is defined in terms of the rates with which the products are formed
and the reactants (the reacting substances) are…
The rate could be expressed in the following alternative ways:
d[Z]/dt, –d[A]/dt, –d[B]/dt, dz/dt, −da/dt, −db/dt
where t is the time, [A], [B], and [Z] are the concentrations of the substances, and a, b, and
z are their amounts. Note that these six expressions are all different from one another but
are simply related. Chemical reactions proceed at vastly different speeds depending on the
nature of the reacting substances, the type of chemical transformation, the temperature, and
other factors. In general, reactions in which atoms or ions (electrically charged particles)
combine occur very rapidly, while those in which covalent bonds (bonds in which atoms
share electrons) are broken are much slower. For a given reaction, the speed of the reaction
will vary with the temperature, the pressure, and the amounts of reactants present.
Reactions usually slow down as time goes on because of the depletion of the reactants. In
some cases the addition of a substance that is not itself a reactant, called a catalyst,
accelerates a reaction. The rate constant, or the specific rate constant, is the proportionality
constant in the equation that expresses the relationship between the rate of a chemical
reaction and the concentrations of the reacting substances. The measurement and
interpretation of reactions constitute the branch of chemistry known as chemical kinetics.
2019 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. https://www.britannica.com/science/stoichiometry

IV. MATERIALS:
1. Nature of Reactants
 1 mL of 0.1 M Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)
 1 mL of 0.1 M 6 Sulfuric Acid (N H2SO4)
 1 mL of 0.1 M Sodium Oxalate (Na2C2O4)
2. Concentration:
 10 mL of 0.1 N Sodium Thiosulfate (Na2S2O3)
 5 mL of Water
 8 mL of Water
 5 mL of 0.1 N Hydrochloric Acid (HCI)
3. Temperature:
 5 mL of 0.1 M Sodium Thiosulfate (Na2S2O3)
 5 mL of 0.1 N Hydrochloric Acid (HCI)

V. PROCEDURE:
I. Nature of the reactants
1. Label two test tubes. Place 1 mL of 0.1 KMnO4 and 1 mL of 6 N H2SO4 into
each test tube.
2. Add 1 mL of 0.1 M Na2C2O4 to test # 1.
3. Record the number of minutes needed to decolorize the permanganate
solution.
II. Concentration
1. Label three test tubes and place the following reagents:
Test tube # 1 – 10 mL of 0.1 N Na2S2O3
Test tube # 2 – 5 mL of 0.1 N Na2S2O3 + 5 mL of water
Test tube # 3 – 2 mL of 0.1 N Na2S2O3 + 8 mL of water
2. Add 5 mL of 0.1 N HCI to each test tube. Record the time needed to produce
turbidity.
 III. Temperature
1. Label three test tube and place 5 mL of 0.1 Na2S2O3 into each test tube.
2. Immerse test tube # 1 in a hot water bath. Add 5 mL of 0.1 N HCI. Record the
time required to produce turbidity.
3. Immerse test tube # 2 in an ice bath. Add 5 mL of 0.1 N HCI. Record the time
required to produce turbidity.
4. Add 5 mL of 0.1 N HCI to test tube # 3, which is at room temperature. Record
the time required to produce turbidity.

VI. DATA AND RESULTS:

I. Nature of reactant

Number of Minutes
Needed to Decolorize KMnO4

Test tube # 1 4 Minutes

II. Concentration
\
Test tube mL mL Concentration of mL Reaction
Number Thiosulfate Water Thiosulfate of HCI time

1 10 0 100% 5 5 seconds
2 5 5 50% 5 12 seconds
3 2 8 20% 5 20 seconds
III. Temperature

Test Tube
Number Temperature mL Thiosulfate mL HCI Reaction Time

1 50℃ 5 5 6 seconds

2 Room 5 5 9 seconds
Temperature
3 10℃ 5 5 12 seconds
VII. EXPLANATION OF RESULTS:
Nature of reactants:
Test tube # 1, the permanganate solution the reaction occurs by decolorizing or mixture
turns into clear or transparent color, in our estimate time it took 4 minutes before it
completely decolorize.
Concentration:
Test tube # 1 have the highest concentration sodium thiosulfate so it reacts quickest among
other test tubes that forms or produce a white cloudy color and after some time it forms
into yellowish or greenish color.
Test tube # 2 the concentration of sodium thiosulfate was reduced and adds water, which
have the same reaction in test tube 1 but slower reaction.
Test tube # 3 have the lowest concentration of sodium thiosulfate and have the highest
amount of water, which still has the same reaction and much longer time of reaction.
Temperature:
In this part of experiment all test tubes has the same amount of mixture of substance the
only difference is their temperature
Test tube # 1 the reaction time is 6 seconds, having the same reaction in concentration part.
Test tube # 2 the reaction was slower, have the same reaction in concentration part
Test tube # 3 the reaction is more slower.
This shows the more higher the temperature the more faster its reaction and the more lower
temperature the more slower its reaction.

VIII. CONCLUSION:
This experiment shows the natural reaction of mixture of substance and difference of time
of reaction of mixture of substance and on how temperature affects the time of reaction. I
admit that our group has a failure in coordination in which I doubt and I surely know that
the time answered in the results is not exactly the time of reaction.