Manula PDF

ECE 286 Lab Manual
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Table of Contents
Contents
ECE 286 Lab Manual 1
Table of Contents 2
Laboratory Conduct 5
Laboratory Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Electronics Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Parts List 7
Lab Schedule 8
Introduction 9
Experimental Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Preparing For Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Lab Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Helpful Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Electric Circuits Project (ECP) Guidelines 13
Lab 1: Steady-State RC and RL Series Circuits 14

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Lab Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Experiment #1: RC Series Circuit - Varying Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Experiment #2: RC Series Circuit - Varying Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Experiment #3: RL Series Circuit - Varying Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Experiment #4: RL Series Circuit - Varying Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
PSpice Circuit Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Lab Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Lab 2: Steady-State RLC Circuits 23

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Lab Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Experiment #1: RLC Series Circuit - Varying Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Experiment #2: RLC Parallel Circuit - Varying Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Experiment #3: RLC Parallel Circuit - Varying Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Lab Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
ECP 3: Additional Capacitor Properties and Uses 30

ECP 3 Sample Project 1: Capacitor Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
ECP 3 Sample Project 2: A/C Waveforms and Phase Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
ECP 3 Sample Project 3: Transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Lab 3: A/C Circuit Analysis Techniques 32

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Lab Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Experiment #1: Basic Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
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Experiment #2: Complex Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Experiment #3: Source Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Lab Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Lab 4: A/C Power 41

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Lab Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Experiment #1: RC Series Circuit - Varying Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Experiment #2: RL Series Circuit - Varying Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Experiment #3: RC Parallel Circuit - Varying Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Lab Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Lab 5: A/C Power Delivery 49

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Lab Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Experiment #1: Capacitance and Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Experiment #2: Power Factor Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Lab Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
ECP 4: Additional Filtering Properties and Uses 55

ECP 4 Sample Project 1: Additional Filter Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
ECP 4 Sample Project 2: Impedance Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
ECP 4 Sample Project 3: Audio Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Lab 6: Transformers 58
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Lab Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Experiment #1: Creating an Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Experiment #2: Creating a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Lab Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Lab 7: Passive Filters 66

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Lab Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Experiment #1: Series Passive Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Experiment #2: Multi-Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Experiment #3: Cutoff Frequency Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Lab Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Lab 8: Active Filters 74

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Lab Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Getting Started: Preparing the Op-Amp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Experiment #1: Active Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Experiment #2: Cutoff Frequency Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Experiment #3: Variable Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Experiment #4: Output Amplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
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Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Lab Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Lab 9: Band-Pass and Band-Stop Filters 84

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Lab Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Experiment #1: Band-Pass/Band-Stop Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Experiment #2: Bandwidth and Roll-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Experiment #3: Frequency Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Experiment #4: Additional Filter Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Lab Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Appendix A: Oscilloscopes 94
Oscilloscope Calibration and Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Oscilloscope Use - Measuring Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Oscilloscope Use - Measuring Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Appendix B: PSpice 99
A/C Power Sources and Frequency Sweep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
PSpice Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
PSpice Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
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Laboratory Conduct
Laboratory Rules
• There will be NO FOOD OR DRINKS in the laboratory at any time. Students will be held liable for any
damage to equipment resulting from abuse of this rule.
• Students are not allowed in the laboratories without a Lab Instructor or Lab Monitor present, unless signed in
with the Lab Manager. Open lab times for make-up or project work will be posted. When a Teaching Assistant
is holding office hours, he/she is also monitoring an open lab which any student may use. ECE/CpE students
have priority in the Computation and Test Lab, Room 265, ST II.
• If you suspect a problem with the equipment, notify the TA or Room Monitor. Then, either leave a note on it
with a brief description of the problem/symptoms, or bring the equipment to the Lab Manager, Room 1200,
ST I.
• Handle equipment with care. Equipment out for repair means less available for your use. YOU are responsible
for leaving your workstation clean and in good condition when you leave. Failure to do this will negatively
impact your final lab grade. Before leaving:
a. Hang up all test leads neatly under appropriate connector combination.
b. Tidy workstation.
c. Throw away all trash.
d. TURN OFF equipment and lab table SWITCHES.
• This is a non-smoking university. This building has NO designated smoking areas so you must go outdoors if
you choose to smoke.
Electronics Safety
Exercise of good judgment and knowledge will ensure you a safe laboratory experience.
• Do not defeat any safety device such as a fuse or circuit breaker, by shorting across it or by using a higher
amperage fuse than that specified by the manufacturer.
• Avoid direct contact with any voltage source. Do not wear rings, watches, bracelets, or dangling necklaces
while working on equipment. Do not grasp any exposed metal in your circuit when the power is on.
• Keep hands dry. Water and perspiration increase conductivity. Wear shoes with insulating soles. Measure
voltages with one hand held behind you or in your pocket.
• Avoid eye injury when cutting off excessive wire lengths. Point the wires downward toward your table top so
the cut pieces cannot fly toward your eyes or another persons.
• Shut off the power when connecting components or test equipment to a circuit. Double check your wiring
before you apply power.
• Make sure your circuit is properly grounded. Beware of a possible floating ground. It is a good idea to connect
all grounds together before applying power.
• To prevent power terminals from shorting, keep the leads coming from those terminals apart.
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• Your exercise of common sense, safety precautions and knowledge will help you avoid the dangers of electricity.
The amount of current required to become lethal depends upon:
– The person involved and state of health
– Area of the body involved
– Length of time the shock is received and
– Type of electrical current.
• Severe electrical shock will cause burns and/or paralysis. A small current passing through the chest can kill.
With even minor electrical shock, some people react by going into traumatic shock.
• In case of accident, turn off power immediately and call 911. If you suspect someone is touching a ”live” wire,
do not touch them. Use something non-conductive to push, rather than pull, them away from the wire. An
injured person should be kept lying down until medical personnel arrive, and should be kept warm to help
prevent traumatic shock. Be sure nothing is done to cause further injury.
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Parts List
The ECE 286 lab kit includes the following components:

• 8 resistors, 1 k Ω
• 4 resistors, 100 Ω
• 2 resistors, 10 k Ω
• 3 capacitors, 100 nF
• 3 inductors, 10 mH
• 2 µA741 operational amplifiers
• 1 ferrite core
If any components are damaged or lost, spare components are available from the Volgenau lab supply room.
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Lab Schedule
Week / Dates Project / Exam / Activity Lab Experiment

1 (dates) Lab procedures and safety
2 (dates) Lab 1: RC A/C Circuits
3 (dates) Introduction to ECP 3 Lab 2: RLC A/C Circuits
4 (dates) Lab 3: A/C Circuit Properties
5 (dates) ECP 3 Proposal Due Lab 4: A/C Power
6 (dates) Lab 5: A/C Power Delivery
7 (dates) ECP 3 Demo Day
8 (dates) Mid-Semester By-Week (Midterm)
9 (dates) Introduction to ECP 4 Lab 6: Transformers
10 (dates) Lab 7: Passive Filters
11 (dates) ECP 4 Proposal Due Lab 8: Active Filters
12 (dates) Lab 9: Filtering Properties
13 (dates) ECP 4 Demo Day
14 (dates) End-Semester By-Week (Final Exam)
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Introduction
Welcome to the ECE 286 Lab Series!

The objective of ECE 286 - both lecture and this lab series - is to build upon the circuit analysis skills developed
ECE 285, which focused on circuit behavior in direct-current circumstances.
ECE 286 extends these concepts into the domain of alternating-current circuits, where the power supply fluctuates in
a periodic manner, typically as a sine wave. Because resistive elements (resistors) and reactive elements (capacitors
and inductors) respond differently to changes in current, the combination of these elements in an alternating-current
circuit creates a variety of interesting and important effects.
During the lab portion of ECE 286, you will observe these effects firsthand. You will also generalize your observations
into theoretical principles, and also compare your observations with simulations of the same circuits in PSpice.
Connecting these three approaches - empirical observation, computer simulation, and theoretical understanding -
will provide a solid, coherent foundation for your further studies of electrical engineering.
Experimental Design
Each lab in this series begins with a general principle, and features a few experiments that explore the principle from
somewhat different perspectives.
For instance, Lab #1 focuses on the behavior circuits with a resistor and a reactive element in series. The experiments
involve (#1) the behavior of RC series circuits as a function of frequency; (#2) the behavior of RC series circuits as
a function of changing resistance; (#3) the behavior of RL series circuits as a function of frequency; and (#4) the
behavior of RL series circuits as a function of changing resistance.
The experiments have been designed for convenience, so that each circuit can be evaluated under different conditions
only by changing or substituting one circuit element. When possible, the same basic circuit has been used in several
experiments, in order to reduce the amount of time that students must spend reorganizing the breadboard between
experiments.
Each experiment requires the observation and measurement of the voltages of the ciruit at various points using the
oscilloscope. The experiments will indicate the collection of results in various ways:
• As a qualitative or quantitative observation of the voltage (e.g.: the voltage is high, or the voltage is ( ± 2
volts);
• As a comparison of the magnitude and/or phase of two simultaneously viewed voltages ( e.g.: the voltage of a
first component is higher than the voltage of a second component, or the first component exhibits a phase lead
or phase lag compared with the voltage of a second component); or
• In some cases, a sketch or photograph of the oscilloscope output, when this information is necessary for a full
analysis of the experimental results.
Most of the labs also require the simulation of the same circuits using PSpice, and the generation of plots that
illustrate the same circuit behaviors. These results will be compared with the experimental results in order to
demonstrate consistency (or to identify inconsistencies that require further exploration).
Each lab concludes with a list of conceptual questions about your observations of the experiment. These questions
are the most important part of each lab assignment! These questions have been selected to probe and challenge
your understanding of the concepts that the experiment illustrates, which may generalize your observations of these
specific cirucits to a broad class of similar circuits. You may also
In some cases, your reflection on these questions will reveal inconsistencies or gaps in your understanding: the
circuit may behave in ways that you did not expect, or that conflict with other concepts that you have learned.
In some cases, the circuit may exhibit properties that seem to violate the laws of physics. Do not be embarrassed;
do not dismiss the observation as a mistake or accident. You will be able to resolve these inconsistencies through
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further consideration, additional reading or experiments, and discussion with your colleagues and teachers. Working
through these problems will give you a stronger, more comprehensive understanding of circuits and will enhance your
electronics lab skills.
Preparing For Lab

Each lab will require you to design and evaluate several circuits, and good time management skills are crucial to
completing the experiments during your lab session.
You are strongly encouraged to spend 10 to 15 minutes preparing for each lab by reading the introduction and pre-
viewing the circuits that you will prepare and evaluate. Your lab partner or partners will count on your preparedness,
so that your team can work through the experiments together in an efficient manner and complete the experiments
in the allotted lab period.
In some cases, a lab may cover topics that have not yet been covered in ECE 286 lecture. This is OK - you can
consider the lab to be your first exposure to a concept that you will soon explore in a more traditional manner
in lecture. Your lab instructor can provide background to supplement your understanding of the topic that will
allow you to complete the experiments. (However, your lab instructor may not be aware of the progress of the lab
component - do not hesistate to raise these problems to the attention of your lab instructor.)
You may also complete some or all of the PSpice simulation of each experiment before the lab session. While certainly
not required, performing the simulation before the lab session will improve your familiarity with the topics. Also,
simulating the experiments before lab will enable you to compare your lab results with your expectations during the
lab session. If you discover a mismatch, you may be able to review your circuit and equipment during the lab session
to find and correct errors, and to ask your lab instructor for assistance. These options will not be available if you
discover a mismatch while simulating the circuits after completing your lab experiment.
Lab Reports
Each lab report will require:
• A summary of your experimental observations. In a few cases, the lab will specify the type of analysis to
perform and the manner of reporting your results. But in general, you may choose whether to report your
results using tables, lists, narrative descriptions, charts, sketches, photographs, etc. The choice of which format
you believe to be the most suitable and illustrative report of your experimental observations is up to you.
• Results from your PSpice simulations, which will require (i) a screenshot of the schematics of each simulated
circuit, and (ii) screenshot of plots generated for specific circuit properties of each simulation.
• Brief answers (typically between 1 and 4 sentences) to the conceptual questions.
• A conclusion that asks you to compare your empirical observations with your simulation results. If they do not
match, you should explain what you believe went wrong, either during the lab session or the PSpice simulation.
You should also indicate which result you believe to be correct - i.e., which result is more consistent with your
conceptual understanding of how the circuit should have behaved.
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Helpful Tips
The primary objective of this lab series is to promote your understanding of alternating-current circuits. This lab
sequence will challenge you to think more deeply about the concepts that you are observing and measuring, so that
you can apply them not only to these specific circuits, but whenever you encounter them in any device devices.
Struggling with problematic data or empirical inconsistencies to achieve a correct understanding will ultimately make
you a better engineer. This struggle is a process that every student (and professional!) in every engineering discipline
regularly encounters, because engineering concepts are frequently complex, nuanced, and counterintuitive. Indeed,
your ability to acknoweldge, explore, and resolve these moments of doubt or misunderstanding is an extremely
important engineering skill - honing this skill as a student will benefit you throughout your career. On the other
hand, obtaining data that is correct or expected - but that you cannot explain, generalize, or integrate with your
textbook understanding of these topics - is not a productive use of your time and energy.
When your circuit does not work as expected, try these steps:
• Examine your lab equipment and circuit.
Are the leads firmly inserted into the breadboard? Press the wires firmly into the breadboard to ensure good
electric connections.
Are your probes attached to the right components? Are you measuring voltage consistently? (Are the red and
black leads of both probes connected to the terminals of each passive element in the same direction?) Did you
accidentally insert a terminal into the wrong row - e.g., inserting terminals of components in a series circuit
into adjacent rows, rather than the same row?
Does any of your equipment look damaged? A scorched portion of the breadboard may have a broken or
shorted connection between rows leads to an undesirable result. An oscilloscope that exhibits noise or fails to
read anything may have an internal problem.
• Review the lab.
Verify that you understand how the circuit is to be organized, and that your components are arranged on the
breadboard to form the intended circuit. If any portion of the lab seems unclear or ambiguous, ask your lab
instructor for clarification.
• Isolate the problem.
Are you consistently having trouble with one channel of the oscilloscope, or while using one probe? Try
swapping the channels or probes to see if the problem is in your circuit or in the equipment. If you suspect an
equipment problem, try using a different probe, or even a different oscilloscope.
Sequential problem-solving: Starting at the voltage source, insert the voltage probe into each node of the circuit,
and verify that you reading voltages that you expect. Identify the point in the circuit where unexpected results
occur. This may indicate a faulty component - such as a burnt-out capacitor or inductor, or a bad wire - and
replacing those components may resolve the problem.
Additive problem-solving: Start by connecting your oscilloscope probe only to the function generator, and
verify that you observe the function by itself as expected. Then add one passive circuit component - e.g.. one
resistor - and verify that current flows through it as expected. Continue building your circuit, one element at
a time, until you have a completely working circuit.
Reductive problem-solving: Try taking one circuit component out of your circuit - e.g., if a capacitive circuit
does not seem to be responsive to frequency, try replacing the capacitor with a wire and verifying that the
circuit behaves as a strictly resistive load. For a parallel circuit, try disconnecting the ground connection of
each branch (i.e., stopping any current from flowing through the whole branch to ground) while running current
through the circuit - verify that the circuit behavior changes when the branch is disconnected, and again when
reconnected.
• Rebuild the circuit.
If these incremental steps do not resolve the problem, try pulling all of your circuit elements out and starting
over at a different location on the breadboard.
11
• Reevaluate your expectations, and try to express the inconsistency.
In short - what is the problem? Why do you believe that the circuit is not behaving as expected? Does your
circuit appear to violate basic circuit principles - e.g., does the voltage of your circuit not sum to zero, in
violation of Ohm’s Law? Is some current unaccounted for in violation of Kirchhoff’s Laws? Does your circuit
behave differently than circuits in other labs?
Being able to express the problem that you perceive will enable you to determine whether you are correctly
perceiving a problem in the circuit, or whether your understanding of the circuit is incorrect or incomplete.
• Switch roles with your lab partners.
If you cannot get a circuit or lab equipment to work, allow one of your lab partners to try. You may be
overlooking an error, misusing the oscilloscope, or misunderstanding a concept, and your lab partner may have
a different approach that works. If your lab partner’s efforts resolve the problem, look at their results and try
to determine what they did differently - studying their work may refine your lab skills, and enable you to avoid
or recognize similar problems in future experiments.
• Talk to your lab instructor.
If all of these other diagnostic techniques fail, ask your lab instructor to review your circuit, to clarift the
requirements of the experiment, or to address the inconsistency that you have identified. Often, a fresh look at
your work (by another person with a different understanding of the lab requirements or circuit concepts) may
quickly diagnose the problem. Your lab instructor may also be able to suggest problem-solving techniques that
you have not tried yet.
• If all else fails, move on to another experiment.
Sometimes, a particular circuit may simply not work. If your diagnostic efforts or patience are becoming
exhausted, try moving on to another experiment in the same lab session. If time permits, you can later return
to this experiment for another attempt.
It is not crucial that you successfully complete every experiment in every lab. Success with another experiment
in the same lab may satisfy the overall learning objectives.
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Electric Circuits Project (ECP) Guidelines
During this semester, you will complete two electronic circuit projects (ECPs). While the other labs in this manual
present a specific topic and an experimental process, ECPs are student-driven: the selection of the topic, and the
method of exploration using the skills you have already developed, are your choice.
The main objective of this project is to provide experience that more closely resembles the type of engineering work
that you will perform outside of the classroom lab. Also, this project may inspire curiosity about the topics of study.
For example, the previous labs have covered only with the most basic concepts of capacitors - but even devices as
simple as capacitors are rich with finer details about their types, construction, behavior, and uses. Your proficiency
as an engineer will depend upon the expansion and refinement of your understanding of such topics, and upon your
self-inspiration to continue learning and exploring throughout your career.
Each ECP will occur as follows:
• Assignment: When the ECP is first assigned, you should begin thinking about topic involving the design,
behavior, and/or use of the components that you have been studying, and an experimental process to explore
the topic.
• Proposal: You will submit to your lab instructor a proposal of your ECP. The proposal should describe the
topic that you intend to study, and the experiments that you intend to perform. The proposal is due two
weeks after the ECP is first assigned. (Submitting your proposal earlier is encouraged, since you may
have more time to complete the experiment.) If your instructor does not approve your proposal or suggests
changes, you will have a brief period of time to resubmit your proposal.
Project selection: For each ECP, this lab manual provides a number of sample projects that may serve as a
starting point for your ideas. You may either choose one of these projects as the starting point, or develop
a similar or related topic to explore. If you select a different topic, you should try to choose one that is still
within the general field of the sample projects. In either case, you are encouraged to discuss the project with
your lab instructor before submitting your proposal.
Experiment design: You should think carefully while selecting experiments with the right level of complexity.
Each project should cover new material or present an interesting challenge, but should not be so complex or
difficult that it cannot be completed in the time frame for the ECP. The experiment that you propose for
each ECP should be able to be completed within 3 to 6 hours (that is, within one or two ordinary lab
sessions).
Materials: Your experiment should mainly use the materials in your ECE 286 lab kit (or any other components
that can be acquired through the VSE lab store), the equipment available in the labs, and any ordinary
household equipment (e.g., a refrigerator, freezer, or heating element). If your experiment involves additional
components or special equipment, please consult your lab instructor.
• Once your project is approved, you should conduct the experiment and record your results and observations.
You may do so during the ordinary lab sessions after completing the designated experiment for the session.
You may also visit the lab during open circuit lab hours.
• Four weeks after the ECP assignment, a report of your project will be due to your lab instructor. Also, you
will present your project for the class.
As always, if you encounter any problems - consult your lab instructor!
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Lab 1: Steady-State RC and RL Series Circuits
Introduction
This experiment explores the relationships between resistance and reactance in steady-state A/C series circuits.
In previous classes, you have observed the effects of resistance by assembling and evaluated circuits that feature
resistors. You have also observed the effects of reactance by building and assembling circuits that feature capacitors
or inductors, including how these elements respond at different frequencies.
This first experiment is an introduction to impedance as a combination of a resistive element and a reactive element.
These circuits are intended to be simple and familiar. Studying their performance to observe the properties of these
basic combinations of elements over a range of frequencies will establish a conceptual basis for understanding more
complicated circuits in future experiments.
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Lab Experiments
Experiment #1: RC Series Circuit - Varying Frequency
• Build an RC series circuit using three elements:

– A power supply set to a maximum amplitude of 2 volts and with the negative terminal connected to
Ground;
– A 100-nF capacitor; and
– A 1-k Ω resistor.
• Evaluate the circuit at three frequencies: 500 Hz, 1 kHz, and 5 kHz. At each frequency:
– Record your observations of how the magnitude and phase of the resistor and the capacitor, relative to
the phase of the power supply, change as the frequency increases.
– Measure the maximum amplitude of the voltage over the resistor and the capacitor.
– Compare the phase of the resistor to the power supply, and the phase of the capacitor to the power supply.
Record whether the capacitor leads or lags the power supply, and by how much.
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Experiment #2: RC Series Circuit - Varying Resistance

Ground;
– One of three resistors: a 100 Ω resistor, a 1 k Ω resistor, and a 10 k Ω resistor.
• For each resistor:
– Identify the frequency of the circuit until magnitude of the maximum voltage measured over the resistor
equals the maximum voltage measured over the capacitor.
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Experiment #3: RL Series Circuit - Varying Frequency
• Build an RL series circuit using three elements:

Ground;
– A 10-mH inductor; and
– Record your observations of how the magnitude and phase of the resistor and the inductor, relative to the
phase of the power supply, change as the frequency increases.
– Measure the maximum amplitude of the voltage over the resistor and the inductor.
– Compare the phase of the resistor to the power supply, and the phase of the inductor to the power supply.
Record whether the inductor leads or lags the power supply, and by how much.
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Experiment #4: RL Series Circuit - Varying Resistance

Ground;
– One of three resistors: a 100 Ω resistor, a 1 k Ω resistor, and a 10 k Ω resistor.
• For each resistor:
– Identify the frequency of the circuit until magnitude of the maximum voltage measured over the resistor
equals the maximum voltage measured over the inductor.
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PSpice Circuit Simulation
Perform the same experiments in PSpice in the following manner:
• Experiments #1 and #3: Assemble the circuit in PSpice. For the power supply, use the Sine source
component, with the VAMPL property set to 2 volts, the FREQ property set to 500 Hz, and the negative
terminal attached to Ground.
Run a time-domain simulation of the circuit. Plot the voltage over the voltage source, resistor, and reactive
element. Capture a plot of two cycles of the circuit in steady-state conditions. (That is: zoom in on two cycles
of the plot at some time after the transient effects have dissipated, such that each cycle is identical.)
Repeat the simulation at the other two frequencies (1 kHz and 5 kHz). Generate a screen capture of the
schematics and plots.
For each experiment, you should have one plot for each of the three frequencies. The collection of plots for
each experiment should enable a comparison of how the voltage magnitude and phase shift over the resistor
and reactive element change as the frequency increases.
• Experiments #2 and #4: Assemble the circuit in PSpice, using a 100 Ω resistor. For the power supply, use
the AC source component, which allows you to set the VAMPL property (at 2 V) but not the FREQ property.
Connect the negative terminal to Ground.
Run an A/C Sweep simulation of the circuit from 20 Hz to 300 kHz. Plot the voltage of the voltage source,
resistor, and reactive element over the range of frequencies. Generate screen captures of the schematic and
plot.
Repeat for the other two resistor values (1 k Ω and 10 k Ω), and generate screen captures of the schematics
and plots for the circuits using each resistor value.
For each experiment, you should have one plot for each of the three resistor values. The collection of plots for
each experiment should enable a comparison of how the crossover frequency changes as the resistance of the
circuit increases.
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Analysis
The following questions are intended to guide your analysis of your experimental and simulation results, and solidify
your understanding of the performance of these simple circuits. Thinking more deeply about these properties will
improve your intuition about how these elements may perform in more complicated circuits.
For each question, include a brief answer (between 1 and 4 sentences) with your lab report.
1. Verification of Results: Compare your experimental results and your simulation results. Are the results
consistent? If not, what may have happened, and which result do you believe to be a more accurate reflection
of the concepts in this lab?
2. Evaluation of Results: The term “phase shift” describes a relative timing difference between the cyclic peaks
between two physical properties, where the “leading” element exhibits a phase that is ahead of the “lagging”
element (up to, but not exceeding, half of the phase cycle). With that definition in mind, compare the following
properties and indicate whether the first property exhibit a leading, lagging, or zero phase shift with respect
to the second property:
• In the RC circuit:
(a) The voltage of the resistor vs. the voltage of the power supply
(b) The voltage of the capacitor vs. the voltage of the power supply
(c) The voltage of the resistor vs. the voltage of the capacitor
(d) The voltage of the power supply vs. the current through the power supply
(e) The voltage of the resistor vs. the current through the resistor
(f) The voltage of the capacitor vs. the current through the capacitor
• In the RL circuit:
(a) The voltage of the resistor vs. the voltage of the power supply
(b) The voltage of the inductor vs. the voltage of the power supply
(c) The voltage of the resistor vs. the voltage of the inductor
(d) The voltage of the power supply vs. the current through the power supply
(e) The voltage of the resistor vs. the current through the resistor
(f) The voltage of the inductor vs. the current through the inductor
3. General Conclusions: Summarize the observations of your experiments:
(a) In an RC series circuit, as frequency increases from a low value to a high value, does the capacitor exhibit
more or less reactance? Does the phase shift of the various elements of the circuit increase or decrease?
(b) In an RL series circuit, as frequency increases from a low value to a high value, does the inductor exhibit
more or less reactance? Does the phase shift of the various elements of the circuit increase or decrease?
(c) What does the crossover frequency represent? In an RC series circuit, as the resistance component of the
impedance increases, how does the crossover frequency change? How about in an RL series circuit?
4. Further Consideration:
(a) The schematics of the series circuits provided above show the series combination of a power supply, a
reactive element, a resistor, and the ground element. What experimental measurements, if any, would
change if the positions of the resistor and the capacitor were swapped? What experimental measurements
would remain the same?
(b) The PSpice schematics above show the ground element positioned at one terminal of the power supply.
What properties of the circuit would change if the ground element were inserted between the resistor and
the reactive element? What properties of the circuit would remain the same?
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(c) Reactance vs. Current: Another way of thinking about phase shift is by considering the circuit under
steady-state conditions, and identifying what is happening to the reactive element at each portion of the
current cycle - i.e.:
i. 0 ≤ φ < π2 → the current is flowing clockwise through the circuit and increasing (eventually reaching
a positive maximum current)
π
ii. 2 ≤ φ < π → the current is flowing clockwise through the circuit and decreasing (eventually reaching
zero current)
iii. π ≤ φ < 3π2 → the current is flowing counterclockwise through the circuit and increasing (eventually
reaching a negative maximum current)
3π
iv. 2 ≤ φ < 2π → the current is flowing counterclockwise through the circuit and decreasing (eventually
reaching zero current)
Considering the current as a cycle of these four states:
i. For the RC circuit, at which portions of the current cycle is the capacitor charging (i.e., accumulating
a charge separation between the plates), and at which portions of the current cycle is the capacitor
discharging (i.e., contributing power to the circuit while the charge separation diminishes?)
For the RL circuit, at which portions of the current cycle is the inductor charging (i.e., using power
from the circuit to build a magnetic field around the coil), and at which portions of the current cycle is
the capacitor discharging (i.e., contributing power to the circuit while the magnetic field dissipates?)
At which points in the cycle is each inductor terminal at a higher voltage than the other?
ii. For the RC circuit, at which points in the current cycle is each capacitor terminal higher than the
other?
For the RL circuit, at which points in the current cycle is each inductor terminal higher than the
other?
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Lab Report
Your lab report should contain the following items:
• For each experiment:
– Three schematics of the circuits simulated in PSpice.
– Three plots showing the performance of the circuit at each of the identified variables.
– A table or list of your experimental results, including the observations of the magnitude and relative phase
differences of the simultaneously viewed pairs of voltages in each circuit.
• Answers to the questions provided above.
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Lab 2: Steady-State RLC Circuits
Introduction
This lab explores the performance of RLC circuits in steady-state alternating-current conditions.
The first experiment involves a series RLC circuit, in which the same current flows through all of the circuit elements.
Each element may dissipate or store a different amount of voltage at various points in the current cycle.
The second experiment involves a parallel RLC circuit, in which the voltage of the power supply is applied to two
parallel branches: an RC branch and an RL branch. In this circuit, the total voltage applied to each branch equals
the voltage of the power supply, but the current flowing through each branch is influenced by the components in
each branch. The effect of varying the frequency will be examined.
The third experiment involves a parallel RLC circuit with a fixed frequency, and with varying resistors inserted on
the capacitor and inductor branches, to examine the effect of varying the relative impedance of each branch on the
overall circuit.
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Lab Experiments
Experiment #1: RLC Series Circuit - Varying Frequency
• Build an RLC series circuit using four elements:

Ground;
– A 1-k Ω resistor;
– A 10-mH inductor.
• Evaluate the circuit at three frequencies: 1 kHz, 6 kHz, and 15 kHz. At each frequency, simultaneously measure
the following pairs of voltages. Record the magnitude and relative phase difference (in radians) of each voltage:
– The voltage of the power supply and the voltage of the resistor.
– The voltage of the power supply and the voltage of the capacitor.
– The voltage of the power supply and the voltage of the inductor.
– The voltage of the capacitor and the voltage of the inductor.
• While measuring voltage over the resistor, adjust the frequency from 100 Hz to 20 kHz. Observe and record
how the magnitude of the resistor voltage, and therefore the current through the circuit, changes over this
range.
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Experiment #2: RLC Parallel Circuit - Varying Frequency
• Build an RLC parallel circuit comprising three parallel branches with the following elements:
– Power Supply Branch: A power supply set to a maximum amplitude of 5 volts and with the negative
terminal connected to Ground, and a 100 Ω resistor.
– Capacitor Branch: A 100 Ω resistor and a 100-nF capacitor; and
– Inductor Branch: A 100 Ω resistor and a 10-mH inductor.
(Note: The purpose of inserting one 100 Ω resistor in each branch is to enable a comparison of the current
through each branch of the circuit under different conditions.)
• Evaluate the circuit at three frequencies: 100 Hz, 6 kHz, and 20 kHz. At each frequency, simultaneously
measure the following pairs of voltages. Record the magnitude and relative phase difference (in radians) of
each voltage:
– The voltage of the power supply branch resistor and the capacitor branch resistor.
– The voltage of the power supply branch resistor and the inductor branch resistor.
• While measuring voltage over the resistor of the power supply branch, adjust the frequency from 100 Hz to
20 kHz. Observe and record how the magnitude of the resistor voltage, and therefore the total current of the
power supply, changes over this range.
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Experiment #3: RLC Parallel Circuit - Varying Impedance
• Using the same RLC parallel circuit, but maintaining the frequency at 6 kHz, evaluate the circuit under the
following three conditions:
– With an additional 10 k Ω resistor inserted into the capacitor branch, in series with the 100 Ω resistor.
– With the 10 k Ω resistor removed from the capacitor branch. (This is the same circuit that you evaluated
in Experiment #2.)
– With an additional 10 k Ω resistor inserted into the inductor branch, in series with the 100 Ω resistor.
• For each of these three circuits, simultaneously measure the following pairs of voltages. Record the magnitude
and relative phase difference (in radians) of each voltage:
– The voltage of the power supply branch resistor and the voltage of the capacitor branch resistor.
– The voltage of the power supply branch resistor and the voltage of the inductor branch resistor.
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• Experiment #1: Assemble the circuit in PSpice, using a Sine voltage source component with the VAMPL
property set to 5 volts and the FREQ property set to 1 kHz. Perform a time-domain simulation of the circuit,
and plot the voltage over the voltage source, resistor, capacitor, and inductor, over two cycles of the current in
steady-state conditions. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
Repeat at 6 kHz and 15 kHz. Generate screen captures of the schematics and plots of the circuit for each
frequency.
The collection of plots for this experiment should enable a comparison of how the voltage magnitude and phase
shift over the resistor, capacitor, and inductor as the frequency increases.
property set to 5 volts and the FREQ property set to 1 kHz. Perform a time-domain simulation of the circuit,
and plot the voltage over the voltage source and the voltage over each 100 Ω resistor, over two cycles of the
current in steady-state conditions. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
Repeat at 6 kHz, and again 20 kHz. Generate screen captures of the schematics and plots of the circuit for
each frequency.
The collection of plots for this experiment should enable a comparison of how the voltage of the voltage source
compares with the current generated by the voltage source, and how the current generated by the voltage source
compared with the current through the capacitor branch and the inductor branch, as the frequency increases.
• Experiment #3: Assemble the circuit in PSpice, initially including the extra 10 k Ω resistor in the capacitor
branch, using a Sine voltage source component with the VAMPL property set to 5 volts and the FREQ property
set to 6 kHz. Perform a time-domain simulation of the circuit, and plot the voltage over the voltage source
and the voltage over each 100 Ω resistor, over two cycles of the current in steady-state conditions. Generate
screen captures of the schematic and plot.
Remove the 10 k Ω resistor from the capacitor branch and repeat. Then insert the 10 k Ω resistor into the
inductor branch and repeat. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
The collection of plots for this experiment should enable a comparison of how the voltage of the voltage source
compares with the current generated by the voltage source, and how the current generated by the voltage
source compared with the current through the capacitor branch and the inductor branch, as the impedance of
each branch increases.
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Analysis
For each question, include a brief answer (between 1 and 4 sentences) with your lab report.
(a) In an RLC series circuit, how does the phase shift of the power supply, relative to the current (measured
as the voltage over the resistor), change as the frequency increases from low to high?
(b) In an RLC series circuit, which reactive element exhibits a large maximum voltage at low frequenices?
Which reactive element exhibits a large maximum voltage at high frequencies?
(c) In an RLC parallel circuit, how is the current provided by the power supply divided between the capacitor
branch and the inductor branch at low, medium, and high frequencies?
(d) In an RLC series circuit, how does the current through the entire circuit change as the frequency sweeps
from low to high? How about for an RLC parallel circuit? Can you explain why each circuit exhibits this
type of current?
(a) Experimental Design: In the RLC parallel circuits, each branch includes a 100 Ω resistor to enable
comparative measurements of current. It may be observed that the reactive effects of each parallel circuit
may be increased by operating the circuit without the 100 Ω in series with either the capacitor or the
inductor. Why is this not a good idea?
(b) Impedance Loads: Experiments #2 and #3 involved adjusting the type of load placed on the circuit,
and how these loads affect the current provided by the power supply as the loads change.
i. In an RLC parallel circuit, what changes to the circuit cause more of the total current to flow down
the capacitive branch than the inductive branch? What changes to the circuit cause more of the total
current to flow downt he inductive branch rather than the capacitive branch?
ii. In an RLC parallel circuit, how do the phase shift and magnitude of the voltage branch resistor
(representing the total current provided by the power supply), relative to the voltage provided by the
power supply, change as more current flows down the capacitive branch? How do the phase shift and
magnitude change as more current flows odnw the inductive branch?
iii. Comparing Experiments #2 and #3 - the impedance of the capacitor branch can be increased either
by increasing its resistance, or by adjusting the frequency to increase its reactance. How do these
changes differ? That is:
A. Looking only at the capacitor branch - how does increasing or decreasing the capacitance change
the current through the resistor? On the other hand, how does increasing or decreasing the
resistance change the current through the capacitor?
B. Looking at the other branches - how does changing the resistive component of each branch affect
the other branches of the circuit? How does changing the reactive component of each branch
affect the other branches of the circuit?
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Lab Report
– Three schematics showing the circuits simulated in PSpice.
– Three plots showing the performance of the circuit at each of the identified variables.
– A table or list of your experimental results, including the observations of the magnitude and relative phase
differences of the simultaneously viewed pairs of voltages in each circuit.
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ECP 3: Additional Capacitor Properties and Uses
In this ECP, you will design and experiment with some properties and uses of capacitors.
Three deliverables are required for ECP 3:
1. Two weeks from today: ECP 3 project proposal. Your report (1-2 pages) should describe:
• The topic that you intend to study;
• The materials and equipment that your experiment will require; and
• The experimental process that your project will follow.
2. Four weeks from today: ECP 3 project report. As with a standard lab report, your ECP 3 project report
should specify:
• The background and topic that you studied, with a list of outside information sources that you utilized;
• The materials and equipment that your experiment utilized;
• The experimental process that your project followed (including any changes from the proposed process);
• Collected data presented as tables, plots, photos, recorded observations, and a reference to any data sets
that you collected and uploaded to Blackboard; and
• Conclusions of your findings and conclusions about the topic of study.
3. Four weeks from today: ECP 3 project demonstration. You will provide a brief (approximtely 5 minutes)
demonstration of your project for the class. It is helpful if you can present a live demonstration of the properties
or uses of the capacitor that you explored. Graphs, images, and recorded video are also acceptable.
The following pages provide some ECP “sample projects” to give you some ideas of the kinds of topics and experiments
that are suitable for ECP 3. You may choose any of these topics and experiments, but you are encouraged to choose
your own - some outside research and discussions with your lab instructor may inspire some new ideas.
ECP 3 Sample Project 1: Capacitor Properties

The lab experiments in this manual demonstrate the performance of capacitors in A/C circuits based on some
standard electrical properties: voltage, time, and the resistance and reactance of other circuit elements. However,
the performance of capacitors in real-world circuits is also affected by other properties. This project may involve the
observation of how capacitors respond to various properties. You may choose some capacitor properties that may
vary during operation of the capacitor, and conduct experiments to observe the effects. Such properties may include:
• Temperature: Do capacitors at varying temperatures (e.g., freezing, cool, room temperature, warm, and hot)
exhibit a different capacitance?
• Energy storage: If a capacitor is charged up to a certain voltage and then removed from the circuit, will it
retain its stored energy? Can it later be inserted into a circuit to power an element such as an LED? How well
does the capacitor retain stored energy over time?
• Failure modes: All capacitors have a range of performance ratings within which the capacitor should perform
as expected, but beyond which the capacitor may, temporarily or permanently, not operate correctly. If a
capacitor is subjected to varying kinds of misuse (e.g., physical strain, very high or very low temperatures,
voltage or current above its rating, exposure to water, and sudden shorting across its terminals). You may
acquire a small number of capacitors (e.g., ten or twenty), apply various forms of misuse to the capacitors,
and determine how the capacitor responds. (Be careful! Use small-value capacitors that are not capable of
storing much energy, and increase voltage or current slowly and incrementally. Also, try to anticipate the kinds
of failures that may occur. For example, failed capacitors may overheat - so don’t touch them! Also, failed
30
capacitors may short, so do not connect a single capacitor directly to a power supply; include a 1k Ω resistor
in series to dissipate excess voltage.)
ECP 3 Sample Project 2: A/C Waveforms and Phase Shaping

The experiments in this lab manual demonstrate the response of capacitors to standard waveforms, such as a sine
wave (to which the capacitor produces a standard sine wave) and a square wave (to which the capacitor produces a
characteristic growth-limit/exponential-decay pattern). However, in real-world circuits, other types of alternating-
current waveforms may arise, such as half-wave rectified sine waves; ramps; full-wave square waves that alternate
between positive and negative voltage; pulses with varying duty cycles; and stair-steps. While the capacitor uses
the same charging and discharging equations in each circumstance, the distinct shapes of different waveforms cause
the capacitor to produce a differently-shaped waveform in response. More information is available here: https:
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_shaping
This experiment may involve learning how to use the standard lab function generators to generate different types of
signals:
• The lab function generators enable the adjustment of various waveform parameters, such as amplitude, fre-
quency, and the duty cycle of a pulse. Varying the waveform parameters may affect the output waveform of
the capacitor (e.g., adjusting the duty cycle of a pulse wave such that the capacitor does not fully discharge).
• Some of the lab function generators may be programmable to permit arbitrarily selected waveforms. You may
be able to design some novel input waveforms that produce interesting results.
• Two or more function generators may provide different types of waveforms, and connecting them them in
parallel with the capacitor may present a different, composite waveform, such as a sine wave combined with a
triangular wave at the same frequency.
For each input waveform, what waveform shape does the capacitor exhibit? Are there any practical implications to
the different waveforms?
ECP 3 Sample Project 3: Transients

While capacitors exhibit predictable behavior in steady-state conditions, sudden changes may provoke undesirable
transient responses. Such transients are often undesirable, as they may damage the capacitor or other equipment, or
increase the noise of a signal.Some examples where such transients arise:
• Buttons and switches: When a capacitor is positioned in a circuit with a button or switch, the activation or
release of the button or switch may suddenly change the voltage applied to the capacitor. Also, many buttons
and switches tend to “bounce” between various voltages for a brief duration when activated - the result is not
a clean and instantaneous transition from zero voltage to full voltage, but a brief period of noisy and chaotic
transition.
• Power spike or cutoff: When power is applied to or removed from a circuit, the voltage change applied to the
capacitor may not be an instantaneous transition from zero to full voltage - e.g., other reactive elemnets in the
circuit may react concurrently, such as a low-value capacitor that charges and discharges more rapidly than a
high-value capacitor.
• Signal connection: When a signal is suddenly connected to a circuit, such as plugging an audio source into an
AUX port, the sudden change in impedance may induce a brief period of transience, such as a “pop” or crackle
noise.
This experiment may involve a study of the occurrence and properties of a particular type of transient. The experi-
ment may involve the use of an oscilloscope to capture the occurrence of a transient signal. The ”trigger” function
of the oscilloscope may enable a precise capturing of the transient signal.
This experiment may also involve the use of capacitors to reduce or eliminate transients, such as the process of
“de-bouncing” a button using a “snubber capacitor” to remove very-high-frequency transients from an input signal.
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Lab 3: A/C Circuit Analysis Techniques
Introduction
This set of experiments demonstrates the applicability of superposition and source transformation to alternating-
current, steady-state circuits.
You are already familiar with these topics in the context of direct-current circuits for purely resistive circuits. It
will not be a surprise that these techniques can be applied to alternating-current circuits in steady state, simply
by accounting for reactance as well as resistance. However, as these experiments will demonstrate, the inclusion of
reactance creates some nuances that must be considered while applying these techniques.
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Lab Experiments
Experiment #1: Basic Superposition
In this experiment, you will compare two circuits, separately utilizing a power supply, with a circuit that simulates
the concurrent use of two power supplies.
• Circuit #1: Assemble a parallel circuit with the following components:
– Branch #1: A power supply set to 1 volt and 1 kHz, and a 100 nF capacitor, with the negative side of
the power supply connected to Ground, and a 1 k Ω resistor.
– Branch #2: A 1 k Ω resistor.
• Connect a 100 nF capacitor from the top of the parallel circuit (i.e.. the node between the resistors) to the
bottom of the parallel circuit (i.e., the node connected to ground).
• Using the oscilloscope, measure the maximum voltage over each of the resistors, and over the capacitor.
• Circuit #2: Move the power supply from Branch #1 to Branch #2. Again, use the oscilloscope to measure
the maximum voltage over each of the resistors, and over the capacitor.
• Circuit #3: Connect the positive terminal of the power supply to both branches, so that the power supply
provides voltage cocnurrently to both of the resistors. Again, use the oscilloscope to measure the maximum
voltage over each of the resistors, and over the capacitor.
• Compare the maximum voltage of each component in Circuit #3 with the sum of the maximum voltages for
the same component in Circuit #1 and Circuit #2.
33
Experiment #2: Complex Superposition
In this experiment, you will compare the effect of simulating two power supplies with variable phases.
• Circuit #1: Assemble a series circuit with four elements:
– A power supply set to 1 volt and 3 kHz;
– A first 100 nF capacitor;
– A 1 k Ω resistor (the “load resistor”); and
– A second 100 nF capacitor.
• Add two more 1 k Ω resistors, each connecting one of the terminals of the power supply to one of the terminals
of the first 1 k Ω resistor. (These are described as the “return resistors” that return current from the capacitor
/ first resistor potion to the power supply.) In the completed circuit, each terminal of the power supply should
be connected to a terminal of a capacitor and a terminal of one return resistor.
• Using the oscilloscope, measure the maximum voltage over one of the capacitors, and over the 1 k Ω resistor
between the capacitors.
• Circuit #2: Reorient the power supply. Connect one terminal of the power supply to one terminal of both
capacitors, and the other terminal of the power supply to one terminal of both of the return resistors. The
load resistor should remain as before, with each terminal connected to one capacitor terminal and one return
resistor terminal. Maintain the settings of the power supply at 1 volt and 3 kHz.
• Using the oscilloscope, measure the maximum voltage over one of the capacitors, and over the 1 k Ω resistor
between the capacitors.
34
Experiment #3: Source Transformation
In this experiment, you will consider the equivalence of a series circuit with a complex load, and a parallel circuit
with a transformed power source.
• Assemble a circuit with the following components:
– A voltage source set to 12 volts and 920 Hz, and with the negative terminal connected to Ground;
– A 100nF capacitor and a first 1 k Ω resistor (the “transient elements”); and
– A second 1 k Ω resistor (the “load resistor”).
• Using the oscilloscope, measure the maximum voltage of the load resistor.
In this circuit, the voltage source, the transient elements, and the load resistor are in series. The objective of this
experiment is to substitute the voltage source with a current source, and to place the current source and the transient
elements in parallel with the load resistor, without altering the voltage of the load resistor. We are not particularly
interested in the phase of this steady-state circuit, so we will focus on the magnitude.
This process can be determined using Ohm’s Law. First, the total magnitude of the impedance of the transient
elements is determined:
Z = R√+ jX
|Z| = qR2 + X 2
1
|Z| = (103 )2 + ( (2·π·960)·10−7 )
2
|Z| = 1, 936Ω
Using Ohm’s Law:
|I| = |V
|Z|
|
|I| = 12 volts
1,936Ω
|I| = 6.2 mA
The source-transformation circuit comprises a current source with a maximum output of 6.2 mA, in parallel with
the transient elements and the load resistor:
35
Unfortunately, the standard lab equipment for ECE 286 does not feature a current source. However, as long as the
frequency and impedance are fixed, we can use a voltage source that produces the same current output. (Note that
we are still using source transformation - will keep the voltage source and transient elements in parallel. We are only
using a voltage source to produce the current that our desired current source would produce.)
First, the total magnitude of the impedance of this new circuit is determined, noting that the elements are now
arranged in parallel:
1 1 1 103 ·(103 + 1,657
j )
Z= 1
+ 1013
= 1
+ 1013
= 103 +(103 +
1,657
)
= 103 +(103 + 1,657 )
103 + 1 1,657 j j
103 +
j·2·π·960·10−7 j 1,657
(103 ·(103 + )
j
6
106 + 1.657·10
j j106 +1.657·106
Z= 3 = j2·103 +1.657·103
2·103 + 1.657·10
j
√ 62
|j106 +1.657·106 | (10 ) +(1.657·106 )2
|Z| = |j2·103 +1.657·103 | =√ 3 2 3 2
≈ 745 Ω
(2·10 ) +(1.657·10 )
Finally, using Ohm’s Law again:

|V | = |I| · |Z| = 6.2 · 10−3 amps · 745 Ω = 4.6 volts
Accordingly, we can substitute the current supply with this voltage:
Conclude the experiment as follows:

• Prepare a parallel circuit with three branches:
– A voltage source set to 4.6 volts and 920 Hz, and with the negative terminal connected to Ground;
– A 100nF capacitor and a first 1 k Ω resistor; and
– A second 1 k Ω resistor.
• Using the oscilloscope, measure the maximum voltage of the load resistor. Compare the maximum voltage of
the load resistor in this parallel circuit with the maximum voltage of the load resistor in the original series
circuit.
36
• Experiment #1: Create the circuit using a Sine voltage source with VAMPL set to 1 volt and FREQ set to
1 khz, and connected to only one resistor. Plot the voltage over each of the resistors and the capacitor for two
current cycles. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
Move the voltage source to the other resistor, and plot the voltage over each of the resistors and the capacitor.
Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
Reconfigure the voltage source to supply both resistors, and plot the voltage over each of the resistors and the
capacitor. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
• Experiment #2: Create the circuit with each terminal of the power supply connected to one capacitor and
one return resistor, and the load resistor connecting the opposite terminals of the capacitors. Connect Ground
to one of the power supply terminals. Plot the voltage over each capacitor and over the load resistor. Generate
Reconfigure the power supply to attache one lead to both of the capacitors, and one lead to both of the resistors
(as well as to Ground). Plot the voltage over each capacitor and over the load resistor. Generate screen captures
of the schematic and plot.
• Experiment #3: Create the series circuit using a Sine voltage source set to VAMPL = 12 volts and FREQ
= 920 Hz, and with Ground attached to the negative terminal of the power supply. Plot the voltage over one
of the capacitor and the one of the resistors (either one). Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
Reconfigure the circuit as a parallel circuit with three branches: the power supply; the capacitor and one of
the resistors (as the transient elements); and the other resistor (as the load resistor). Maintain the frequency
of the power supply, and reduce VAMPL to 4.6 volts. Plot the voltage over one of the capacitor and the load
resistor. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
37
Analysis
2. Evaluation of Results:
(a) In Experiment #1, did the sum of the maximum voltages of the capacitor in the first two circuits equal
the voltage in the third circuit?
(b) In Experiment #2, how did the reorientation of the power supply affect the circuit? How do these changes
relate to your observations of the maximum voltage of the resistor?
(c) In Experiment #3, how did the maximum voltage of the load resistor in the original circuit compare with
the maximum voltage of the load resistor in the source-transformed circuit?
(a) Is superposition applicable to alternating-current circuits? How does phase apply to the use of superpo-
sition?
(b) Is source transformation applicable to alternating-current circuits? Can a voltage source in series with a
load be converted to a current source in parallel with the load?
(a) In Experiment #1, each circuit contains a current path comprising the power supply and two resistors.
Nothing in this current path is reactive. And yet, a comparison of the PSpice plots from Experiment #1
reveals that the current exhibits a phase shift: the power supply voltage and resistors voltages are out of
phase.
i. Can you explain these results? Physically, what is occurring in the circuit to cause a phase shift in a
purely resistive path?
ii. How would this effect change if the frequency of the circuit is increased or decreased?
(b) Experiment #2 is intended to demonstrate how superposition can vary in the use of two power supplies. In
both circuits, the power supply and capacitors could be replaced by two power supplies, each connecting
one of the terminals of the load resistor to one of the return resistors. The results of this experiment
demonstrate some interesting consequences, depending on how this is performed. If each power supply
has three controls - voltage, frequency, and phase shift - how would you adjust the controls of each power
supply to achieve the results of each circuit? (Turning one or both power supplies OFF is not an option.)
(c) Your observations from Experiment #2 may answer a question about Experiment #1: for each resistor,
the sum of the maximum voltages for the first two experiments does not equal the maximum voltage of the
same resistor in the third experiment. Can you explain why this occurs? (Hint: For one of the resistors,
compare the voltage plots for the first two circuits with the voltage plot of the same resistor in the third
circuit.)
(d) The objective of Experiment #3 is to substitute the voltage supply (in series) for a current supply (in
parallel) that deliver the same maximum voltage to the load resistor. How would increasing the frequency
of the original voltage source have impacted the analysis, and the current provided by the equivalent
current supply? How about if the frequency of the original voltage source had been decreased?
38
(e) Experiment #3 focuses on demonstrating that different power supplies can apply the same maximum
voltage to a load. However, this experiment does not address the question of phase shift: does the phases
and phase shifts in the original circuit match the phases and phase shifts of the source-transformed circuit?
Consider this plot of the voltage vs. current through the voltage source in the original circuit (V21) and
the source-transformed circuit (V25):
. . . demonstrates a different phase shift of the current, relative to the voltage supply in the original circuit
than in the source-transformed circuit. (The currents in this plot have been scaled to the same maximum
plot height as the voltage, but the shift between the current, I21, in the original circuit vs. the current
The following two questions may explain why this occurs:
i. First, notice that the phase shift manifests differently in these two circuits. In the original circuit,
does the voltage and current through the load resistor match the current or the voltage of the power
supply? How about the source-transformed circuit - does the voltage and current through the load
resistor match the current or the voltage of the power supply?
ii. The phase shift in these circuits is caused by the reactance of the capacitor, which in turn is a
function of the current passing through the circuit. Review your PSpice plots from Experiment #3
- how does the voltage of the capacitor in the original circuit compare with the capacitor voltage of
the source-transformed circuit? How does this observation relate to the phase shifts exhibited by the
circuit?
39
Lab Report
• The voltage measurements recorded at each of the three frequencies.
• Eight schematics of the circuits that you simulated in PSpice.
• Ten plots of the simulation results for each of the three circuits.
40
Lab 4: A/C Power
Introduction
This set of experiments involve the use of alternating current to deliver power to various components of a circuit
with a variable impedance.
The basic definition of power, P = V · I, is simple enough - but the power delivery to a complex circuit load (i.e., a
load that exihibits both resistance and reactance) may exhibit some interesting characteristics. Recall that reactive
elements (at least, those that perform in an ideal manner) store and release power, while resistors dissipate power.
In RC, RL, and RLC circuits, the use of power by resistive elements and reactive elements can lead to interesting
circuit performance.
The next few experiments will enable you to observe and explore the nature of the power delivery capacity of various
A/C circuits. Similar to Lab #1, the circuits presented in this lab are basic and familiar. However, the following
experiments require new reflection about the power delivery of these circuits.
41
Lab Experiments
Experiment #1: RC Series Circuit - Varying Frequency

Ground;
• Evaluate the circuit at three frequencies: 100 Hz, 1 kHz, and 10 kHz. At each frequency, simultaneously measure
the following following pairs of voltages. Either sketch or record the comparison, and record an estimate of the
maximum voltage and the relative phase difference (in radians) of the voltages:
– The voltage over the power supply and the voltage of the resistor.
– The voltage of the capacitor and the voltage of the resistor.
42
Experiment #2: RL Series Circuit - Varying Frequency

Ground;
• Evaluate the circuit at three frequencies: 10 kHz, 30 kHz, and 90 kHz. At each frequency, simultaneously
measure the following following pairs of voltages. Either sketch or record the comparison, and record an
estimate of the maximum voltage and the relative phase difference (in radians) of the voltages:
– The voltage of the inductor and the voltage of the resistor.
43
Experiment #3: RC Parallel Circuit - Varying Frequency
• Build an RC parallel circuit comprising three parallel branches with the following elements:
– Power Supply Branch: A power supply set to a maximum amplitude of 5 volts and with the negative
terminal connected to Ground, and a 100 Ω resistor.
– Capacitor Branch: A 100 Ω resistor and a 100-nF capacitor.
– Resistor Branch: A 100 Ω resistor and a 1 k Ω resistor.
Evaluate the circuit at three frequencies: 100 Hz, 5 kHz, and 25 kHz. At each frequency, simultaneously measure
the following following pairs of voltages. Either sketch or record the comparison, and record an estimate of the
maximum voltage and the relative phase difference (in radians) of the voltages:
– The voltage of the inductor and the voltage of the resistor.
44
Note: In earlier labs, you plotted the results of these experiments as individual components of current and voltage.
In this simulation, you will instead plot the power delivered by the power supply, and the power dissipated or stored
by each passive component, as the product of voltage and current.
The PSpice simulation tool can accomplish this result. When generating a trace for a simulation property (Trace /
Add Trace), you can request a trace of the product of these quantities, like this:
(V(V1:+)-V(V1:-)) * I(V1)
The resulting trace reflects the power delivered by the power supply.
Perform the same three experiments in PSpice in the following manner:
property set to 5 volts and the FREQ property set to 100 Hz. Generate a screen capture of the schematic.
Run a time-domain simulation of the circuit. Plot the power delivered by the power supply, and the power
dissipated or stored by each passive component, over the entire cycle, over two cycles of the circuit in steady-
state conditions. Generate a screen capture of the plot.
Repeat at the other two frequencies (1 kHz and 100 kHz). Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot
of the circuit at each frequency.
The collection of plots for this experiment should enable a comparison of how the power delivered by the power
supply, dissipated by the resistor, and stored or released by the capacitor changes as the frequency of the circuit
increases.
property set to 5 volts and the FREQ property set to 10 kHz. Generate a screen capture of the schematic.
Run a time-domain simulation of the circuit. Plot the voltage over the voltage source and the voltage over each
100 Ω resistor, over two cycles of the circuit in steady-state conditions. Generate a screen capture of the plot.
The collection of plots for this experiment should enable a comparison of how the power delivered by the power
supply, dissipated by the resistor, and stored or released by the inductor changes as the frequency of the circuit
increases.
• Experiment #3: Assemble the circuit in PSpice, initially including the extra 10 k Ω resistor in the capacitor
branch, using a Sine voltage source component with the VAMPL property set to 5 volts and the FREQ property
set to 100 Hz. Generate a screen capture of the schematic.
Run a time-domain simulation of the circuit. Plot the voltage over the voltage source and the voltage over each
100 Ω resistor, over two cycles of the circuit in steady-state conditions. Generate a screen capture of the plot.
The collection of plots for this experiment should enable a comparison of how the power delivered to a capacitive
element vs. a resistive element, when placed in parallel, changes as the frequency of the circuit increases.
45
Analysis
Each plot that you sketched or photographed in the lab portion includes a comparison of the voltage of a particular
circuit component of interest, and the voltage of a resistor positioned in series with the component, which reflects
the current through the series (both the resistor and the capacitor).
Examining these plots will reveal when power is supplied, dissipated, stored, and/or released by the component.
At portions of the current cycle when the voltage measured over a passive element (according to the passive sign
convention) has the same sign as the direction of current, power is flowing into the passive element. At portions
of the current cycle where the voltage measured over the passive element has the opposite sign as the direction of
current, power is flowing out of the passive element.
(a) Review the plots of the elements that you captured. Identify the portions of the current cycle where the
sign of the voltage measured over the component is the same as the sign of the voltage measured over the
resistor, vs. the portions of the current cycle where the sign of the voltage measured over the component
is opposite the sign of the voltage measured over the resistor. (For a resistor, recall that P ∝ V 2 .)
Based on this comparison, for each passive component type (resistor, capacitor, and inductor), draw a
single cycle of the current flowing through the component. Label the portions of the current cycle when
power flows into the component, and the portions when power flows out of the component.
(b) For each passive component type (resistor, capacitor, and inductor), consider the sum or integral of the
power of each component over the entire current cycle. Specify whether power is supplied and/or dissipated
by each element type over the course of the current cycle.
(c) Based on your analysis above and the PSpice power plots, over the course of a current cycle:
i. In Experiment #1, is more power is delivered to the resistor when capacitive reactance is high, or
when the capacitive reactance is low? How much net power is delivered to the capacitor in each case?
ii. Does the power supply deliver more power to the circuit when the capacitive reactance is low, vs.
when the capacitive reactance is high? Since the voltage of the power supply did not change during
the experiment, how does capacitance affect the power supply?
iii. How does the total power delivered by the power supply change as the frequency and capacitive
reactance change?
iv. Compare your results from Experiment #1 with your results from Experiment #2. How does the
analysis above change for an RL series circuit, when an inductor is used instead of a capacitor?
v. In the RC parallel circuit in Experiment #3, how do changes to the capacitive reactance of the
capacitor branch affect the power delivered to the 1 k Ω resistor on the second branch?
vi. How do changes to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor branch affect the total power delivered
by the power supply? Since the voltage of the power supply did not change during the experiment,
how does increasing reactance in the load affect the power supply?
(a) In a series circuit, how does the presence of reactance (compared with a circuit with no reactance) affect
the delivery of power to the resistive load, and the total current and power provided by the power supply?
(b) In a parallel circuit, how does the presence of reactance (compared with a circuit with no reactance) on
one parallel branch affect the delivery of power to a resistive load on a second parallel branch, and the
total current and power provided by the power supply?
4. Further Consideration: Consider the following properties together:
• The effect of increasing reactance on the power provided to the resistive branch;
46
• The effect of increasing reactance on the power provided to the capacitive branch;
• The effect of increasing reactance on the total current provided by the power supply; and
• The conservation of power - i.e., the sum of the power supplied to each branch must equal the power
provided by the power supply.
Do these properties, together, raise any issues? How are they reconciled? Your plots from the PSpice simulation
may inform your analysis.
47
Lab Report
– Two sketches or photographs of the pairs of elements that you observed together at each frequency (two
comparisons per frequency x three frequencies per experiment = 6 total sketches or images per experiment).
– Nine schematics of the circuits that you simulated.
– Nine PSpice plots showing the power measurements of the components at each frequency (three plots per
experiment).
– A table or list of your experimental results.
48
Lab 5: A/C Power Delivery
Introduction
This experiment builds on the power distribution concepts from Lab #4, and focuses on the efficiency of power
delivery.
Electric power is transmitted from a power station to residential and commercial consumers over long-distance power
lines. Power lines are manufactured as very thick cables with extremely resistivity - such as 0.1 Ω per kilometer -
but are also extremely high-voltage - such as 500 kV - resulting in currents in the range of kiloamps. As a result,
a significant portion of the power generated by the power station is lost during transmission. These losses reduce
the efficiency of the power provided by the power station, since only a portion of the supplied power is received
and utilized by consumers. Additionally, higher current causes additional temperature dissipation by transmission
equipment, which accelerates its degradation over time.
For these reasons, power systems engineers strive to increase the efficiency of power delivered to consumers - i.e.,
the amount of power generated by the power station that is received and used by consumers - and to reduce power
lost during transmission. One way to improve efficiency reflects the observations from Lab #4: even though reactive
components require zero net energy, the reactive portion of a complex load increases the maximum power demand
on a power supply.
This lab introduces the concept of power factor, which defines the ratio of power provided by a power supply that
is delivered to reactive elements to the power that is delivered to resistive elements. The lab also introduces the
technique of power factor correction, which can be used to improve the efficient deliver of power.
49
Lab Experiments
Experiment #1: Capacitance and Power Factor
This experiment involves measuring the power factor, which is the portion of power distribution that is applied to
resistive elements vs. reactive elements. (A purely resistive load results in a power factor of 1; a purely reactive load
results in a power factor of 0.)
As demonstrated in earlier experiments, a reactive load tends to pull the voltage of the power supply out of phase
with respect to the current. Therefore, one way of measuring the power factor is to observe and measure phase shift
at the power supply, where a phase shift of 0 indicates a purely resistive load (power factor = 1) and a phase shift
of π2 indicates a purely capacitive load (power factor = 0).
• Assemble a parallel circuit with three branches:

– Power Supply Branch: A power supply set to 5 volts, and a 100 Ω resistor.
– Inductive Load Branch: A 100 Ω resistor and a 100 nF capacitor.
– Resistive Load Branch: A 1 k Ω resistor.
– Simultaneously observe the voltage measurement of the voltage supply, and the voltage measurement of
the resistor on the power supply branch, which represents the total supplied current.
– Estimate the phase shift between the power supply voltage and the power supply current. Estimate the
power factor.
• Observe the power factor with the power supply set to a very low frequency, such as 10 Hz. Steadily raise the
all the way to a very high frequency, such as 100 kHz, while observing how the power factor changes. Draw a
sketch of the power factor over this frequency range.
50
Experiment #2: Power Factor Correction
This circuit simulates the delivery of power from a power station to two customers: one that is running a large
motor (which is an inductive load), and one that is running a heater (which is a resistive load). The objective of this
experiment is to explore how the efficiency of power delivery can change while delivering power to these two different
types of load.
– Power Supply Branch: A power supply set to 5 volts with the negative terminal connected to Ground,
and a 100 Ω resistor.
– Inductive Load Branch: A 100 Ω resistor and a 10 mH inductor.
– Resistive Load Branch: A 10 k Ω resistor.
• Use the oscilloscope to measure, simultaneously, the voltage over the 100 Ω resistor of the power supply branch
(reflecting the total current provided by the power supply), and the 100 Ω resistor of the inductive load branch
(reflecting the current provided to the inductive branch).
While adjusting the frequency of the power supply over a range from 100 Hz to 25 kHz, observe the voltage
over each resistor. Measure the voltage at four specific frequencies: 1 kHz, 5 kHz, 10 kHz, 20 kHz. Generate a
sketch of the voltage through these points over the frequency range.
As you have probably predicted, these observations will demonstrate that inductance increases significantly as
the frequency increases, and that a major portion of the current provided by the power supply is delivered to
the inductor, which diminishes the power factor. Two strategies will be employed to negate the inductance
with a capacitor in order to improve the power factor and the efficient delivery of power.
• Serial correction: Insert a 100 nF capacitor in the inductive load branch, in series with the 100 Ω resistor and
the inductor. Again adjust the frequency of the power supply over a range from 100 Hz to 25 kHz, observing
the voltage over the power supply branch resistor and the inductive branch resistor. Measure the voltage at
four specific frequencies: 1 kHz, 5 kHz, 10 kHz, 20 kHz. Generate a sketch of the voltage through these points
over the frequency range.
• Parallel correction: Remove the 100 nF capacitor from the inductive load branch, and insert it as a fourth
paralle branch. (No resistor is required in series with the capacitor, because we will not measure voltage and
current on this branch.)
Once again, adjust the frequency of the power supply over a range from 100 Hz to 25 kHz, observing the voltage
over the power supply branch resistor and the inductive branch resistor. Measure the voltage at four specific
frequencies: 1 kHz, 5 kHz, 10 kHz, 20 kHz. Generate a sketch of the voltage through these points over the
frequency range.
• Compare your sketches of the power supply current and the inductive load current in these three circum-
stances (the uncorrected circuit, the series-corrected circuit, and the parallel corrected circuit). Consider the
effectiveness of each correction strategy in improving the power factor and power delivery efficiency.
51
• Experiment #1: Recreate the circuit using a Sine voltage source with VAMPL set to 5 volts and FREQ set
to 100 Hz. Plot the voltage over the voltage source and the voltage over the power supply branch resistor for
two current cycles. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
Repeat the experiment at 5 kHz and 25 kHz. Capture screenshots of the schematics and plots.
• Replace the voltage source with an AC voltage source set to 5 volts. Simulate the circuit using an A/C Sweep
over a range of 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and plot the power delivered to the capacitor over this range of frequencies.
• Experiment #2: Recreate the parallel circuit using an AC voltage source component with the VAMPL
property set to 5 volts. Perform an A/C Sweep over a range of 100 Hz to 100 kHz, and plot the current of each
branch (i.e., the current through the power supply; the current through the inductor; and the current through
the 10 k Ω load resistor) over this range of frequencies. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
Repeat the experiment with a 100 nF capacitor added to the inductive load branch. Perform an A/C sweep
over the range of 100 Hz to 100 kHz, and plot the current through each branch over this range of frequencies.
Repeat the experiment with the 100 nF capacitor removed from the inductive load branch, and added as a
fourth parallel branch (without a resistor). Capture a screenshot of the schematic for your lab report. Prform
an A/C sweep over the range of 100 Hz to 100 kHz, and plot the current through each branch over this range
of frequencies. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
52
Analysis
(a) For Experiment #1:
i. How does the power factor of this circuit vary over the frequency range? How does power delivery to
the capacitor vary over the frequency range? Why does this occur? How does the total current of the
power supply change as the frequency increases?
ii. How would the total load on the circuit at very low frequencies, such as DC, compare with the total
load on the circuit at very high frequencies, such as 500 kHz?
(b) For Experiment #2:
i. Explain the pattern of current provided by the power supply for the uncorrected, series-corrected,
and parallel-corrected circuits over the frequency range.
ii. For the series-corrected and parallel-corrected circuits, at the frequency where the corrective effect is
most pronounced, what is the impact on the inductive load and the reactive load compared with the
uncorrected circuit?
(c) Neither lab experiment required a measurement of the voltage or currnet of the resistive load, despite
significant changes to the circuit caused by the application of power factor correction techniques. Why
was observing the resistive load unnecessary? Is this explanation supported by the PSpice simulation?
(a) Describe, briefly, the relationship between the power factor and the efficiency of power delivery.
(b) How the power delivery to a reactive element varies as the frequency scales from very low to very high?
(c) Describe, briefly, the concept of power factor correction.
(d) When power factor correction is correctly applied to a circuit to raise the power factor, how does it affect
the amount of power delivered to each of the components, and the overall current delivered by the power
supply?
(a) How do each of the power factor correction techniques affect the power factor of the circuit? Which
technique is more effective for promoting efficient power delivery? What causes the other technique to be
an undesirable choice for power factor correction?
(b) Consider the power factor correction technique that was not useful for correcting the power factor. Can
you think of any useful applications of this technique?
(c) In this experimental setting, the power supply frequency could be adapted as part of the power correction
technique. However, in a real-world setting, the power supply frequency is defined by other factors, such
as the rotational rates of power station generators and the operating frequencies of the devices consuming
the supplied power. If power factor correction is desired but the frequency cannot be adjusted, what other
variable might be adjusted to apply these techniques?
53
Lab Report
• For Experiment #1:
– The voltage measurements recorded at each of the three frequencies.
– Four schematics of the circuits simulated in PSpice.
– Three plots of the simulation results for each of the three circuits.
• For Experiment #2:
– The voltage measurements and sketches obtained for each of the three circuits.
– A hand sketch of the power delivery to the capacitor over a large frequency range.
– Three shematics of the circuits simulated in PSpice.
– Four plots of the simulation results for the four circuits.
– A table or list of your experimental results.
54
ECP 4: Additional Filtering Properties and Uses
In this ECP, you will design and experiment with some properties and uses of passive and active filters.
Three deliverables are required for ECP 4:
1. Two weeks from today: ECP 4 project proposal. Your report (1-2 pages) should describe:
• The topic that you intend to study;
• The materials and equipment that your experiment will require; and
• The experimental process that your project will follow.
2. Four weeks from today: ECP 4 project report. As with a standard lab report, your ECP 4 project report
should specify:
• The background and topic that you studied, with a list of outside information sources that you utilized;
• The materials and equipment that your experiment utilized;
• The experimental process that your project followed (including any changes from the proposed process);
• Collected data presented as tables, plots, photos, recorded observations, and a reference to any data sets
that you collected and uploaded to Blackboard; and
• Conclusions of your findings and conclusions about the topic of study.
3. Four weeks from today: ECP 4 project demonstration. You will provide a brief (approximtely 5 minutes)
demonstration of your project for the class. It is helpful if you can present a live demonstration of the properties
or uses of the capacitor that you explored. Graphs, images, and recorded video are also acceptable.
The following pages provide some ECP “sample projects” to give you some ideas of the kinds of topics and experiments
that are suitable for ECP 4. You may choose any of these topics and experiments, but you are encouraged to choose
your own - some outside research and discussions with your lab instructor may inspire some new ideas.
ECP 4 Sample Project 1: Additional Filter Types

The field of signal filtering is rich and complex. The foundations date back to the early 1900’s, pioneered by eminent
electrical engineers like Oliver Heaviside, Hendrik Bode, George Campbell, and Otto Zobel.
The variety of filters that have been devised - using components that you have already studied: resistors, capacitors,
inductors, diodes, op-amps, and transistors - are beyond enumeration. These types of filters can be formulated and
studied as mathematical abstractions - using tools such as PSpice and MATLAB - and then manifested as circuits
that can be used to solve specific problems.
You may choose to explore any types of filter circuits, such as (but not limited to) the following:
• Butterworth filters
• Chebyshev filters
• Elliptic (Cauer) filters
• Bessel filters
• Gaussian filters
• Sallen-Key filters
• Legrende filters
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You may choose any of these filters (or any others that seem interesting) as the basis of your ECP 4 project. (The
Wikipedia page for ”analogue filters” is an excellent starting point.) Consider the following types of questions:
• What are the distinctive performance characteristics of the filter? What sets it apart from other types of filters?
• What are its limitations or disadvantages? (efficiency? impedance? susceptibility to noise? complexity?)
• How is the filter used? What types of problems or tasks does it address? What properties of the filter make
this filter a good choice for these uses?
• When was the filter developed? Does it have any interesting background?
• How is the filter implemented as a circuit? Are any filter properties tunable by adjusting some circuit compo-
nents? Are there specialized circuit configurations that provide further advantages?
Also, implement one or more variations of the circuit in PSpice and on a breadboard, and demonstrate their use to
filter a particular type of signal and produce the intended result.
ECP 4 Sample Project 2: Impedance Detection

Filters can be used to detect the presence of an impedance source in a physical region. The typical use of such detection
is theft control devices for retail shopping, where a tag containing an LC circuit is attached to retail articles, such as
clothing and DVD cases. The entrance and exit to the store feature a set of coils that induce a magnetic field. When
the LC circuit passes through the magnetic field, the reactance of the LC circuit is detectable by the magnetic field
generator as an inductive load. The tags are usually further secured by attachment to the article with a mechanism
that is difficult to remove. When a customer purchases a secured item at checkout, a store employee either removes
the tag with a special unlocking tool, or deactivates the tag by destroying the LC circuit, such as with a very strong
magnet. More information is available here: http://www.retailtheftprevention.com/how_stuff_works.html
The types of circuits presented in this lab manual may be used to generate a detector of an LC circuit at a particular
frequency range. Design one such circuit in PSpice and on a breadboard. Demonstrate its use to detect an impedance
device that could be used for physical security.
ECP 4 Sample Project 3: Audio Signal Processing

Filters have broad application within the field of audio signal processing.
Any device with a headphones or aux-out port can be used as the source of an audio signal, using a TRS audio cable.
TRS stands for Tip/Ring/Sleeve, which identify the three rings on the male end of the cable - each of which is a
separate terminal: for a stereo signal, the tip (end portion) carries the left channel; the ring (middle portion) carries
the right channel; and the sleeve (distal portion) serves as the ground for both channels. The voltage of the signal is
typically very low - even a high-volume signal is usually less than 1 volt - so it’s safe to use these devices as a signal
source.
The filtering concepts from these labs can be applied for many purposes:
• Audio Experiment #1: Ground-Loop Elimination
Electronic devices that are not properly grounded can exhibit a small current leakage from the transformer
through the body of the device (a “ground-loop fault”). The voltage of this leakage is usually so low that it is
not even detectable, and it does not typically affect the behavior of the device. However, a ground-loop fault
can significantly alter a low-voltage audio signal. Moreover, A/C power is distributed in the range of 50-60 Hz,
which is also within the audible range of the human ear, and therefore is perceived as a low-frequency “hum”
in the audio signal. (The “hum” can be eliminated in two ways: by removing the ground connection, such as
with a three-prong-to-two-prong connector, which is effective but generally dangerous to the equipment; or by
operating the device on a battery, which typically provides power in DC.)
This low-frequency “hum” can be reduced through selective filtering, such as a band-stop filter that selectively
excludes this frequency range. However, one challenge that may arise is that the audio signal may also include
desirable components in the same 50-to-60-Hz frequency range (e.g., the lowest notes on the piano are in the
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range of 27 Hz). Therefore, while a simple filter design for this experiment may broadly exclude the 50-to-60-Hz
range, two optional considerations might enable a more sophisticated filter:
– Selecting a filter configuration with a sharp transitional range, such that the filter passes the selected
range without altering its phase or gain, but presents a steep roll-off that excludes adjacent frequencies.
– Adapting the gain of the filter based on a different portion of the circuit that evaluates the magnitude
of the magnitude of 60Hz current leakage separately from the audio signal. According to this design, the
magnitude of the filtering is automatically reduced when the hum is not present - such as when the device
is operating on a battery - and increased when the current leakage is significant.
• Audio Experiment #2: Multi-Band Equalizer
Many audio devices allow a user to apply selective amplification to various portions of the frequency spectrum
of an audio signal. For example, a “bass” adjustment allows selective amplification (including reduction) of
low-pitched tones, and a “treble” adjustment allows selective amplification (including reduction) of high-pitched
tones.
An audio equalizer can be devices to process an audio signal with, concurrently, a low-pass filter; a high-pass
filter; and (optionally) a band-pass filter for middle frequencies. Each stage of the filter can exhibit an active
filter, which features an op-amp controlled in part by a capacitor and one or more resistors. In order to make the
equalizer adjustable, instead of using a fixed-capacitance capacitor, the design may use a “trimmer capacitor,”
which is a user-adjustable capacitance, and/or a “trimmer potentiometer,” which is a user-adjustable resistor.
Adjustments to these components enable an adjustment of the cutoff frequency and/or gain of the filter stage.
• Audio Experiment #3: “Duophonic” Audio
In the early days of the recorded music, most music was recorded as one channel (monophonic or “mono”
audio), and played on equipment with one speaker. It was soon realized that music sounded better if recorded
using two microphones spaced somewhat apart, and then replayed on two speakers (stereophonic or “stereo”
audio) - the recording sounded richer and more dynamic to humans with two ears. Today, audio is routinely
recorded, broadcast, and played in stereo.
However, the popularity of stereophonic players created a problem: earlier recordings of music, captured as
only a mono channel, sounded flat and distorted as compared with stereo recordings. Efforts were made to
simulate a stereo signal from a mono recording by generating a second channel that was slightly delayed and
offset. The resulting “duophonic” signal was not as rich as stereo recordings, but an improvement on mono
recordings. (More information: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duophonic)
The types of filters presented in this lab manual may be used to generate a monophonic-to-duophonic audio
signal processor. A one-channel audio output (e.g., using only the tip of the TRS cable) can be passed through
a duophonic filtering circuit and used as a second channel for a stereo input. A comparison of the duophonic
sound to both the monophonic signal, and the original stereo signal, may be interesting.
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Lab 6: Transformers
Introduction
This lab departs from the other labs in this series - instead of assembling circuits from the components in your lab
kit, you will make two types of circuit elements from scratch.
Transformers provide the interesting capability of exchanging voltage and current - such as transforming a 6-volt
power source into an 18-volt power source (with one-third the current). The transformer provides a bridge between
a primary circuit (comprising the power source) and a secondary circuit (comprising the load that is driven by the
power supply, but at a different voltage and/or current).
Many types of transformers are commercially available. However, most are intended to convert voltage for a consumer
electronics device, such as in a power supply for a computer, and are adapted to transform comparatively high
voltages, such as 110-120 volts from an ordinary wall outlet. Low-voltage transfomers are often adapted for specialized
uses, such as audio processing equipment, and may not be well-suited for general-purpose use - such as basic circuit
experiments on a breadboard.
Instead, this lab presents experiments using a transformer that you will make using some basic components. You will
first create and experimentally evaluate an inductor, and then convert the inductor into a transformer for further
evaluation. Your experimental observations will demonstrate the performance characteristics of both components.
The inductor and transformer that you build with these materials will exhibit comparatively low inductance - in the
range of microhenris - which is not enough to be useful, but sufficient to demonstrate the properties of transformers.
In order to raise the magnitude of the results to an appreciable level, the power supply will be set to a higher voltage
(10 volts max).
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Lab Experiments
Experiment #1: Creating an Inductor
• An inductor can be created using two components:

– “Magnet wire” is a special type of wire with a coating that provides electrical insulation, but magnetic
permeability.
– A ferrite core is a ceramic toroid that is permeable to magnetic fields, but electrically insulated. Wire
wrapped around the body of the core is shaped into a coil that creates inductance.
• Create an inductor in the following manner:
– Cut a length of magnet wire of about six feet or two meters. (The accuracy of the length is not important.)
– Insert about four inches (10 centimeters) of the magnet wire through the center of the ferrite core. This
length will serve as one terminal to insert your inductor into a tie point of the breadboard. Wrap the
magnet wire snugly around the outside of the ferrite core, and thread it through the center of the ferrite
core again.
– Continue wrapping the length of magnet wire around the core. Count and record the total number
of loops. Keep the loops snug and close together, so that they do not cut across the center of the ferrite
core.
– Here is a helpful tip for wrapping the magnet wire: Hold the ferrite core in your non-dominant hand.
Using your dominant hand, thread the magnet wire through the center. With your palm facing away
from you and your thumb pointing down, take the end of the magnet wire using your middle, ring, and
little fingers and your palm pull a length through. Then, without releasing the end, use your thumb and
index finger to pull the slack through, and to wrap the new loop snugly around the ferrite core close to
the previous loop. You can then thread the magnet coil through the ferrite core again and repeat. This
technique allows you to keep hold of the magnet wire and avoid twists during the wrapping process.
– Stop wrapping the magnet wire around the inductor when you have about four inches (10 centimeters)
left. This end will serve as the other terminal of the inductor.
– Finally, strip the insulation from the ends of the magnet wire. Only the last inch (1-2 centimeters) need
to be removed - just enough to connect with the conductive strip at the bottom of the breadboard tie
point. This can be achieved by exposing the end of the magnet wire through a small flame from a match
or candle for about ten seconds. Wipe the end of the terminal with a paper towel or cloth to remove soot
or residue. Inspect the color of the terminal - which should be a different color, such as copper - to ensure
that the terminal is clean and sufficiently long enough to insert into a breadboard tie point.
• After completing your inductor, assemble a series circuit with the following components:
– A power supply set to 10 volts and 10 kHz, with the negative terminal connected to Ground;
– A 1 k Ω resistor; and
– The inductor.
Using the oscilloscope, observe, measure, and record the maximum voltage of the inductor at each of the
following frequencies:
– From 10 kHz to 100 kHz, at 10-kHz intervals (10 kHz, 20 kHz . . . )
– From 100 kHz to 500 kHz, at 100-kHz intervals (100 kHz, 200 kHz . . . )
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Experiment #2: Creating a Transformer
• Next, you will convert your inductor into a transformer in the following manner. This involves wrapping a
second length of magnet wire around the same ferrite core, on top of the first coil. This is generally the same
wrapping process as with the first coil, but wiht a few differences:
– The second length of magnet wire should be about half the length of the first coil: this one should be
about 3 feet (1 meter).
– You should find a way to distinguish the terminals of this coil from the terminals of the first coil. Here
are three ways to do so:
∗ You can use a different color of magnet wire - e.g., one red wire with red terminals, and one green
wire with green terminals.
∗ You can form the terminals of the second coil with a different length than the terminals of the first
coil. For example, the first coil should have terminals that are about four inches (10 centimeters) long;
you can wrap the wire of the second coil with terminals that are about eight inches (20 centimeters)
long.
∗ You can mark the terminals of the first coil - for example, place a piece of tape around each one - and
leave the second coil unmarked.
(If you forget to follow this process or lose your marker, you can later determine which pairs of terminals
are connected. Simply connect one terminal to a 5-volt source - low-frequency AC or DC - and test the
other three terminals to find the one that’s connected to the terminal that you are testing.)
– Wrap the second length of magnet wire through the same ferrite core, in the same manner as the first
length. You may either wrap the second magnet wire in the same direction as the first magnet wire, or
in the opposite direction. Count and record the total number of loops for this second coil. As
before, wrap the coils snugly and close together.
– If your coil becomes completely filled with magnet wire such that you can no longer thread it through the
center, simply cut off the remaining length (leaving enough to create the second terminal).
– Don’t forget to strip the insulation from both terminals of the second coil.
• Build the primary circuit with the following elements:
– A voltage source set to 10 volts and 100 kHz, with the negative terminal connected to Ground;
– The terminals of the second coil of your transformer (i.e., the coil with fewer turns).
• Build the secondary circuit with the following elements:
– The terminals of the first coil of your transformer (i.e., the coil with more turns).
• Using the oscilloscope, simultaneously observe the voltage of the transformer terminals in the primary coil,
and the transformer terminals in the secondary coil. Measure and record the voltage of each pair of terminals
between 100 kHz and 1 mHz, at 100-kHz intervals.
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The PSpice simulations for this lab cannot directly match your experimental results. Instead, the following exercises
will explore the relationships between the primary and secondary circuits of an ideal transformer.
Circuits with transformers can be simplified by using a technique similar to Thévenin equivalence, in which the
transformer is removed and one of the circuits is “reflected” into the other circuit. Notably, the “reflected” circuit
is not functionally identical to the original circuit: some properties of the resulting circuit differ from the original
primary and secondary circuits. The circuits are described as “equivalent” in that some aspects of the circuits are
maintained. The following simluation exercises will demonstrate the meaning and use of these techniques.
• Reference Circuit: Assemble a series circuit with the following three elements:
– A Sine power source with VAMPL = 10 volts and FREQ = 200 Hz, and with the negative terminal
connected to Ground;
– A first 1 k Ω resistor (the “primary resistor”); and
– A second 1 k Ω resistor (the “secondary resistor”).
Plot, together, the voltage of the power supply and each resistor, for a duration of two current cycles. Generate
• Transformer Circuit: Divide the reference circuit into two portions: (1) the power supply and the primary
resistor, and (2) the secondary resistor.
Insert a transformer connecting these two circuits. The transformer model can be found in PSpice by click-
ing Place / PSpice Component . . . / Search . . . , and searching for the model named XFRM LINEAR. After
double-clicking the result and placing the transformer, you can double-click again to set the “L1 VALUE” and
“L2 VALUE” properties that define its inductance. (The model also includes a property named “COUPLING”
that can be used to set the coupling constant. For these exercises, you will use an ideal transformer with the
COUPLING property set to the default value of 1.) You will also have to add a second ground connection to
the secondary circuit.
Set the turns ratio of the transformer to n = 2 : 1 - i.e., a step-down transformer. The ratio n is defined as:
q
number of turns in primary coil
n = N1 : N2 = N 1
N2 = number of turns in secondary coil = L1
L2
After inserting the transformer, plot, together, the voltage of the power supply, each resistor, and each side of
the transformer, for a duration of two current cycles. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
• Secondary-Reflected Circuit: Starting from the transformer circuit, we will “reflect” the secondary circuit
into the primary circuit. The objective is to adapt the circuit to substitute, for the transformer and the
secondary circuit, a single load that requires the same maximum voltage that the transformer exerted upon
the primary circuit.
Remove the transformer and reconnect the secondary resistor to the primary circuit. Adjust the secondary
resistor using the following formula:
Zreflected = Zoriginal · n2
• Primary-Reflected Circuit: Starting again from the transformer circuit, we will “reflect” the primary circuit
into the secondary circuit. This time, the objective is to adapt the circuit to substitute, for the transformer
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and the primary circuit, a power supply and impedance that provides the same amount of current that the
transformer provided to the secondary circuit.
Remove the transformer and reconnect the secondary resistor to the primary circuit. Adjust the impedance of
the power supply using the following forumula:
Voriginal
Vreflected = n
Also, adjust the primary resistor as follows:

Zoriginal
Zreflected = n2
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Analysis
(a) Experiment #1:
The voltage measured over the inductor, at each frequency, can be used to determine its inductance. First,
note that the overall inductance is measured as: Z 2 = R2 + X 2 = R2 + (ωL)2
VL
The current can be calculated as: I = Z L
= VXL = ωL
VL
Ohm’s Law can therefore √ be applied as follows:

VL
Vtotal = I · Z = ωL · R2 + ω 2 L2
√
(Vtotal )ωL = VL R2 + ω 2 L2
(Vtotal )2 ω 2 L2 = (VL )2 (R2 + ω 2 L2 )
(ω 2 L2 )((Vtotal )2 − (VL )2 ) = (VL )2 R2
L = √ VL R2 2
ω (Vtotal ) −(VL )
i. Using this last formula (where VL = the voltage that you measured over the inductor, R = the
total resistance, ω = the frequency (in radians), and Vtotal = the total voltage of the power supply),
calculate the inductance of the inductor at each frequency.
ii. Calculate the mean average as a simple approximation of the inductor.
(b) Experiment #2:
i. Calculate the ratio of the number of turns in the first coil to the number of turns in the second coil
of the transformer.
ii. For each frequency, calculate the ratio of the voltage of the transformer terminals in the primary
circuit to the voltage of the transformer terminals in the secondary circuit.
iii. The ratio of these two values indicates the efficiency of the transformer. In an ideal transformer with
zero resistance and 100% coupling of the primary and secondary coils, 100% of the voltage applied on
the primary side of the transformer is translated into voltage on the secondary side of the transformer.
For example, a 1:3 step-up transformer has a turns ratio of 1:3 (e.g., 100 turns on the primary side,
and 300 turns on the secondary side). If this transformer is also ideal, then applying 6 volts of
alternating-current input to the primary side will produce 18 volts of output voltage on the secondary
side - that is, the ideal transformer exibits a coupling ratio of 1. However, a non-ideal transformer
may exhibit a coupling ratio of 0.66, indicating that only 66% of the voltage is transmitted; that is,
the 6-volt input may only produce 12 volts on the secondary side.
Applying that analysis to your transformer - what is its coupling constant, and how efficient is it?
(c) PSpice Experiments: Use the plots from your circuits to answer the following questions:
i. Comparing the reference circuit with the transformer circuit - what are the effects of adding the
transformer? Factors to consider: Current, supplied voltage, and power provided and consumed.
ii. Comparing the secondary-reflected circuit with the transformer circuit - what properties are main-
tained between the circuits? What properties are altered?
iii. Comparing the primary-reflected circuit with the tranformer circuit - what properties are maintained
between the circuits? What properties are altered?
(a) Consider a transformer as simply a pair of inductors. Briefly describe the physical interaction between the
inductors; the type of transformation that this physical interaction creates; and the relationship between
the turns ratio, the inductance of each inductor, and the resulting properties of the transformer.
(b) Describe (and contrast) the principles of a step-up transformer and a step-down transformer.
(c) Describe the concept of “reflecting” one side of a transformed circuit to the other side, including the
properties that are preserved and the properties that may change.
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(d) Describe how the inclusion of a transformer affects the efficiency of a circuit. (Your comparison of the
PSpice plots will inform this analysis.)
(a) How does the inductor that you made in this lab compare with commercially available inductors, such as
the one in your lab kit? Describe several differences.
(b) The concept of transformers may initially seem strange: how is it possible that inductors, as passive
components with no independent voltage source, can “step up” a circuit to a higher voltage? Consider,
and then describe, why step-up transformers do not violate physics conservation principles.
(c) Consider some circumstances in which you might use a transformer. Describe the type of problem or limi-
tation that you might encounter while designing a circuit or device, and how you would use a transformer
to address the problem.
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Lab Report
• The voltage measurements recorded for the resistors at each of the defined frequencies in each experiment.
• Four schematics of the circuits simulated in PSpice.
• Four plots of the simulation results for each of the circuits.
• A table or list of your experimental results.
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Lab 7: Passive Filters
Introduction
This experiment is an introduction to the topic of filtering using passive circuit elements.
These experiments primarily involve RC series circuits. Previously, you used these circuits in Experiment #1 to
understand the nature of complex impedance (as a combination of resistance and reactance), and in Experiment #4
to understand power delivery.
This experiment applies these familiar circuits to the field of signal processing. The power supply now represents
a source of a sinusoidal signal, such as an antenna. The signal may include information transmitted at different
frequencies, as well as random noise. In this experiment, you will use these familiar circuits as a selective filter to
extracts some frequencies from the signal while excluding unwanted frequencies.
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Lab Experiments
Experiment #1: Series Passive Filtering
In this experiment, you will observe how a variable-frequency sinusoidal signal is reflected in various circuit properties.
(The data that you gather in this simple experiment will establish a point of comparison for the further experiments
in this lab.)
• Assemble a series circuit with the following components:

– A voltage source set to 5 volts, with the negative terminal connected to Ground;
– A 100 nF capacitor.
• Set the power supply to 100 Hz, and using the oscilloscope to observe and measure the maximum voltage of
the resistor and the capacitor. Repeat for 10 kHz.
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Experiment #2: Multi-Filtering
In this experiment, you will observe how a sinusoidal signal can contain multiple signal components at different
frequencies, and how the mixed-frequency signal may be separated by the components of your circuit.
• Begin with the same circuit as in Experiment #1, but add a second alternating-current voltage source to the
series circuit. (You can simultaneously use the function generator unit, and the function generator that is built
into your breadboard trainer.) Set both power supplies to 5 volts, but set one power supply to 100 Hz and the
other power supply to 10 kHz.
• Use the oscilloscope to observe, simultaneously, the voltages of the following pairs of components:
– The 100 Hz power supply and the resistor.
– The 100 Hz power supply and the capacitor.
– The 10 kHz power supply and the resistor.
– The 10 kHz power supply and the capacitor.
You will have to adjust the time scale of the oscilloscope to properly view one cycle of each power supply. For
each of these observations, indicate whether the voltage of the passive component appears to follow the voltage
of the power supply.
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Experiment #3: Cutoff Frequency Selection
This experiment involves modifications to the circuit that adjust the cutoff frequency of the RC circuit.
• Start with the same circuit as in Experiment #1. (If you have just completed Experiment #2, simply remove
the second power supply.)
• Set the power supply to 100 Hz. Using the oscilloscope, simultaneously observe the voltage of the resistor and
the capacitor. Steadily increase the frequency of the power supply until the maximum voltage of the resistor
equals the maximum voltage of the capacitor. Note and record the frequency at which this occurs, and the
voltage of the resistor at this frequency.
• Next, insert two 100 Ω resistors, in series with each other but in parallel with the 1 k Ω resistor. Maintaining
the same frequency of the power supply as determined for the circuit with only one 1 k Ω resistors, observe
the voltage over the entire set of resistors. Then reset the power supply to 100 Hz, and observe the voltage
of the entire combination of resistors and the voltage of the capacitor. Steadily increase the frequency until
the maximum voltage of the combination of resistors equals the voltage of the capacitor; note and record the
frequency at which this occurs.
• Next, remove the second resistor, and add a second 100 nF capacitor in parallel with the first 100 nF capacitor.
Reset the power supply to 100 Hz, and observe the voltage of the resistor and over the parallel pair of capacitors
while steadily increasing the frequency of the power supply. Note and record the frequency at which the
maximum voltage of the resistor equals the voltage over the parallel pair of capacitors.
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• Experiment #1: Recreate the series circuit using a Sine voltage source with VAMPL set to 5 volts and
FREQ set to 100 Hz. Generate a plot over two current cycles of the following properties: the current of the
circuit; the voltage of the resistor; and the voltage of the capacitor. Generate screen captures of the schematic
and plot.
Repeat the simulation after setting the power supply to 1.6 kHz, and again at 10 kHz. Capture screenshots of
the schematics and plots of the cirucit at each frequency.
• Experiment #2: Starting with the RC series circuit from Experiment #1, insert a second Sine voltage source
in series with the first Sine voltage source, also with a VAMPL set to 5 volts. Set one of the voltage sources
to a FREQ of 100 Hz and the other voltage source to a FREQ of 10 kHz. Generate two plots of the same
properties as above - the current, the voltage of the resistor, and the voltage of the capacitor - but with the
first plot over a duration of 0.2 ms, and the second plot over a duration of 20 ms. Generate screen captures of
the schematic and plots.
• Experiment #3: Starting from the RC series circuit from Experiment #1, replace the Sine voltage source
with an A/C voltage source with VAMPL set to five volts. Perform an A/C Sweep simulation over the range of
10 Hz to 100 kHz, and plot, together, the voltage over the resistor and the voltage of the capacitor. Generate
Insert two 100 Ω resistors in series with one another, and in parallel with the first resistor. Perform an A/C
Sweep simulation over the range of 10 Hz to 100 kHz. Plot, together, the voltage over the 1000 Ω resistor; the
voltage over a 100 Ω resistor; and the voltage of the capacitor. Generate screen captures of the schematic and
plot.
Repeat the simulation after removing the second resistor and inserting a second 100 nF capacitor in parallel
with the first capacitor. Capture screenshots of the schematic and plot.
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Analysis
Experiment #2:
(a) Describe the voltage of the resistor and the capacitor when viewed over a short duration, and when viewed
over a long duration.
Experiment #3:
(a) What is the cutoff frequency of the original RC circuit? What is the voltage of the 1 k Ω resistor of the
original circuit at the cutoff frequency? How much current flows through the circuit when operated at
this frequency?
(b) When the two 100 Ω resistors are added to the circuit and it is operated at the cutoff frequency of the
original circuit, what is the voltage over the pair of 100 Ω resistors? How much current flows through the
100 Ω resistors and the 1k Ω resistor at this frequency? How did this modification of the circuit affect the
cutoff frequency?
(c) Does placing the second capacitor in parallel with the first capacitor increase or reduce capacitance? How
does this change affect the cutoff frequency?
(d) The cutoff frequency occurs at the point at which the voltage over the entire set of resistors and the entire
set of capacitors are equal. You may have noticed that irrespective of the selected cutoff frequency and
the actual resistance and capacitance, the voltage over the entire set of resistors and the entire set of
capacitors is the same in every experiment.
For every RC circuit at every frequency, the voltage of each set of elements at the cutoff frequency is
controlled by the following equation:
(maximum resistance voltage)2 + (maximum capacitance voltage)2 = (maximum input voltage)2
Since the capacitor voltage and resistor voltage are equal at the cutoff frequency:
2 · (maximum resistance voltage)2 = 2 · (maximum capacitance voltage)2 = (input voltage)2
maximum resistance voltage = maximum capacitance voltage = input√voltage
2
What is this voltage in the experiments in this lab? Is this voltage reflected by all of the plots for
Experiment #3?
(a) What properties of the RC series circuit act as a low-pass filter? What properties of the RC series circuit
act as a high-pass filter?
(b) How can an RC circuit be used to extract a desired range of frequencies from a signal containing multiple
frequency components?
(c) What properties of the RC circuit determine the cutoff frequency? Does increasing the resistance increase
or decrease the cutoff frequency? Does increasing the capacitance increase or decrease the cutoff frequency?
(d) What do the terms “output impedance” and “loading effects” generally mean?
(a) Does the order of the passive components matter in these experiments? If the positions of the resistor and
the capacitor were swapped (along with maintaining the connections of any attached components, such as
connecting the lightbulb over the resistor in Experiment #4 irrespective of the order of the resistor and
capacitor), would the passive filters function the same?
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(b) You are preparing a low-pass filter, but you do not have a capacitor, so you use an inductor instead. Can
you predict whether the RL circuit could still be used as a low-pass or high-pass filter? What properties
of the RL circuit would remain the same as the RC circuit, and what properties would differ?
(c) You are designing audio equipment to record human voice. Your equipment includes a microphone that
generates an electronic signal as a sinusoidal input. You discover that your recordings include a constant,
low-pitch humming sound, and due to leakage of some current from the power supply, which receives
voltage from the wall outlet at 60 Hz.
You wish to eliminate the humming sound from your audio recording. How would you approach this
problem using the concepts in this lab? How would these techniques impact the recorded human voice?
(d) Experiment #3 illustrates two important properties of impedance that occur as the design of a circuit
changes. You will likely encounter these properties in your future work with circuit design, and the success
of your project may depend on your awareness of these effects.
Scenario #1: Imagine that you are designing a frequency filter. You wish to use the RC series circuit in
Experiment #3, but to improve this device with an indicator that demonstrates when the input signal is
above the cutoff frequency.
You obtain a small LED lightbulb, which exhibits a total of 200 Ω, which will light when provided with
the voltage that the resistor exhibits at (or above) the cutoff frequency. You connect the lightbulb over
the resistor, anticipating that this configuration will not significantly alter the original resistor/capacitor
combination, especially given the low resistance value of the lightbulb.
This scenario raises an important question: Does attaching the lightbulb to the filter alter the performance
of the filter?
Review the data from Experiment #3. If the two 100 Ω resistors represent the lightbulb, then this
experiment illustrates the “loading effect” of attaching the lightbulb to the circuit, as an additional
impedance load. Compare the data from the unloaded circuit (with only the 1 k Ω resistor) and the
loaded circuit (with the 100 Ω resistors) in order to answer the following questions:
i. How does the performance of the modified device compare with its expected performance?
ii. Does this device satisfy your design expectations? Why or why not?
Scenario #2: You have designed a high-efficiency lightbulb that exhibits only 200 Ω at full intensity.
However, the lightbulb operates correctly only above a certain frequency - attaching the lightbulb to a
power supply with a low frequency may damage the device.
You wish to protect the lightbulb by placing a frequency-selective filter between the power supply and
the lightbulb. You obtain a high-pass filter (i.e., the RC circuit of this experiment, featuring a pair of
output terminals that are internally attached to the resistor). You are not aware of the internal design or
components of the filter, so you measure the filter when powered by a 5 V power supply. You determine
that when the filter is operated at the cutoff frequency, the voltage over the terminals will create just
enough current to power the lightbulb, while any lower frequency reduces the current and will protect
the lightbulb. Finding these properties acceptable, you attach the lightbulb to the high-pass filter, and
provide power at the cutoff frequency.
This scenario raises an important question: Do the internal components of the filter affect the performance
of the lightbulb attached to it?
Review the data from Experiment #3. If the two 100 Ω resistors represent the lightbulb, and the terminals
of the resistor represent the output terminals of the filter, then this experiment demonstrates the effect of
“output impedance” - i.e., the impedance exhibited by the circuit when its output is utilized by a load.
Compare the data for the filter with and without the 100 Ω resistors, in order to answer the following
questions:
i. How does the performance of the modified device compare with its expected performance?
ii. Does this device satisfy your design expectations? Why or why not?
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Lab Report
• The results gathered from each of the experiments.
• Six schematics of the circuits that you simulated in PSpice for each of the three experiments.
• Seven plots of the simulation results for each of the three experiments (six plots total).
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Lab 8: Active Filters
Introduction
This experiment explores the application of active filters as a frequency-specific filter of an input signal.
In Experiment #7, you observed the filtering of a signal using passive elements. (The term “passive” refers to the
fact that the circuit did not require power, and relied only on the physical structure of the component to alter the
input signal.)
This experiment involves circuits featuring an operational amplifier. You have previously utilized the op-amp in
direct-current applications, suhc as a comparator or a voltage summing or differencing component. This experiment
demonstrates the use of an op-amp as an active filter of a variable-frequency input signal.
The first experiment involves the preparation of a basic active filter circuit. This circuit will serve as the “reference
circuit” for additional experiments, which involve the modification of individual properties and observations of the
resulting performance of the circuit.
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Lab Experiments
Getting Started: Preparing the Op-Amp
The µA741 op-amp included in your lab kit is an eight-pin Dual Inline Package (DIP) chip, with the following pin
configuration:
Begin this experiment series by preparing and testing the op-amp in the following manner:
• Plug the chip into the breadboard, and then connect the VCC pins to +5 and -5 volts. The voltage on these
pins defines the “rail voltage” of the op-amp: its maximum output voltage is contrained to this voltage range
(and actually a bit narrower than this range, since the op-amp itself consumes some power). The offset pins
are not used in this lab series.
• Connect the power supply to 1 volt and 100 Hz, and connect it to the negative input terminal. Connect the
output terminal to the positive input terminal.
• Connect the oscilloscope to the negative input terminal, and to the output of the op-amp. Observe the voltages
of these pins on the oscilloscope, and verify that the output follows the input.
• If the output does not follow the input, try the following:
– Verify that the op-amp straddles a notch in the breadboard, so that each pin is connected to its own set
of terminal tie-points.
– Verify that the pins of the op-amp are connected as described above.
– If the output is constant (either zero or a positive voltage) while the input is variable, the op-amp may have
been damaged by high current or physical strain. Try replacing the op-amp with a substitute. (Additional
op-amps are available from the Volgenau supply room.)
Once the op-amp is tested and verified, the op-amp can be left in place on the breadboard. The following experiments
will change the components connected to the op-amp input and output, but will not change the configuration of the
op-amp.
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Experiment #1: Active Filtering

– A voltage source set to 1 volt, with the negative terminal connected to Ground;
– A 1 k Ω resistor (the “input resistor”); and
Note: Be sure to arrange this circuit in the order depicted at top left:
Power Supply Positive Terminal → Resistor → Capacitor → Power Supply Negative Terminal + Ground
• Connect the negative input of the op-amp to the node between the resistor and capacitor. Connect the output
of the op-amp to the positive input, and also to Ground through a 1 k Ω resistor (the “load resistor”).
• Using the oscilloscope, simultaneously observe the input resistor voltage and the load resistor voltage. While
varying the power supply frequency, determine whether the load resistor voltage varies directly or inversely
with the input resistor voltage.
• Move the oscilloscope leads from the input resistor to the capacitor. While varying the power supply frequency,
determine whether the load resistor voltage varies directly or inversely with the capacitor voltage. Determine
whether the circuit, in this configuration, operates as a low-pass filter or a high-pass filter.
• Adjust the frequency of the power supply over a broad range, and determine its maximum voltage. Calculate
maximum
√ voltage as the “cutoff voltage” - i.e., the output voltage of the circuit at the cutoff frequency.
2
• Adjust the frequency of the power supply until the load resistor voltage equals the cutoff voltage. Observe and
record the frequency at which this occurs as the cutoff frequency of this configuration of the active filter.
• Swap the positions of the input resistor and the capacitor to match the order depicted at top right:
Power Supply Positive Terminal → Capacitor → Resistor → Power Supply Negative Terminal + Ground
(Note: This circuit arrangement will serve as the starting point for the following experiments, which will
involve modifying this circuit and observing the effect on the circuit performance. For convenience, this circuit
will be referred to as the “reference circuit.”)
• Connect the oscilloscope to the capacitor and the load resistor. While varying the power supply frequency,
determine whether the load resistor voltage varies directly or inversely with the capacitor voltage.
• Move the oscilloscope leads from the capacitor to the input resistor. While varying the power supply fre-
quency, determine whether the load resistor voltage varies directly or inversely with the input resistor voltage.
Determine whether this configuration operates as a low-pass filter or a high-pass filter.
• Adjust the frequency of the power supply until the output voltage equals the cutoff voltage. Record this
frequency as the cutoff frequency of this configuration of the active filter.
• Measure and record the voltage of the load resistor at five frequencies: 100 Hz, 300 Hz, 1 kHz, 3 kHz, 10 kHz.
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Experiment #2: Cutoff Frequency Selection
In this experiment, you will observe how changes to the impedance of the input affect the cutoff frequency of the
output.
• Begin with the reference circuit in Experiment #1, and replace the 1 k Ω input resistor with a 10 k Ω resistor.
Your circuit should now comprise:
– A 100 nF capacitor;
– A 10 k Ω resistor (the “input resistor”);
– The op-amp negative input terminal connected to the node between the capacitor and input resistor; and
– The op-amp output node connected to the op-amp positive input terminal, and also connected to Ground
through a 1 k Ω resistor (the “load resistor”).
• Use the oscilloscope to observe the voltage of the load resistor. (You will no longer need to observe the
components of the input components, as you have established a full understanding of this part of the circuit.)
Adjust the power supply frequency until the load resistor equals the cutoff voltage. Observe and record this
frequency as the cutoff frequency of this circuit.
• Return to the reference circuit (i.e., replace the 10 k Ω input resistor with a 1 k Ω resistor), and instead insert
a second 100 nF capacitor in parallel with the first capacitor. Your circuit should now comprise:
– A pair of 100 nF capacitors in parallel;
• Use the oscilloscope to observe the voltage of the load resistor, and adjust the power supply frequency until
the load resistor voltage equals the cutoff voltage. Observe and record this frequency as the cutoff frequency
of this circuit.
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Experiment #3: Variable Load
In this experiment, you will observe how changes in the load resistor affect the performance of the circuit, and vice
versa.
• Begin with the reference circuit of Experiment #1, and replace the 1 k Ω load resistor with a 10 k Ω resistor.
Your circuit should now comprise:
• With the oscilloscope connected to the load resistor, adjust the power supply frequency until the load resistor
voltage equals the cutoff voltage. Observe and record this frequency as the cutoff frequency of this circuit.
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Experiment #4: Output Amplification
• Begin with the reference circuit of Experiment #1, and insert a 1 k Ω resistor immediately after the op-amp
output. Your circuit should now comprise:
– The op-amp output node connected to a 1 k Ω resistor (the “feedback resistor”), where the other terminal
of the resistor is connected to (1) the op-amp positive input terminal, and (2) Ground, through a second
1 k Ω resistor (this second 1 k Ω resistor will remain the “load resistor”).
• Use the oscilloscope to observe the voltage between the op-amp output terminal and ground (i.e., the voltage
over both the feedback resistor and the load resistor). Adjust the power supply frequency until the voltage of
the resistor series reaches its maximum voltage, and record the maximum voltage. Calculate the cutoff voltage
as maximum√ voltage .
2
• Adjust the power supply until the voltage over the output resistor set reaches the cutoff voltage. Record this
• Measure and record the voltage over the output resistor set while the power supply is set to each of the following
frequencies: 100 Hz, 300 Hz, 1 kHz, 3 kHz, 10 kHz.
• Next, insert a second 1 k Ω load resistor in parallel with the first 1 k Ω load resistor.
• Repeat the experiment above: Using the oscilloscope to observe the voltage over the entire combination of
output resistors (i.e., the feedback resistor and both of the load resistors), adjust the power supply frequency
until the voltage of the resistor series reaches its maximum voltage. Record the maximum voltage and calculate
the cutoff voltage as maximum √ voltage .
2
• Adjust the power supply until the voltage over the output resistor set reaches the cutoff voltage. Record this
• Measure and record the voltage over the output resistor set while the power supply is set to each of the following
frequencies: 100 Hz, 300 Hz, 1 kHz, 3 kHz, 10 kHz.
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Simulating this circuit in PSpice will require you to simulate an op-amp. One model for this component can be found
in the PSpice menu, under Place / PSpice Component / Discrete / OpAmp.
Note that this model is quite simple: it has a positive input, a negative input, and an output. By default, the
+ −
model does not present any terminals for VCC or VCC , so you cannot specify the positive and negative rail voltages
- instead, PSpice presumes that the op-amp has an infinite-voltage power supply.
This is not generally a problem - most of the experiments in this lab have been designed to produce output that
is well below the rail voltages - but you may encounter some anomalous results. For instance, if you perform an
A/C sweep of the output over a very large frequency range, one end of the frequency spectrum will scale up to an
unreasonably high voltage. Since the plot is then scaled vertically to show the maximum voltage, the portion of the
plot that is of interest will not be visible. If this occurs, adjust the bounds of your A/C sweep to exclude the portion
of the plot where the op-amp output voltage exceeds the rail voltage.
For each of the experiments above:
• Experiment #1: Assemble the circuit using an A/C voltage source with VAMPL set to 1 volt. Plot the
voltage over the input resistor, the capacitor, and the load resistor for two current cycles. Generate screen
captures of the schematic and plot.
Repeat the simulation after switching the positions of the input resistor and the capacitor. Generate screen
• Experiment #2: Starting with the reference circuit of Experiment #1, change the input resistor to 10 k Ω.
Plot the voltage over the capacitor and the load resistor for two current cycles. Generate screen captures of
the schematic and plot.
Repeat the simulation after resetting the input resistor to 1 k Ω, and after placing a second 10 nF capacitor in
parallel with the input capacitor. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
• Experiment #3: Starting with the reference circuit of Experiment #1, alter the load resistance. Plot the
voltage over the capacitor and the load resistor for two current cycles. Generate screen captures of the schematic
and plot.
• Experiment #4: Starting with the reference circuit of Experiment #1, insert a resistor at the op-amp output.
(The second terminal of this feedback resistor should create a node that connects to both the op-amp positive
input terminal and to the load resistor.) Plot the voltage over the capacitor and the feedback resistor for two
current cycles. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
Repeat the simulation after inserting a second 1 k Ω resistor parallel to the load resistor. Capture screen
80
Analysis
(a) Experiment #2: Compare the results of this experiment with the reference circuit of Experiment #1.
How does increasing the input resistance affect the cutoff frequency? How does increasing the input
capacitance affect the cutoff frequency?
(b) Experiment #3: Compare the results of this experiment with the reference circuit of Experiment #1.
How does changing the resistance of the load resistor affect the performance of the active filter?
(c) Experiment #4: Compare the results of Experiment #4 with the reference circuit of Experiment #1.
How does inserting a feedback resistor between the op-amp output terminal and the op-amp negative input
terminal affect the output of the active filter? Do these adjustments affect the filter cutoff frequency?
What properties of the RC circuit limit the magnitude of this effect?
(a) When using an RC series circuit as the input to an op-amp, how are the resistor and capacitor arranged
to form a low-pass filter? How are the resistor and capacitor arranged to form a high-pass filter?
(b) In this type of filter, how does increasing the capacitance of the input circuit affect the cutoff frequency?
How does increasing the resistance of the input circuit affect the cutoff frequency?
(c) Does the load resistor of the op-amp create a loading effect? Does the active filter exhibit any output
impedance? Why or why not?
(d) How can an RC active filter be modified to amplify as well as filter a signal?
(a) Compare the RC active filters in this experiment with the RC passive filters in Lab #7. What advantages
do active filters present over passive filters? What advantages do passive filters present over active filters?
(b) As indicated in Experiment #1, the RC active filters in this experiment depend on the order of the
components. Connecting the resistor and capacitor in one order creates one type of filter; connecting
them in the opposite order creates a different type of filter.
This dependency on the order of the components differs from the passive filters of Lab #7, in which
the filter perform the same irrespective of the order of the passive components. Can you explain this
distinction?
(c) Compare the result of changing the load resistor value in Experiment #3 with the load resistor value in
Experiment #4. Can you explain this observation? (Hint: In an ideal op-amp, no current flows between
the positive and negative feedback terminals of the op-amp. As a result, in Experiment #4, you can view
the feedback resistor and the load resistor as a voltage divider. How does this same observation apply to
Experiment #3?)
(d) Filters are commonly used in digital signal processing, where the signal encodes a sequence of binary
values. For example, an input pin of a device may receive a pattern of voltages, where a voltage below a
certain threshold encodes a binary 0, and a voltage over a certain threshold encodes a binary 1.
Data transmission is susceptible to electromagnetic interference, which can can change the encoded value.
For example, interference may cause a noise signal to skew or fluctuate randomly by a small amount, such
as 0.2 volts. If binary 0 and 1 are defined as the range of voltages below and above 0.5 volts, respectively,
then a noise fluctuation of 0.2 volts may cause a voltage of 0.4 volts (encoding a binary 0) to be received
as 0.6 volts (encoding a binary 1). It may not be possible for the receiving device to identify the error,
and may therefore interpret the transmission incorrectly.
To reduce the effects of noise, it is common to choose the thresholds that define the binary values with a
gap, within which the binary value is undefined. For example, binary 0 can be defined as a voltage below
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0.3 volts, and binary 1 can be defined as a voltage above 0.7 volts. When the device receives a voltage in
this intermediate range, such as 0.5 volts, it can correctly interpret the value as missing data and apply
error-correction techniques (e.g., requesting the sender to re-transmit the bit, or using parity information
to deduce its value).
This nuance becomes relevant when the signals are received and transmitted in a wireless medium. For
example, data can be transmitted digitally using frequency modulation (FM), where the frequency of the
transmission increases to encode a 1 and decreases to encode a 0.
This type of signal can be received and decoded using a filter with a carefully selected cutoff frequency.
The portions of the circuit that operate as a low-pass filter may exhibit a high voltage when the frequency
diminishes to indicate a 0. Similarly, the portions of the circuit that operate as a high-pass filter may
exhibit a high voltage when the frequency increases to indciate a 1.
However, the RC circuits that you have studied in Experiments #7 and #8 may be too limited for use in
this context. Review your plots from Experiments #7 and #8 while you consider the following questions:
• How would an RC filter circuit respond to a signal voltage in the undefined range?
• What is the range of input frequencies that would trigger this condition? How would the data
transmission have to be adapted to encode values of 0 and 1 outside of this range?
• What property of the RC circuit causes the filter to operate in this manner? If you had the capability
to alter the response of the filter circuit to address this problem, how might you choose to alter it?
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Lab Report
• The cutoff frequencies detected for each of the circuits, and the voltages of the ranges specified in Experiments
#1 and #4.
• Seven schematics of the circuits simulated in PSpice.
• Seven plots of the A/C sweep simulation results for each of the circuits.
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Lab 9: Band-Pass and Band-Stop Filters
Introduction
This experiment involves the preparation and use of band-pass and band-stop filters.
In the low-pass and high-pass circuits that you have previously evaluated, the frequency response of the circuit is
divided into two ranges; the frequencies on one side of the cutoff frequency are attenuated, while the frequencies on
the other side of the cutoff frequency are preserved (and optionally amplified).
By contrast, the filters studied in this lab involve an intermediate range of frequencies near a center frequency. In a
band-pass filter, frequencies near the center frequency are preserved, and lower and higher frequencies are attenuated.
In a band-stop filter, frequencies near the center frequency are attenuated, and lower and higher frequencies are
preserved.
This lab begins with some observations of a basic band-pass/band-stop passive filter. The following experiments
modify some properties of the circuit of Experiment #1 to explore some properties of band-pass and band-stop filter
circuits. Finally, a different type of filter is presented for consideration.
84
Lab Experiments
Experiment #1: Band-Pass/Band-Stop Filter
In this experiment, you will observe how a variable-frequency sinusoidal signal is reflected in various circuit properties.
(The data that you gather in this simple experiment will establish a point of comparison for the further experiments
in this lab.)
– A voltage source set to 5 volts, with the negative terminal connected to Ground;
– A 1 k Ω resistor;
– A 10 mH inductor; and
(For the following experiments, this circuit will be referred to as the “reference circuit.”)
• Set the power supply to 100 Hz. Using the oscilloscope, observe, measure, and record the maximum voltage
of the resistor, and over the series combination of the inductor and the capacitor. Record each voltage at the
following frequencies:
– At 100-Hz intervals up to 1 kHz (that is: 100 Hz, 200 Hz, etc.)
– At 1-kHz intervals between 1 kHz and 10 kHz (that is: 1 kHz, 2 kHz, etc.)
– At 10-kHz intervals between 10 kHZ and 100 kHz (that is: 10 kHz, 20 kHz, etc.)
• Find and record the frequency at which the resistor reaches its maximum voltage.
85
Experiment #2: Bandwidth and Roll-off
• Begin with the reference circuit in Experiment #1, and replace the 1 k Ω resistor with a 100 Ω resistor.
• Observe, measure, and record the maximum voltage over the resistor over the same frequencies as in Experiment
#1:
– At 1-kHZ intervals between 1 kHz and 10 kHz (that is: 1 kHz, 2 kHz, etc.)
Also, find and record the frequency at which the resistor reaches its maximum voltage.
• Substitute the 100 Ω resistor for a 10 k Ω resistor. Repeat the observation and recording of the maximum
voltage of the resistor at the same set of frequencies.
• Next, replace the 10 k Ω resistor with the 1 k Ω resistor (returning to the reference circuit). Expand the series
circuit by inserting a second 10 mH inductor and a second 100 nF capacitor. Repeat the observation and
recording of the maximum voltage of the resistor at the same set of frequencies.
86
Experiment #3: Frequency Selection
• Begin with the reference circuit in Experiment #1, and make the following two additions:
– Insert a second 10 mH inductor in series with the first 10 mH inductor.
– Insert a second 100 nF capacitor in parallel with the first 100 nF capacitor.
• Observe, measure, and record the maximum voltage over the resistor over the same frequencies as in Experiment
#1:
• Reorganize the circuit as follows:
– Reposition the second 10 mH inductor from being in series with the first inductor to being in parallel with
the first inductor.
– Reposition the second 100 nF capacitor from being in parallel with the first capacitor to being in series
with the first capacitor.
• Repeat the observation and recording of the maximum voltage of the resistor at the same set of frequencies.
87
Experiment #4: Additional Filter Circuit
This experiment involves a new type of filter circuit for your observation and study.
The functionality of this circuit is intentionally omitted: this exercise challenges you to experiment with an unknown
circuit in order to identify its functionality.
– Power Supply Branch: A voltage source set to 5 volts, with the negative terminal connected to Ground.
– Impedance Branch: A 1 k Ω resistor followed by a 100 nF capacitor.
– Resistance Branch: Two 1 k Ω resistors in series.
• Insert one oscilloscope probe terminal at the node between the two components of the impedance branch. Insert
the other oscilloscope probe terminal at the node between the two components of the resistance branch. (The
probe should be connected to the nodes labeled “a” and “b” above.)
• Set the power supply to 100 Hz. Using the oscilloscope, simultaneously observe the voltage between these two
terminals, and the voltage over the power supply. Adjust the frequency of the power supply over the range
from 100 Hz to 100 kHz. Record your observations of the voltages over this range.
88
• Experiment #1: Create the circuit using an AC voltage source with VAMPL set to 5 volts. Perform an AC
Sweep over the range from 100 Hz to 100 kHz. Plot the following voltages together on the same plot:
– The voltage of the resistor;
– The voltage of the inductor;
– The voltage of the capacitor; and
– The voltage of the series combination of the inductor and capacitor.
• Experiment #2: Starting with the reference circuit of Experiment #1, change the resistor to 100 Ω. Perform
an AC sweep over the range from 100 Hz to 100 kHz. Plot the resistor voltage over the frequency range.
Repeat after increasing the resistance of the resistor to 10 k Ω. Perform an AC sweep over the range from 100
Hz to 100 kHz. Plot the resistor voltage over the frequency range. Generate screen captures of the schematic
and plot.
Reset the resistance to 1 k Ω. Insert a second 10 mH inductor in series after the first inductor, and a second
100 nF capacitor in series with the first capacitor.
(Important PSpice Note #1: In PSpice, placing two capacitors in series will typically raise a “node is
floating” error. This can be avoided by placing a high-resistance resistor, such as 1 G Ω, in parallel over of the
capacitors - i.e., with one resistor terminal inserted between the two capacitors. The high resistance value will
prevent the resistor from impacting the performance of the circuit.)
Perform an AC sweep over the range from 100 Hz to 100 kHz. Plot the resistor voltage over the frequency
range. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
• Experiment #3: Starting with the reference circuit of Experiment #1, insert a second 10 mH inductor in
parallel after the first inductor, and a second 100 nF capacitor in series with the first capacitor. Perform an
AC sweep over the range from 100 Hz to 100 kHz. Plot the resistor voltage over the frequency range. Generate
Next, reposition the second capacitor from an in-parallel configuration to an in-series configuration with the
second capacitor. Reposition the second inductor from an in-series configuration to an in-parallel configuration
with the the first inductor.
(Important PSpice Note #2: In PSpice, placing two inductors in this configuration will typically raise an
“inductor loop” error. This error can be avoided by placing a low-value resistor, such as 1 Ω, between two of
the inductor nodes. The low resistor value will not impact the performance of the circuit.)
Perform an AC sweep over the range from 100 Hz to 100 kHz. Plot the resistor voltage over the frequency
range. Generate screen captures of the schematic and plot.
89
• Experiment #4: Create the circuit using an AC source set to 5 volts. Perform an AC sweep over the range
from 100 Hz to 100 kHz. Plot the voltage difference between the node in the middle of the impedance branch
and the node in the middle of the resistance branch. Generate a second plot that subtracts, from the voltage
difference of the first plot, half the voltage of the power supply. Generate screen captures of the schematic and
plots.
90
Analysis
(a) Experiment #2: Your observations from this experiment (as well as Experiment #1) demonstrate two
properties of this band-pass circuit:
i. Bandwidth: The width of the range of frequencies where the band-pass filter exhibits high gain
- i.e., the “pass-band” of the filter, defining the range of frequencies that pass through the filter.
(In band-stop circuits, the term “stop-band” is used to describe the range of frequencies where the
filter exhibits low gain, defining the range of frequencies that are blocked or attenuated by the filter.)
For this lab, we will consider the “pass-band” as the range of frequencies for which our 5-volt input
produces an output voltage of at least 4 volts.
ii. Roll-off: The width of the transitional range of frequencies of a band-pass or band-stop filter, where
the voltage is neither high enough to comprise the pass-band nor low enough to comprise the stop-
band. The roll-off also describes whether the slope of this transitional range is steep (leading to a
narrower transitional range) or gradual (leading to a broader transitional range). For this lab, we
will consider the transitional range as the range of frequencies for which our 5-volt input produces an
output voltage between 1 volt and 4 volts.
Review your experimental data and PSpice plots to identify the range of frequencies comprising the pass-
band, the total bandwidth (i.e.: highest frequency of the pass-and minus the lowest frequency), the width
of the transitional range, and the roll-off (gradual or broad) for the following filter circuits:
• The reference circuit of Experiment #1;
• The reduced-resistance circuit of Experiment #2;
• The increased-resistance circuit of Experiment #2; and
• The increased-reactance circuit of Experiment #2.
(b) Experiment #4: How does adjusting the frequency of the input affect the voltage of this circuit?
(a) Experiment #1: Which components of an RLC series circuit perform as a band-pass circuit? Which
components of the RLC series circuit perform as a band-stop circuit? Does the current exhibit band-pass
or band-stop characteristics?
(b) Experiments #2 and #3: Specify how each of the following changes to an RLC series circuit affect
the center frequency, bandwidth, and roll-off of the filter circuit:
i. Increasing the resistance of the RLC series circuit.
ii. Increasing the total reactance of the RLC series circuit.
iii. Increasing the inductive reactance of the RLC series circuit, while proportionally decreasing its ca-
pacitive reactance.
iv. Increasing the capacitive reactance of the RLC series circuit, while proportionally decreasing its
inductive reactance.
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(a) The simple RLC series circuit in Experiment #1 features a power supply set to 5 volts, a resistor, and an
inductor + capacitor pair. Based on Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law and a 5-volt input, it may have been natural
to anticipate that the maximum voltage of the resistor, over all frequencies, should be a vertical mirror-
image of the maximum voltage of the inductor + capacitor combination. However, your experimental and
PSpice observations demonstrate that this is not the case. Can you explain the difference between the
voltage of the resistor and the voltage of the capacitor and inductor?
If you wanted a band-stop filter that actually mirrored the voltage characteristics of the band-pass filter,
how might you modify the band-pass circuit to produce a band-stop signal? (Hint: Many solutions are
possible - and some of them involve an op-amp.)
(b) For the passive filter circuits in Experiment #2, how would you describe the relationships between the roll-
off, bandwidth, and center frequency? How does altering the circuit to change any one of these properties
affect the other two properties?
(c) Roll-off is an important property for many applications. Some uses of filtering circuits require a filter that
exhibits a very steep, sharp transition, while other uses of filtering circuits require a filter that exhibits a
gradual, linear transition. Can you suggest a scenario in which each type of filter is desirable?
(d) How would you describe the functionality of the circuit in Experiment #4? Can you suggest a possible
use of this type of circuit?
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Lab Report
• The voltages observed in each experiment.
• Seven schematics of the circuits simulated in PSpice.
• Eight plots of the simulation results for each of the experiments.
93
Appendix A: Oscilloscopes
This section provides an overview of some uses of oscilloscopes that may be needed in these experiments.
Students of ECE 286 may have developed a familiarity with basic oscilloscope use in ECE 285 and earlier classes.
However, because ECE 286 focuses on alternating current, the experiments in this lab manual rely more heavily on
the oscilloscope, which may reveal some limitations and difficulties. While oscilloscopes are powerful instruments,
a misconfiguration of the oscilloscope or a misunderstanding of its use in these experiments may consume a great
deal of time and effort that detracts from the purpose of each experiment. The following discussion is provided to
alleviate some of these obstacles.
Oscilloscope Calibration and Switches

TODO
Oscilloscope Use - Measuring Voltage

Every experiment in this lab manual requires the use of an oscilloscope to measure various electrical properties of
circuits.
For example, the first lab experiment involves a very simple series circuit with three components: a function generator;
a resistor; and a reactive element (a capacitor or inductor. The experiment requires the observation of four properties:
(i) the voltage supplied by the function generator; (ii) the voltage drop of the resistor; and (iii) the voltage drop of
the capacitor. Additionally, some of these properties must be measured concurrently ( e.g., to determine the relative
phase shift of one voltage compared with another).
However, even for this very simple circuit, measuring all of these properties directly and concurrently may not be
possible with a basic electronics lab oscilloscope, for several reasons:
• Many basic oscilloscopes do not have four channels, or even three - they are only capable of measuring and
displaying two voltages at a time.
• Some basic oscilloscope probes do not measure any arbitrary voltage difference between the probe terminals.
Rather, the positive terminal measures voltage, and the negative terminal is a ground connection.
The experiments provided in this lab manual presume the availability of a two-channel oscilloscope that measures
voltage with respect to ground, rather than as a voltage drop between the terminals. The following examples reveal
some problems that may arise in these circumstances, and how these measurements can be obtained despite these
practical constraints.
• Consider a series circuit with a 3-volt power supply and two resistors: a 1 k Ω resistor, and a 2 k Ω resistor.
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This series circuit operates as a basic voltage divider, in which R1 dissipates 2 volts, and R2 dissipates 1 volt.
The voltage at node N is the voltage remaining after the voltage drop of R1: N = 1 volt, relative to ground.
Now consider swapping the resistors in this series:
This circuit still operates as a voltage divider: R1 still dissipates 2 volts, and R2 still dissipates 1 volt. The
voltage drop of each resistor has not changed (reflecting the fact that the total resistance of the series circuit
does not depend on the order of the resistors). Nevertheless, the voltage at node N is now different - it reflects
the voltage remaining after the voltage drop of R2. That is, N = 2 volts, relative to ground.
In both configurations, the voltage measurement at node N , relative to ground, matches the voltage drop of
the second resistor in the series.
• Consider connecting the oscilloscope over the first element, where the negative terminal, which is connected at
node N , acts as a ground connection.
This connection inadvertently adds a connection to ground in parallel with R1. As a result, the short-circuit
connection around R1 effectively removes it from the circuit. As a result, the effective resistance of the series
circuit drops to 1 k Ω, and the current increases to reflect the reduced resistance. R2 now dissipates the full 3
volts of the power supply, and N = 0 volts relative to ground.
• Now consider connecting the oscilloscope over the second element, where the negative terminal still acts as a
ground connection.
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The negative terminal of the oscilloscope is properly connected to ground, which does not affect the behavior
of the circuit at all. The oscilloscope properly reads the value of N relative to ground, which is the voltage
drop of R1.
• If a two-channel oscilloscope is used to measure (as channel 1) the output voltage of the function generator
(relative to ground) and (as channel 2) the voltage at node N (relative to ground) that reflects the voltage
drop of R1, how can you determine the voltage drop of R2?
Several options exist. Depending on your experiment and equipment, some options may be more suitable than
others.
– Circuit reconfiguration: After measuring the voltage at N as the voltage drop of R1 , you can swap
the resistors, and then measure the voltage at N as the voltage drop of R2 in equivalent circumstances.
(This may not be possible for complex circuits, where the circuit elements cannot be reordered without
altering the behavior of the circuit.)
– Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law: After measuring the voltage at N as the voltage drop of R1 , you can simply
subtract R1 from the power supply voltage to determine the voltage drop of R2 . (While this mental
calculation may be sufficient for a few measurements, it may be too complex or time-consuming for
visualizing the entire waveform of R2 - which you may need, e.g., to determine the phase shift of R2
relative to the power supply voltage.)
– Using a multimeter: If you only need the peak voltage of an element, you can use the AC setting of
a digital multimeter. (Note: Digital multimeters typically report voltage as a root-mean-squared or RMS
value, which is the arithmetic mean of a sine wave.√ In order to determine the peak voltage of a sinusoidal
signal, measure the RMS value and multiply by 2.) (This option reveals no information about phase
shift.)
– Using a plot: You could capture data at various points for N and the power supply voltage. Using a
plotting package such as Matlab or Excel, you could generate plots of R1 and the power supply voltage,
and a plot of the difference of the curves, which is the voltage drop of R2 . (This is a very time-consuming
solution.)
– Oscilloscope math: Some oscilloscopes permit the generation of a waveform as a mathematical quantity
based on the actual measurements. You may be able to configure the oscilloscope to generate both the
function generator voltage output, and the difference of the function generator voltage output and node
N . (Only possible on some oscilloscopes.)
– Multiple oscilloscopes: You may be able to view three or more waveforms concurrently, despite the os-
cilloscope only supporting two channels, by use multiple oscilloscopes in the same experiment. (Contingent
on equipment availability.)
Oscilloscope Use - Measuring Current

Many experiments in this lab manual require the measurement of current through an alternating-current circuit.
However, even this basic measurement may be problematic, because many oscilloscopes are incapable of directly
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measuring current. (Measuring current using an oscilloscope typically requires an active probe, with specialized
circuitry to eliminate noise and match impedance.)
In many scenarios, Ohm’s Law may be applied to determine the current through a resistor of a known resistance
value. For example, in the series circuits above, Kirchhoff’s Current Law guarantees that the current is the same
at every point in the circuit - so the voltage drop over a resistor, combined with its resistance, reveals the current
through the entire circuit.
However, in other circumstances, current may not be so easily determined. For example:
In this parallel circuit, the voltage of the power supply is applied over the combination. While the resistance of R1
remains fixed, the reactance of C2 changes in response to the alternating-current voltage, which causes the current to
fluctuate between the branches. Additionally, it is difficult to measure the voltage drop over any particular element
using an oscilloscope:
This configuration measures the voltage of the entire combination - without any information about how much voltage
is stored or dissipated by each element (and, hence, how much current is passing through each branch).
In this scenario, a few ways exist to measure current:
• Split resistance: R1 can be split into a series of two resistors to create a node.
The node between the resistors that can be measured with the oscilloscope as the voltage drop of R3 , and the
current through this branch can be determined using its known resistance value. Additionally, if R2 and R3
sum to the same resistance as R1 , the reconfiguration will not change the properties of the circuit.
If resistors with half the resistance are not available, an equivalent circuit can be devised based on the obser-
vation that two same-resistance resistors in parallel exhibit half the resistance. This equivalent circuit uses a
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resistor “bridge,” using four resistors with the same resistance as R1 :
(TODO: resistor bridge image)
• Split capacitance: C1 can be split into two capacitors to create a node for measurement.
(TODO: split capacitance image)
Recall that capacitors exhibit the opposite behavior as resistors: capacitors add in parallel and divide in series.
In order to maintain the same capacitance as C1 , each of the split capacitors C2 , C3 must have twice the
capacitance of C1 .
Again, if double-capacitance capacitors are not available, a capacitor “bridge” can be generated using four
capacitors with the same capacitance as C1 :
(TODO: capacitor bridge image)
Shunt resistor: The insertion of a resistor in series with the capacitor (either before or after) creates a node
for measurement.
While easier than the other methods, this method creates additional resistance that alters the electrical proper-
ties of the circuit. If a small resistance is selected, the shunt resistor will not significantly change the properties
of the circuit - and specifically, the amount of current in the second branch. (On the other hand, the resistance
of the shunt resistor must be large enough to provide a reasonable voltage measurement of the comparatively
small currents that these experiments may involve. The product of a 10-Ω shunt resistance and a 10-µ A
current is only 100 µ V - which may be too small to register on the oscilloscope.)
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Appendix B: PSpice
This section provides an overview of some features of the PSpice circuit simulation and analysis package that may
be needed in these experiments.
The ECE 285 labs established a foundation with using PSPice for direct-current circuits: designing a circuit with
components such as a power source and passive elements; setting the porperties of the components; running a
simulation; and plotting the results.
The alternating-current circuits that you will analyze in the ECE 286 lab series requires some new PSpice techniques.
Of course, the passive components are not significantly different: capacitors and inductors can be placed and used in
PSpice circuits irrespective of whether the power source is constant or alternating. This section covers alternating-
current power sources, simulation techniques for A/C circuits, and transformers (used in Lab 6).
A/C Power Sources and Frequency Sweep

The standard OrCAD PSpice library has two different types of alternating-current power sources: a “Sine” source
and an “AC” source.
The “Sine” source model looks like this:
In a circuit simulation, the “Sine” source functions as an A/C power source with the following specified properties:
• VOFF is a DC offset voltage. This value should typically be set to 0.
• VAMPL is the maximum amplitude of the voltage.
• FREQ is the frequency in hertz.
• AC is supposed to be usable to perform an AC sweep, but the software model does not seem to work. This
value should always be set to 0.
The “AC” source model looks like this:
The “AC” source model has only two configurable properties:

• DC is the DC voltage component.
• AC is the peak AC voltage.
It may seem odd that the “AC” source model does not feature any way to specify frequency. Instead, the PSpice
library provides this component to function in a simulation over a range of frequencies. Selecting the “Edit Simulation
Profile” menu option allows you to specify this type of simulation:
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The properties of this menu allow you to specify the horizontal axis type (linear or logarithmic), the start and end
frequencies of the range, and the total number of data points to collect over the specified range. When executed,
this simulation will automatically evaluate the circuit with the frequencies of the specified range, and will produce a
plot with the X-axis representing the AC source frequency:
PSpice Transformers
Lab 6 involves circuits featuring a transformer. The standard PSpice libraries include a transformer, but inserting
and configuring it may be a little confusing.
First, open the PSpice Part Search pane (click on these menu options: Place, then Part, then Search...). The
100
parts pane includes a search box, just below the list of categories. Type the name of the part (“xfrm linear”) and
press Enter:
The library will show you a search result. When you hover your mouse over the entry, the cursor will turn into a
selection icon (a hand with a pointing index finger) - but clicking on the entry will not produce an obvious result.
However, if you double-click on the entry, you will see this text at the bottom of the editor window:
...and if you then move the cursor into a schematic page, you will be able to insert a transformer into the schematic.
Unlike basic components such as resistors and capacitors, the XFRM LINEAR transformer model does not have
properties that you can configure simply by entering numerical values in the graphical representation of the model.
Instead, once you have placed the part, you can double-click on it to open the “Property Editor” feature of PSpice,
which presents a comprehensive list of properties for the component:
Most of these properties are not important (they relate to how PSpice presents the part to you, such as its location
in the library and the graphical symbol that it uses). Two properties are notable:
• COUPLING: This value defines the coupling constant, i.e., the efficiency of the part. It is a decimal value from
0 to 1 indicating the percentage of power, provided to one side, is transmitted to the other side. It represents
the efficiency of the transformer, where an “ideal” transformer translates 100% of power (coupling constant of
1), while real-world transformers always exhibit some degree of loss for reasons such as resistivity.
• L1 VALUE / L2 VALUE: These values indicate the inductance that each side of the transformer exhibits.
You can edit these values by double-clicking on the entry (disregard the shading; this does not mean the property is
not editable), entering different values, and selecting “OK” to the resulting dialogs.
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PSpice Troubleshooting
PSpice is an excellent software package with a large number of features - and one that is generously offered by
OrCAD to the electrical engineering and computer engineering communities for free. However, PSpice can be a bit
tricky to use. Problems with a PSpice schematic or simulation can lead to unexpected results and errors that may
be difficult to diagnose.
The following troubleshooting information is based on common problems that may arise while apply PSpice to these
circuits, and diagnostic techniques and solutions. These tips may alleviate frustration and enable you to focus on
the substance of circuit analysis (rather than the many eccentricities of the PSpice software package).
Schematic and Simulation Problems:
• Problem: The “PSpice” menu option is completely missing.
Solution: When you begin creating a project in PSpice, the first option that PSpice presents is a window that
allows you to choose a project type. The list of project types includes two choices that may seem identical:
“Analog or Mixed A/D,” and “Schematic.” Both projects will present the typical PSpice editor - but when
you’re ready to simulate the circuit, you will find that the PSpice menu option is entirely missing if you selected
“Schematic” as your project type. The solution is create a new project of the “Analog or Mixed A/D” type,
and then copy and paste your schematic from the first project to the new project.
• Problem: Your attempt to simulate the circuit produces the error message: “Node (number) is floating.”
Solution: The schematic includes a node that the analysis algorithms within PSpice are not capable of
determining. For example - consider the following circuit:
How would this circuit perform in the real world? (Hint: Don’t try it!) If actually assembled, this circuit would
force the current sources to compete, with unpredictable results (possibly including damage to one or both of
the power supplies). PSpice is not prepared to resolve such ambiguities, and it simply reports an error message:
However, this error message can occur in a variety of circumstances. If you encounter this error, try the
following:
– Look at the schematic: are there any gaps between wires? Does every component look like it is connected?
If anything looks odd, try deleting and re-drawing the components.
– If all of the nodes are floating, then you have likely forgotten to include a ground element. While many
real-world devices operate without a ground connection (including the entire field of mobile electronics!),
the PSpice analysis algorithms can only calculate any values with respect to an explciitly defined ground
node.
– If your circuit has two capacitors in series, PSpice will be unable to analyze the node in between, and
will return this error message. This problem can be resolved by replacing the capacitors in series with a
single capcitor having an equivalent capacitance. (Remember that capacitors in series add according to
the reciprocal sum, just like resistors in parallel.)
– If you cannot easily solve the problem, you may wish to determine which nodes PSpice indicates are
“floating.” If you click on a node in the schematic, PSpice will display the node number that it has
assigned to each (like N00087). Find the node with the number that is reported in the error message. If
the node looks OK but the message persists, try deleting all of the wires comprising the node (though not
necessarily the circuit components that the node connects), and then redrawing all of the wires for the
node.
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– If you are unable to resolve this problem using the troubleshooting steps above, you may try deleting your
circuit and drawing it again.
• Problem: Your attempt to simulate the circuit produces the error message: “Voltage source and/or inductor
loop.”
Solution: These problems occur when the nodes of a voltage source or inductor are related in a way that
produces undesirable feedback that PSpice cannot analyze.
– The circuit may have a voltage source or inductor with both terminals connected to the same node, or
some other scenario that prevents the voltage source from working properly (e..g, connecting the terminals
to different nodes that are both connected to ground). Redesign the circuit to ensure that the voltage
source can create a potential difference between the nodes.
– The circuit may have two or more inductors connected in parallel between the same two node. This creates
a loop that PSpice is unable to analyze. This problem can be resolved by substituting one inductor with
an equivalent inductance. (Remember that inductors in parallel add according to the reciprocal sum, just
like resistors in parallel.)
• Problem: Your attempt to simulate the circuit produces the message: “Warning: No AC sources - AC Sweep
ignored.”
Solution: You have requested to run an AC Sweep simulation, but the circuit does not have a power source
using the “AC” model. You may have instead used the “Sine” model, which is for time-domain analyses.
Replace the power supply in your schematic with an instance of the “AC” voltage supply.
• Problem: Your circuit has an alternating-current power supply and you are conducting a time-domain simu-
lation, but the power supply does not appear functional - no components have a positive voltage.
Solution: You may have selected the “AC” power source, which does not function in a time-domain simulation.
Replace it with a “Sine” power source.
Plotting Problems:
• Problem: Your plots of resistor, capacitor, and inductor values reveal unexpected results, including reversed
signs.
Solution: The PSpice schematic editor has a major problem: it is not possible to tell which way resistors,
capacitors, and inductors are oriented. For instance, this is a typical resistor in a horizontal orientation:
. . . and if current is passing through this component left-to-right, the calculation V (R1 : 1) − V (R1 : 2) will
exhibit a positive voltage drop (according to the passive sign convention). However, if you rotate a resistor
180◦ (by clicking on it and pressing R twice), the graphical model appears to be unchanged - but the PSpice
model will have swapped the terminals:
. . . and if current is passing through this component left-to-right, the calculation V (R1 : 1) − V (R1 : 2) will
demonstrate a negative voltage, indicating that the resistor is supplying power to the circuit. A more subtle
result is that this problem may cause all passive components to exhibit a π2 phase shift in response to an
alternating current. You may determine the orientation of a component by hovering the cursor over each
terminal - PSpice will indicate the name of the terminal.
• Problem: Your time-domain plots cover too much or too little time, so that an A/C signal is compressed or
stretched.
Solution: If you right-click on the PSpice plot window, you will see options including: “Zoom In,” “Zoom
Out,” and ”Zoom Fit.” You may also edit your PSpice simulation to select the window of time that you want
to plot. Select PSpice / Edit Simulation Profile, and in the “Analysis” tab, look at the two properties called
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“Run to time: seconds” and “Start saving data after: seconds” - these properties define (respectively)
when the simulation ends and starts. Your plot of the simulation will cover the specified range (and nothing
else).
• Problem: You have made changes to the circuit and re-plotted the results, but the plot does not reflect the
changes.
Solution: PSpice does not automatically update previously generated plots when circuit components change
- you have to re-run the simulation. When you do, PSpice will automatically clear the plot window (warning:
unsaved plots will be lost), and newly generated plots will utilize the simulation of the updated circuit.
• Problem: The plots are difficult to print or view with a black background.
Solution: You can change the background to another color, including white, by selecting the Tools / Options
menu options (within the PSpice plotting interface), choosing the “Color Settings” tab, and changing a different
color in the “Background” section.
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ECE 286 Lab Manual

Electric Circuits Project (ECP) Guidelines 13

Lab 1: Steady-State RC and RL Series Circuits 14

Lab 2: Steady-State RLC Circuits 23

ECP 3: Additional Capacitor Properties and Uses 30

Lab 3: A/C Circuit Analysis Techniques 32

Lab 4: A/C Power 41

Lab 5: A/C Power Delivery 49

ECP 4: Additional Filtering Properties and Uses 55

Lab 7: Passive Filters 66

Lab 8: Active Filters 74

Lab 9: Band-Pass and Band-Stop Filters 84

The ECE 286 lab kit includes the following components:

Week / Dates Project / Exam / Activity Lab Experiment

Welcome to the ECE 286 Lab Series!

Preparing For Lab

• Build an RC series circuit using three elements:

• Build an RC series circuit using three elements:

• Build an RL series circuit using three elements:

• Build an RL series circuit using three elements:

• Build an RLC series circuit using four elements:

ECP 3 Sample Project 1: Capacitor Properties

ECP 3 Sample Project 2: A/C Waveforms and Phase Shaping

ECP 3 Sample Project 3: Transients

Finally, using Ohm’s Law again:

Conclude the experiment as follows:

• Build an RC series circuit using three elements:

• Build an RL series circuit using three elements:

• Assemble a parallel circuit with three branches:

ECP 4 Sample Project 1: Additional Filter Types

ECP 4 Sample Project 2: Impedance Detection

ECP 4 Sample Project 3: Audio Signal Processing

• An inductor can be created using two components:

Also, adjust the primary resistor as follows:

Ohm’s Law can therefore √ be applied as follows:

• Assemble a series circuit with the following components:

• Assemble a series circuit with the following components:

Oscilloscope Calibration and Switches

Oscilloscope Use - Measuring Voltage

Oscilloscope Use - Measuring Current

A/C Power Sources and Frequency Sweep

The “AC” source model has only two configurable properties:

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