Chapter 1

Introduction
Environmental Chemistry deals with the origins, transport, reactions, effects and
fates of chemical species in the water, air, terrestrial and living environments. It utilizes
knowledge and tools from other sciences in the study of background, behavior, movement
and impact of chemicals in all layers of the environment. For instance, it overlaps with
different branches of chemistry such as organic chemistry-mechanism of degradation of
pesticides, analytical chemistry-detecting the presence of environmental contaminants,
specifically at low concentration, physical chemistry-kinetics of transformation and
degradation of environmental chemicals, geochemistry-explain the nature and behavior of
geochemical specious, photochemistry, and biological chemistry. It also includes many
widely different fields such as life sciences- effects of discharge on aquatic ecosystem
structure, toxicology-effects of environmental chemicals on human health, physics,
agricultural sciences, medical sciences, and sanitary engineering. However, analytical
chemistry influenced the scope of environmental chemistry.
Environmental Segments:
The environment consists of various segments such as atmosphere, hydrosphere,
geosphere and biosphere. Before explaining the chemistry that is taking place in these
segments one by one, a brief out line about their importance will be discussed.
Atmosphere: The following points highlight the vital role played by atmosphere in the
survival of life in this planet.
• The atmosphere is the protective blanket of gases which is surrounding the earth. It
protects the earth from the hostile environment of outer space.

• It absorbs IR radiations emitted by the sun and reemitted from the earth and thus
controls the temperature of the earth.

• It allows transmission of significant amounts of radiation only in the regions of 300 –

2500 nm (near UV, Visible, and near IR) and 0.01 – 40 meters (radio waves). i.e it
filters tissue damaging UV radiation below 300 nm.
• It acts as a source for CO for plant photosynthesis and O for respiration
2 2
• It acts as a source for nitrogen for nitrogen fixing bacteria and ammonia producing
plants.
• The atmosphere transports water from ocean to land.

Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere is a collective term given to all different forms of water. It
includes all types of water resources such as oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, streams,
reservoirs, glaciers and ground waters. The distribution of earth's water supply is shown in
fig 1.
 Fig 1 Distribution of earth's water supply

As can be seen, only 1% of the total water supply is available as fresh water in the form of
rivers, lakes, streams and ground water for human and other uses. The extent of the use of
available fresh water for various purposes is shown in the following figure 2.

Fig 2 Major use of fresh water

The major problem with global water supply is its non-uniform distribution, since people in
areas with low precipitation often consume more than people in regions with more rainfall.
Lithosphere:
• The earth is divided in to layers as shown in fig: 3
• The lithosphere consists of upper mantle and the crust.






The crust is the earth’s outer skin that is accessible to human.
The crust consists of rocks and soil of which the latter is the important part of
lithosphere.

Biosphere:

The biosphere refers to the realm of living organisms and their interactions with the
environment (VIZ: atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere)
• The biosphere is very large and complex and is divided into smaller units called
ecosystems.
• Plants, animals and microorganisms which live in a definite zone along with physical
factors such as soil, water and air constitute an ecosystem.
 • Within each ecosystems there are dynamic inter relationships between living forms
and their physical environment.
 Biological science is a key component of environmental science and environmental
chemistry, as living beings the ultimate concern of humans with their environment is
the interaction of the ecosystems with human systems which mainly affect a major
process within the ecosystems nutrient cycling and energy flow.
 The natural cycles operate in a balanced manner providing a continuous circulation
of essential constituents necessary for life and this stabilizes and sustains the life
processes on earth.
 The biosphere is sending alarming signals in matters of pollution, desertification and
toxicity of water bodies
Note: system is a set of arrangement of things so related or connected as to form a unit

The Anthropsphere

It is defined as part of the environment made or modified by humans and used for their
activities. It is necessary to concider the technology as a separate component in the
environmental study because of the enormous influence that they have on the environment.

Humans use technology to meet their desires. The challenge is to integerate technology
with concideration of environment such that the two are mutually advantageous rather than
in opposition to each other.

It includes the following divisions:

 structures used for dwellings , manufacturing, commerce, education, and other

activities
 utilities such as water, fuel, and electricity distribution systems, and sewers
 Structures used for transportations.

However environmental issues frequently cut across these divisions as indicated in fig. 4.
The distinctions of these spheres are only artificial, in practical sense they are
interdependent. All forms of life depends for their existence on the multitude of materials
that compose the five unique spheres of the environment, which varies in thermal
characteristics, chemical composition and movement and density
Figure 4. Illustration of Relationships between the five spheres of the environments

Figure 5 Sources of Environmental Pollutants from Manufacturing Processes

Biogeochemical cycles

The elements, in different forms migrate continually between the different reservoirs of the
earth’s systems (oceans, sediments and atmosphere), which is governed by biological,
geological and chemical processes. The term underlines the cyclic nature of the flow in a
closed system.

Eventhough cycles of matter would occur even in the absence of life on earth but strongly
influenced by life forms. Most biogeochemical cycles can be described as elemental cycles
involving nutrient elements such as carbon, Oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycle.
Many are exogenic cycles in which the element in question spends part of the cycle in the
atmosphere, whereas phosphorus don’t have a gaseous component and are endogenic
cycles.

Figure 6 Outline of Exogenic Cycle, Endogenic Cycle and exchanges between the Exogenic
and Endogenic cycles Reprinted with permission from Environmental Chemistry, 6th Edition.
Copyright Lewis Publishers, an imprint of CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida©
 Figure 8 Diagram of the Nitrogen Cycle Reprinted with permission from Environmental
Chemistry, 6th Edition. Copyright Lewis Publishers, an imprint of CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Florida©
Figure 9 Diagram of the Phosphorous Cycle Reprinted with permission from Environmental
Chemistry, 6th Edition. Copyright Lewis Publishers, an imprint of CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Florida©
 Figure 10 Diagram of the Sulfur Cycle Reprinted with permission from Environmental
Chemistry, 6th Edition. Copyright Lewis Publishers, an imprint of CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Florida©
Microbial Transformations of Nitrogen

General scheme for the transfers of nitrogen between atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.

The Nitrogen Cycle:

Fixation of molecular nitrogen:

The reduction of molecular nitrogen requires a high energy input.

A generalized scheme for the action of nitrogenase:

Ammonification:

Nitrification:

Organism Class Substrate Product

Arthrobacter Heterotroph NH4+ NO3-

Arthrobacter Heterotroph NH4+ NO3-

Aspergillus Heterotroph NH4+ NO3-

Nitrosomonas Autotroph NH4+ NO3-

Nitrobacter Autotroph NO2- NO3-

Nitrate reduction and denitrification:

NO3-  NO2-  NO  N2O  N2

Paracoccus denitrificans

Thiobacillus denitrificans

Common Oxidation States of Sulfur

Form Example Oxidation State

S2- Sulfides, Mercaptans -2

S° Elemental Sulfur 0
 S2O4 Hyposulfite +2

2-
SO3 Sulfite +4

SO42- Sulfate +6

The Sulfur Cycle

Oxidative Sulfur Transformations

H2S + 1/2 O2  S° + H2O  G = -50.1 kcal/mole

S° + 1 1/2 O2 + H2O  H2SO4  G =- -149.8 kcal/mole

Thiobacillus species

Reductive Sulfur Transformations

CH3COOH + 2 H2O + 4 S°  2 CO2 4 H2S

Desulfuromonas

H2 + SO42-  H2S + 2 H2O + 2 OH-