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LAB 2
Cell Structure
To understand cellular function is to understand much of life. According to cell
theory, cells (1) are the basic units of life, (2) posses all characteristics of life, and (3)
arise only from preexisting cells. These apparently simple statements are the result of
years of work by early cell biologists, and they have important implications for all
biologists. While working through this course, you will find that you must repeatedly
return to the level of the cell to understand animal functions. For example, while one can
study the contractile properties of a muscle by observing an entire muscle, it is
impossible to understand how a muscle contracts without studying the muscle cell.
Similarly, it is impossible to understand the function of the nervous system without and
appreciation of the nerve cell, or to understand the function of the endocrine system
without familiarity with models of the plasma membrane. Just as animal function is tied
to cell function, animal structure is dependent on the organization of cells into tissues,
Today it is more important than ever for the biologist to understand cell structure and
function.
(1) Using the flat end of a clean toothpick, a tongue depressor or a popsicle stick, gently
scrape the inside of your cheek. Swirl the scrapings in a drop of water on a slide. Cover
with a coverslip, place the slide on the stage of the microscope, and examine using
reduced light and low power. Look for small, flattened, and transparent epithelial cells.
Stain the preparation with methylene blue by placing a small drop of stain at one edge of
the coverslip. Draw the stain under the coverslip by touching the edge of a paper towel to
the opposite edge of the coverslip. As water is drawn from under the coverslip, it will be
replaced by stain. Examine the preparation under low power, then high power.
The bulk of the cell’s interior is cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains organelles
that carry out specific functions. These structures usually cannot be seen clearly under the
light microscope. The outer boundary of the cell is defined by the plasma membrane.
Note the nucleus, the genetic control center of the cell.
Mitochondria
Most energy conversions in the cell take place within mitochondria (Fig 3.5). In
these reactions, energy in carbohydrates, fats, and proteins is converted into a form usable
by the cell called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Each mitochondrion is enclosed by two
membranes. The inner membrane is tightly folded to produce shelf like cristae. Between
cristae is a gelatinous matrix containing DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes. Mitochondrial
DNA and ribosomes are similar to bacterial DNA and ribosomes. This has led biologists
to believe that mitochondria are self-replicating units and that they may have evolved
from symbiotic, bacteria-like cells. Enzymes located in the matrix and on the cristae
catalyze cellular energy conversions.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are vesicular structures that contain enzymes capable of digesting all
biologically important macromolecules (Fig. 3.6). They are responsible for digesting
particles ingested by the cell as well as old, nonfunctional organelles. Lysosomes are
formed at the Golgi apparatus when enzymes, produced at the ribosomes and transported
to the Golgi apparatus by the endoplasmic reticulum, are enclosed within a vesicle.
Figure 3.6. Lysosomes.
b. plasma membrane
c. Golgi apparatus
d. mitochondrion
2. How would you describe the structure of the mitochondrion?
4. How would you describe the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure?
When examining each tissue type on the prepared slides, keep in mind that you
will be looking at sections though organs (assemblages of tissues of various kinds) and
that you want to look in specific regions for the desired tissue. Also, thin sections for
mounting specimens on slides are often made at angles such that the structure of a cell
may not look as you expect. For example, a columnar cell cut in cross section may look
cuboidal. You must look at more than one cell, or possibly more than one slide, to
appreciate the actual structure of the tissue. Compare what you see to the appropriate
figures.
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue consists of a sheet of cells that covers the surface of the body or
of one of its cavities. One side of a layer of epithelial tissue is, therefore, exposed to air or
body fluids and the other side rests against a non-cellular layer produced by the epithelial
tissue and the underlying connective tissue called the basement membrane. In most
preparations, the basement membrane cannot be directly observed, but its position is
indicated by the lower limit of the inner cell layer. The chief functions of the epithelium
are protection, secretion, absorption, and providing surfaces for diffusion. Epithelial
tissues are classified according to shape and layering. Examine a prepared slide of
various epithelia from Amphiuma (Slide HA 6-11).
Simple Epithelium
Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells, all of which reach the
basement membrane. Simple epithelium is found in areas of little wear and tear of where
diffusion or absorption occurs.
Stratified Epithelium
Stratified epithelium is found where there are two or more layers of cells (i.e. the
outermost layer of cells does not reach the basement membrane). Only the bottom most
layer of cells us reproducing. As new cells are produced, older cells are pushed toward
the surface.
Stratified epithelium is classified on the basis of the shape of the outermost layer
of cells. Stratified epithelium occurs in areas where wear and tear are common. It serves
as a protective barrier between the outside and the tissues below. Little transport occurs
across stratified epithelium. Stratified squamous epithelium occurs in the skin, vagina,
and cornea. Stratified cuboidal epithelium occurs in sweat glands, and stratified columnar
epithelium occurs in the male urethra. Examine a section of stratified squamous
epithelium (Slide HA 4-21).
Connective Tissue
Connective tissues bind, anchor, and support the body and its organs. They
consist of general connective tissues and special connective tissues.
Adipose Tissue
Adipose tissue is derived from loose connective tissue. Adipose accumulates in the
subcutaneous layer of the skin, around the heart, kidneys, etc. As adipose cells mature, fat
accumulates in the cell and pushes cytoplasm to the periphery. Examine the picture below
showing adipose tissue.
Muscular Tissue
There are three types of muscular tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth (visceral).
We will study muscles in greater detail later in the course.
Above you will see an example of skeletal muscle. Examine slide (HD 5-1T) for
examples of smooth and cardiac muscle.
Nervous Tissue
The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron (see below). The histology of
the nervous system involves the study of the different kinds of neurons and how various
neurons are associated with each other. We will study the nervous system in much greater
detail later in the course. In the meantime, examine slide (HE 4-1) which is a spinal cord
smear showing motor nerve cells.
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
You do not need to turn in anything for this lab. Take good notes on the slides and
answer all the questions in this exercise. This material will be on the first lab exam.