AY 2018 - 2019 Biology Preliminary Exams Semester I

characteristics of life 7. responds to stimuli

1. made up of cells : 8. adapts through evolution
i. molecules : a chemical structure with
two or more atoms biomolecules
ii. organelles : functional components - all are composed of elements
of cells
iii. cells : fundamental unit of structure water (H2O)
iv. tissues : a group of cells working to - has the ability to regulate temperature
perform a specialized function - its chemical properties do not change
v. organs : a body part made up of despite being heated
multiple tissues and has specific - able to act as an acid or base (universal
functions in the body solvent)
vi. organisms : individual living things
vii. populations : all individual species carbon (C)
living within a specific area - backbone of life
viii. communities : an array of organisms - has four valence electrons
within a specific area
ix. ecosystems : all living and nonliving macromolecules
components of an area - the functional groups
x. biosphere : all life on earth 1. carbohydrates
- short term energy storage
2. has cell organization : presence of a - carbo : carbon

heirarchy or groups hydrate : water
3. undergoes growth and development : - four main types :

growth includes death monosaccharides

4. can reproduce : ability to acquire disaccharides

genetic information oligosaccharides

5. has metabolism : used to gather and use polysaccharides (types : storage;
energy structural)
i. catabolism : to break down to get - our body cannot break down glycosidic
energy bonds
ii. anabolism : requires energy to create
a chemical compound’ 2. lipids
- fats/fatty acids
6. ability to undergo homeostasis : ability i. saturated fatty acid : liquid; contains
to keep the balance in the body no double bonds

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AY 2018 - 2019 Biology Preliminary Exams Semester I

ii. unsaturated fatty acid : have double - protein misfolding renders the protein
or triple bonds with carbon useless (denaturation : malfunctioning of
proteins )
- cis-trans isomerism : a pair of molecules
having the same formula but different - proteins as enzymes…
orientation
 i. act as a catalyst (lowers activation
cis : same side
 energy)
trans : opposite side ii. do not participate in the chemical
reaction
- phospholipids : a protective membrane iii. highly specific to a particular
around the cells used for insulation and container (similar to a lock and key
cushion model)
• a long chain of carbon
• does not allow water to pass through 4. nucleic acid
• amphiphilic : has polar and nonpolar - components :
parts
 i. phosphate group
head : polar — hydrophilic
 ii. five- carbon sugar (ribose in DNA)
tail : nonpolar — hydrophobic iii. nitrogenous base : single/double
ring of carbon and nitrogen
3. proteins
- structure : deoxyribonucleic acid
i. primary structure : one single - counter helix genetic material
sequence of amino acids in - also called “genes” and is mainly used for
polypeptide chains reproduction
- bonds with its inverse
ii. secondary structure : may be helix or
pleated central dogma of life
- DNA replicates, then transcribes into RNA
iii. tertiary structure : folds and refolds and translates into protein
to assume a three dimensional model

carbohydrates proteins
iv. quaternary structure : two or more
monomer sugar amino acid
polypeptide chains
polypeptide
polymer starch
chain

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AY 2018 - 2019 Biology Preliminary Exams Semester I

glycosidic 1. bacteria : prokaryotic

link peptide bond
bond 2. archaea : prokaryotic

-ose 3. eukarya : eukaryotes

extra info nitrogen prokaryotic cell

used for
energy - lacks a nucleus or other membrane-
enclosed organelles
nucleic acid lipids
- single-celled
no true - parts :
monomer nucleotide
monomer
1. pili : for conjugation
no true
polymer nucleic acid 2. plasmid : extrachromosomal DNA
polymer
3. ribosomes : protein synthesis
link phosphodiester ester bonds 4. cytoplasm : fluid material
genetic info long chains of 5. plasma/cell membrane : a selective
extra info
hydrocarbons permeable barrier composed of
phosphorous
compounds and phospholipids that
surround the cell
cells
6. cell wall : composed of sugars that
- basic unit of life
surround the cell membrane
- the more the surface area, the faster the
7. capsule : another layer of protection;
cell processes
for adherence
8. nucleoid : genetic material, usually in
types of microscope
a circular manner
1. light microscope : uses visible light to
9. flagellum : used for motility
observe living organisms
2. scanning electron : enhances surfaces at
eukaryotic cell
high resolution
- contains membrane-enclosed organelles
3. transmission electron : examines thin
- multicelled
cross sections
- parts :
1. cell/plasma membrane : selevtive
cell theory
double phospholipid barrier
1. all organisms are composed of one or
2. cytoplasm : where all the water and
more cells
nutrients are
2. the cell is the basic structure of life
3. centrosomes : made up of
3. all cells come from pre-existing cells
microtubules that activate when the
cell is ready to replicate (singular :
domains of life
centriole)

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AY 2018 - 2019 Biology Preliminary Exams Semester I

4. lysosomes : for cell digestion and 12. ribosomes : protein factory when
waste recycling mRNA is decoded into codons which
5. nucleus : control center which turn into amino acids
contains the DNA 13. endomembrane system : series of
6. chromatin : relaxes state of the interacting organelles between the
chromosome nucleolus : makes RNA nucleus and the plasma (includes the
for transcription smooth and rough ER and golgi
7. nucleolus : makes RNA for bodies)
transcription 14. endoplasmic reticulum :

8. mitochondria : a double membrane smooth ER — tubular; produces lipids,
bound organelle that produce ATP detoxifies cells, and stores ions

(endosymbiotic theory : belief that rough ER — rough because of protein
the mitochondria is a different entity producing ribosomes
that was adopted by the eukaryotic 15. golgi apparatus : turns proteins into
cell) hormones

9. flagellum : cell appendages (proteins + carbs = molecules)

composed of microtubules for golgi bodies — packages materials
motility before it is shipped out of the cell
10. cilia : shorter than the flagellum but 16. vesicles : ships out the product into
has a larger quantity different parts of the cell (in the
phospholipid membrane)
types of flagellum arrangement eukaryotes prokaryotes
i. polar/monotrichous : single flagellum at
bound to
one pole naked
proteins
ii. lophotrichous : tuft of flagella at one DNA
linear circular
pole
has introns no introns
iii. amphitrichous : flagellum at both poles
iv. peritrichous : flagella all over
has a nucleus no nucleus
v. amphilophotrichous : tuft of flagella at
both poles has a
Organelles no membrane
membrane

11. cytoskeleton : a matric of mitosis/

binary fission
interconnected protein filaments that meiosis

help stabilize the cell for support and

Reproduction diploid haploid
organization

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AY 2018 - 2019 Biology Preliminary Exams
Average Size larger smaller
plant cell
1. cell wall : made up of cellulose which
surrounds the plasma membrane
2. plastids : chloroplast converts sugar into
oxygen through photosynthesis
3. central vacuole : stores water and ions;
reinforces the plant and supports cell
structure
4. nucleus : genetic info
cell membrane
- the boundary composed of two plasma
membranes which exhibit selective
permeability
- fluid mosaic model
- different types of protein are attached to
the membrane
- contains cholesterol to stabilize the
phospholipids
- carbohydrates can attach to the
extracellular matrix (ECM, external part of
the membrane)
- membrane proteins are used for :
1. transport
i. channel proteins : specific to
what it allows to pass through
ii. carrier proteins : will not open if
certain molecules will not bind
with it
2. signal transduction
3. enzymatic activity
Martinez, Jasmine Joyce L.
Semester I
4. cell-cell recognition
5. intercellular joining
6. attachment to the ECM
cell transport
1. active cell transport
- requires energy
- bulk transport
- ex. endocytosis : taking in matter by
invagination of its membrane to form a
vacuole
bulk transport
i. endocytosis : towards the cell
ii. exocytosis : away from the cell
phagocytosis : cell eating
pinocytosis : cell drinking (when small
materials enter the cell)
receptor mediated : lock and key model
(lygan : specific for certain receptors)
2. passive cell transport
- does not require energy
- diffusion allows molecules from the high
concentration to go to the low
concentration (for small cells only)
- ex. osmosis : when water goes to the
higher solute
cell tonicity
i. hypotonic solution : solute
concentrate is higher inside the cell,
causing water to fill the cell and
cause lysis (rupture of cells)
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AY 2018 - 2019 Biology Preliminary Exams
ii. isotonic solution : equal solute
content inside and outside the cell
iii. hypertonic solution : solute
concentrate is higher outside the cell,
causing water too evacuate the cell
and cause cremation (dehydration of
cells)
factors affecting the rate of diffusion
i. particle size : the smaller the size, the
faster the diffusion
ii. temperature : the higher, the faster
iii. steepness of concentration
gradient : the steeper, the faster
iv. pressure : the greater, the faster
v. charge
autotrophs : producers, plants
- types of autotrophs
1. chemosynthesis : performed by
organisms that have no access to
sunlight; produce food from
chemicals
2. photosynthesis : produce food from
light
heterotrophs : consumers, animals
- types of respiration of heterotrophs
1. aerobic respiration : needs oxygen
2. anaerobic respiration : fermentation
photosynthesis
- main participants : mitochondria and
chloroplast
- mesophile : the green parts of the plants
which contain the chlorophyll
Martinez, Jasmine Joyce L. Page 6 of 10
Semester I
- inside the chloroplast
i. stroma : liquid where the calvin cycle
occurs
ii. thylakoid : spaces inside the stroma
where the light dependent reaction
occurs (its membrane is composed of
phospholipids)
light dependent reaction
- the “photo” part of photosynthesis
- photosynthesis is the conversion of solar
energy to chemical energy
- chemical equation :

6CO2 + 6H2O ——> C6H12O6 + 6O2
process
1. hydrolysis : break down of H2O into H, H,
and O2
- activated by photons (light) that hit
and excite the electrons in the
chlorophyll (the molecules that
absorb light)
- H2O supplies the electrons needed
by the process
- the broken up O2 now becomes a
product of photosynthesis
- happens in photosystem II
2. the chlorophyll transfers the electron to
the cytochrome
- the H atoms outside will get absorbed
into the thylakoid through the
cytochrome to achieve electrochemical
gradient
- activated by the energy from the
electrons
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AY 2018 - 2019 Biology Preliminary Exams
3. the electrochemical gradient activates
the ATP synthase (motor protein)
- the ATP synthase produces ATP when
the hydrogens being diffused exit
through it
- phosphorylation :

ADP + phosphate = ATP
4. the electrons are transferred to
photosystem I
- photons re-energize the electrons
5. the re-energized electrons are sent to
the NADP reductase
- the electrons will be absorbed by the
passing NADP+ to form NADPH in a
process called reduction (gaining of
electrons)
6. the products ATP and NADPH will now
participate in the calvin cycle
calvin cycle
- the “synthesis” part of photosynthesis
- granum : stack of thylakoids
- participants : CO , NADPH, ATP
process
1. part I : carbon fixation
- conversion of inorganic to organic
carbon
- 1-carbon molecule (from CO2) is
combined with a 5-carbon molecule
(from the precious cycle) named RuBP
Martinez, Jasmine Joyce L.
Semester I
(ribulose biphosphate, the CO2
acceptor)
- the combination produces a short-lived
6-carbon molecule
- catalyst : rubisco (the most abundant
protein in the chloroplast)
2. the 6-carbon molecule is split into two 3-
carbon molecules (3-phosphoglycerate)
3. part II : reduction
- each 3-carbon molecule receives a
phosphate group from ATP
- each 3-carbon molecule is reduced by
a pair of electrons from NADPH
- each 3-carbon molecule loses a
phosphate group
- the end-products are two G3P
molecules (glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate)
- the cycle repeats thrice to produce 6
G3Ps, 5 of which are transferred to the
regeneration phase
- three calvin cycles produce 1 G3P
4. part III : regeneration
- 5 of the G3Ps produced by three calvin
cycles
- uses 3 ATP to rearrange the G3P into
three molecules of RuBP
net synthesis of the calvin cycle
- consumes a total of 

9 ATP, 6 NADPH
glucose
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AY 2018 - 2019 Biology Preliminary Exams
- composed of 2 G3Ps
- therefore you need 6 calvin cycles to
produce one molecule of glucose
cell respiration
- participants : cytoplasm, mitochondria
- food consumption provides the needed
sugar
- opposite chemical equation from
photosynthesis :
 molecule and CoA
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ——> 6CO2 + 6H2O +
energy (ATP + heat)
process
1. glycolysis : lysis or break down of
glucose
- happens in the cytoplasm
- loans 2 ATP from the process to be
able to break down the sugar
- breaks down glycolysis into 2 G3Ps
- G3P is converted into pyruvate by
giving electrons to NADP+ to produce
NADH and giving phosphate to 2 ADPs
to produce 2 ATPs
- the pyruvate and NADH enter the
mitochondria
net synthesis
- 2 ATP, 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH
2. krebs cycle : also known as the citric acid
cycle which further oxidizes organic fuel
- happens in thematrix of the
mitochondria
Martinez, Jasmine Joyce L. Page 8 of 10
Semester I
- pyruvate is oxidized by coenzyme A
(CoA), separating 1-carbon from 2-
carbon molecules
- the 1-carbon molecule is released as a
product of the cycle, CO2
- the 2-carbon merged with CoA is
called acetyl CoA
3. acetyl CoA breaks into a 2-carbon
- coenzyme A goes back to the start of
the cycle to break down pyruvate again
- 2-carbon merges with 4-carbon
(oxaloacetate, from the previous cycle)
to form a 6-carbon molecule called
citrate
- citrate restructures into isocitrate (an
isomer of citrate, having the same
chemical formula but different
structure) by removing and adding H2O
4. isocitrate (6-carbon) undergoes
induction
- NAD+ turns into NADH
- 1-carbon is released as a product, CO2
and its electrons are obtained
5. isocitrate (6C) now becomes
ketoglutarate (5C)
- NAD+ turns into NADH
- 1-carbon is released as a product, CO2
and its electrons are obtained
- 4-carbon is attached to a CoA
6. ketoglutarate (5C) now becomes
succinyl CoA (4C)
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AY 2018 - 2019 Biology Preliminary Exams
- ADP turns into ATP
- a phosphate group detaches the CoA
7. succinyl CoA (4C) now becomes
succinate (4C)
- FADH2 oxidizes the succinate
8. succinate (4C) now becomes fumarate
(4C)
- addition of water rearranges the
molecules
9. fumarate (4C) now becomes malate (4C)
- NAD+ turns into NADH
10. malate (4C) now becomes oxaloacetate
(4C)
net synthesis of the krebs cycle
- 4 NADH (2) = 8 NADH

1 ATP (2) = 2 ATP
 - glycolysis + krebs = 32 ATP
1 FADH2 (2) = 2 FADH2
 - therefore, the electron transport chain
3 CO2 (2) = 6 CO2
- krebs cycle happens twice because there
are two pyruvate molecules
11. electron transport chain
- happens in the inner membrane of the
mitochondria
- NADH and FADH2 will pass electrons
to the chain, causing H to be pumped
out of the matrix, causing an
electrochemical gradient
- for every 10 H ions to be pumped out,
4 H will get pumped back in
Martinez, Jasmine Joyce L.
Semester I
12. the ATP synthase will produce ATP from
ADP and the electrons from the H ions
- the electrochemical gradient will
initiate diffusion through the ATP
synthase
13. oxygen is reduced with H to form H2O
- oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor
net synthesis of the electron transport chain
- glycolysis = 7 ATP

2 NADH = 5 ATP

2 ATP = 2 ATP
- krebs = 25

4 NADH (2) = 20 ATP

1 FADH2 (2) = 3 ATP

1 ADP (2) = 2 ATP
produces 32 ATP
- conversion factor :

1 NADH = 2.5 ATP

1 FADH2 = 1.5 ATP
malate - aspartite shuttle
- NADH that enter into the mitochondria
through this shuttle remain as NADH in
the rest of the process
phospheroglycerol shuttle
- NADH that enter into the mitochondria
through this shuttle turns into FADH2
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AY 2018 - 2019 Biology Preliminary Exams Semester I

- when NADH pass through this shuttle, the

electron transport chain produces only 30
ATP instead of 32 ATP

anaerobic electron transport chain

- happens when the body lacks oxygen
- the cells use lactic acid from the pyruvate
as a substitute for oxygen
- the sudden change in pH level causes
protein denaturation
- produces only 2 ATP instead of 32

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