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Sleep or swim? Early-morning training severely

restricts the amount of sleep obtained by elite
swimmers
a b a
Charli Sargent , Shona Halson & Gregory Daniel Roach
a
Appleton Institute , Central Queensland University , Adelaide , SA , Australia
b
Australian Institute of Sport , Canberra , ACT , Australia
Published online: 06 Jul 2012.

To cite this article: Charli Sargent , Shona Halson & Gregory Daniel Roach (2014) Sleep or swim? Early-morning training
severely restricts the amount of sleep obtained by elite swimmers, European Journal of Sport Science, 14:sup1, S310-S315,
DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2012.696711

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 European Journal of Sport Science, 2014
Vol. 14, No. S1, S310
S315, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2012.696711

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Sleep or swim? Early-morning training severely restricts the amount of

sleep obtained by elite swimmers

CHARLI SARGENT1, SHONA HALSON2, & GREGORY DANIEL ROACH1

1
Appleton Institute, Central Queensland University, Adelaide, SA, Australia, and 2Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra,
ACT, Australia
Downloaded by [Central Queensland University] at 00:22 05 February 2014

Abstract
Good sleep is essential for optimal performance, yet few studies have examined the sleep/wake behaviour of elite athletes. The
aim of this study was to assess the impact of early-morning training on the amount of sleep obtained by world-class swimmers.
A squad of seven swimmers from the Australian Institute of Sport participated in this study during 14 days of high-intensity
training in preparation for the 2008 Olympic Games. During these 14 days, participants had 12 training days, each starting
with a session at 06:00 h, and 2 rest days. For each day, the amount of sleep obtained by participants was determined using
self-report sleep diaries and wrist-worn activity monitors. On nights that preceded training days, participants went to bed at
22:05 h (s00:52), arose at 05:48 h (s00:24) and obtained 5.4 h (s1.3) of sleep. On nights that preceded rest days,
participants went to bed at 00:32 h (s 01:29), arose at 09:47 h (s01:47) and obtained 7.1 h (s1.2) of sleep. Mixed model
analyses revealed that on nights prior to training days, bedtimes and get-up times were significantly earlier (pB0.001), time
spent in bed was significantly shorter (pB0.001) and the amount of sleep obtained was significantly less (pB0.001), than on
nights prior to rest days. These results indicate that early-morning training sessions severely restrict the amount of sleep
obtained by elite athletes. Given that chronic sleep restriction of B6 h per night can impair psychological and physiological
functioning, it is possible that early-morning schedules actually limit the effectiveness of training.

Keywords: Swimming, sleep restriction, elite athletes, wrist activity monitor, training schedules

Introduction Edwards, 2007; Robson-Ansley, Gleeson, & Ansley,

2009; Samuels, 2008). The few studies that have
In order to function effectively, it is essential that
examined the relationships between training
humans obtain a sufficient amount of sleep. When
schedules and sleep patterns in elite athletes have
sleep is restricted to B6 h per day, there is
focused on the effects of a bout of exercise on
substantial disturbance in cognitive capacity
the quantity and quality of sleep obtained on a
(Axelsson et al., 2008; Belenky et al., 2003), glucose
single night (e.g. Driver et al., 1994; Netzer, Kristo,
metabolism (Spiegel, Leproult, & van Cauter,
Steinle, Lehmann, & Strohl, 2001; Taylor, Rogers,
1999), appetite regulation (Spiegel, Tasali, Penev,
& Driver, 1997). In contrast, the aim of this study
& van Cauter, 2004) and immune function
was to examine the amount of sleep obtained by elite
(Vgontzas et al., 2004). While there are considerable
swimmers, on training days and rest days, during a
data available related to the amount of sleep
14-day period of high-intensity training.
obtained by adults in the general population, there
are few published data related to the amount of sleep
obtained by elite athletes. This appears to be a Methods
considerable oversight given that sleep has been
Participants
recognised as an essential component of recovery
from, and preparation for, high-intensity training Seven nationally competitive swimmers (one female
(Mah, Mah, Kezirian, & Dement, 2011; Reilly & and six male) from the same training squad gave

Correspondence: C. Sargent, Appleton Institute, Central Queensland University, PO Box 42 Goodwood SA 5034, Australia. E-mail:
Charli.Sargent@cqu.edu.au

# 2013 European College of Sport Science

 Sleep or swim? S311

Table I. Participant characteristics and approximately four months prior to the selection
Mean9s Range
trials for the 2008 Australian Olympic Swim Team.
Ultimately, six of the seven swimmers qualified to
Age (years) 22.591.7 20.0
24.4 compete in the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing,
Height (cm) 184.0912.4 162.4
195.4 China. As part of their preparation for the selection
Mass (kg) 77.7913.9 52.7
91.0
BMI (kg ×m2) 22.791.6 20.0
24.9
trials, the participants completed a 14-day
Sum of 7 skinfolds (mm) 44.999.8 28.1
57.3 programme of high-intensity swimming training
developed by the squad’s coach (Figure 1).
Note: BMI, body mass index.
The programme consisted of 12 training days
(Days 1
3, 5
10, 12
14) and two rest days (Days
written informed consent to participate in this study 4, 11). On eight of the training days, 2-h training
as volunteers (see Table I). The participants were
sessions were scheduled for the morning (06:00

recruited with the assistance of a senior physiologist
08:00 h) and afternoon (16:00
18:00 h). On the
(S. Halson) at the Australian Institute of Sport.
other four training days, a 2-h training session was
At the time of the study, the participants were in
scheduled for the morning only (06:00
08:00 h).
good health and were free of any medical or
Participants swam 6.690.7 km (mean9SD) in
psychological disorders. None of the participants
Downloaded by [Central Queensland University] at 00:22 05 February 2014

morning training sessions and 6.290.8 km in after-

had previously identified sleep as a concern or had
noon training sessions. In total, participants swam
been previously diagnosed with a sleep disorder.
128.8 km during the 14-day training programme.
The participants were not taking any medications or
training supplements during the course of the study,
but were permitted to consume caffeine or alcohol.
Sleep/wake assessments
The study was approved by the Australian Institute
of Sport Research Ethics Committee. During the study, all participants lived in residential
accommodation on-site at the Australian Institute of
Sport. Each participant slept in a private bedroom,
Training schedule
but shared bathroom and living room facilities with
The study was conducted in November 2007, mid- other participants. The residential accommodation
way through the participants’ yearly training cycle, was situated approximately 200 m from an indoor

Figure 1. Sleep/wake patterns of seven elite swimmers during a 14-day high-intensity training programme. Each line represents a 24-h
study day from 20:00 to 20:00 h. Black bars indicate the scheduled timing of training sessions. White bars indicate the mean (9s) start and
end times of night-time sleep periods. Grey bars indicate the mean start and end times of daytime naps; the numbers in the grey bars
represent the number of participants that napped on that day. On two occasions during the study, participants overslept and missed the
scheduled start of training. This occurred on Day 9 for four participants and on Day 12 for two participants.
 S312 C. Sargent et al.
swimming facility where all of the training sessions
were conducted.
Participants’ sleep/wake behaviour was monitored
using self-report sleep diaries and wrist activity
monitors (Philips Respironics, Bend, Oregon). In
field-based studies that involve data collection from
multiple participants simultaneously over consecu-
tive nights, activity monitors are typically preferred
over polysomnography (PSG)
the gold standard
for monitoring sleep
because they are portable,
non-invasive and operate remotely without an atten-
dant technician. Validation studies comparing wrist
activity monitors with PSG report high correlations
for sleep duration (i.e. 0.84
0.89) and moderate to
high correlations for wake time within sleep (i.e.
0.65
0.76) (Jean-Louis, Zizi, von Gizycki, & Hauri,
Downloaded by [Central Queensland University] at 00:22 05 February 2014
1999; Weiss, Johnson, Berger, & Redline, 2010).
In the sleep diaries, participants recorded the start
and end date/time for all sleep periods (i.e. night-
time sleeps and daytime naps). The activity monitors
are devices worn like a wristwatch that continuously
record body movement (stored in 1-min epochs for
this study). Participants wore an activity monitor on
the same wrist for the duration of the study, except
when swimming or showering. Data from the sleep
diaries and activity monitors were used to determine
when participants were awake and when they were
asleep. Essentially, all time was scored as wake unless
(1) the sleep dairy indicated that the participant was
lying down attempting to sleep and (2) the activity
counts from the monitor were sufficiently low to
indicate that the participant was immobile. When
these two conditions were satisfied simultaneously,
time was scored as sleep. This scoring process was
conducted using Philips Respironics’ Actiwatch
Algorithm with sensitivity set at ‘medium’ (Kushida
et al., 2001; Tonetti, Pasquini, & Fabbri 2008). This
algorithm has been used to quantify sleep/wake
patterns in airline pilots (Roach, Sargent, Darwent,
& Dawson, 2012), long-haul truck drivers (Darwent,
Roach, & Dawson, 2012) and train drivers
(Lamond, Darwent, & Dawson, 2005).
The following dependent variables were derived
from the sleep diary and activity monitor data:
. Bedtime (hh:mm): the self-reported clock time
at which a participant went to bed to attempt to
sleep.
. Get-up time (hh:mm): the self-reported clock
time at which a participant got out of bed and
stopped attempting to sleep.
. Time in bed (h): the amount of time spent in
bed attempting to sleep between bedtime and
get-up time.
. Sleep onset latency (min): the period of time
between bedtime and sleep start.
. Sleep duration (h): the amount of time spent in
bed asleep.
. Sleep efficiency (%): sleep duration expressed as
a percentage of time in bed.
. Wake after sleep onset (%): the amount of time
spent awake expressed as a percentage of
assumed sleep (i.e. the difference in time
between sleep start and sleep end).
. Daytime nap duration (h): the amount of time
spent in bed asleep during a daytime nap.
. Total sleep time (h): the sum of the sleep
obtained at night and any sleep obtained the
following day during a daytime nap(s).
For statistical analyses, night-time sleep periods were
characterised as one of two types: a sleep period that
preceded a training day or a sleep period that
preceded a rest day. The effect of day type (i.e.
training day or rest day) on each dependent variable
was assessed using linear mixed effects models.
In each model, day type (i.e. training day or rest
day) was specified as a fixed effect and entered as a
repeated variable using a ‘diagonal’ covariance type.
To account for interindividual differences in each
model, participants were specified as a random
effect. All results are reported as mean9s.
Results
There was a marked difference in the participants’
sleep/wake behaviour on training days and rest days
(Figure 1). For sleep periods that preceded a training
day, participants went to bed at 22:05 h, arose at
05:48 h, spent 7.7 h in bed and obtained 5.4 h of
sleep (i.e. 71% of time in bed). For sleep periods that
preceded a rest day, participants went to bed at
00:32 h, arose at 09:47 h, spent 9.3 h in bed and
obtained 7.1 h of sleep (i.e. 77% of time in bed).
Mixed model analyses revealed that on nights prior
to training days, bedtimes and get-up times were
significantly earlier, time spent in bed was signifi-
cantly shorter, and the amount of sleep obtained was
significantly less, than on nights prior to rest days
(Table II). There was no difference in sleep onset
latency or wake time after sleep onset on training
days and rest days. Participants napped on some of
the training days, but no participants napped on
either of the rest days. Even though some partici-
pants supplemented night-time sleeps with daytime
naps on training days, they still obtained significantly
less sleep on training days than on rest days
(Table II). On two occasions during the study,
participants overslept and missed the scheduled start
of training. This occurred on Day 9 for four
participants and on Day 12 for two participants.

Table II. Sleep/wake variables on training days and rest days (mean9s)
Measure Training days
Bedtime (hh:mm) 22:05900:52
Get-up time (hh:mm) 05:48900:24
Time in bed (h) 7.790.9
Sleep onset latency (min) 40.8943.2
Sleep duration (h) 5.491.3
Sleep efficiency (%) 70.7915.1
Wake after sleep onset (%) 17.698.8
Daytime nap duration (h) 0.290.5
Total sleep time (h) 5.691.4
Note: aParticipants did not nap on rest days.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine the amount of
sleep obtained by elite swimmers during a 14-day
Downloaded by [Central Queensland University] at 00:22 05 February 2014
period of high-intensity training. The three major
findings of this study are that the average amount
of sleep obtained each day was low, the percentage of
time in bed that was converted into sleep (i.e. sleep
efficiency) was poor and substantially less sleep was
obtained on training days than on rest days.
The amount of sleep obtained by swimmers on
nights prior to training days, i.e. 5.4 h, was well
below the generally accepted target of 7
8 h/day.
This level of sleep restriction could have acute and
chronic effects on training performance. First,
athletes who obtain an insufficient amount of sleep
on the night immediately prior to a training day self-
report poorer mood, and higher exertion, during
training than normal (Reilly & Piercy, 1994;
Sinnerton & Reilly, 1992). It is likely that these
effects on perceived mood and exertion could impair
an athlete’s motivation, and thus their ability to train
effectively, particularly during sessions that require
high levels of intensity (Reilly & Edwards, 2007).
Second, people who obtain an insufficient amount of
sleep over several consecutive days have impaired
immune function (Vgontzas et al., 2004), which in
the case of elite athletes, places them at greater risk
of developing upper respiratory tract infections and
other health problems (Cohen, Doyle, Alper,
Janicki-Deverts, & Turner, 2009). Furthermore,
people who obtain an insufficient amount of sleep
over several consecutive days have impaired cogni-
tive capacity (Belenky et al., 2003), glucose metabo-
lism (Spiegel et al., 1999) and appetite regulation
(Spiegel et al., 2004), each of which could impair the
training performance of elite athletes.
For night-time sleep periods that preceded train-
ing days and rest days, the percentage of time in bed
that swimmers converted into sleep, i.e. sleep
efficiency, was 71 and 77%, respectively. These
values are substantially lower than the typical sleep
efficiency of 90% for healthy young adults
(Carskadon & Dement, 2005; O’Connor &
Sleep or swim? S313
Rest days p-Value
00:32901:29 B0.001
09:47901:47 B0.001
9.391.7 B0.001
31.8921.6 0.543
7.191.2 B0.001
77.297.5 0.220
16.297.7 0.629
0.090.0a 0.108
7.191.2 0.006
Youngstedt, 1995). The swimmers had relatively
low sleep efficiency because they took longer than
normal (i.e. 20 min) to fall asleep on nights prior to
training days (i.e. 41 min) and rest days (i.e. 32 min)
(Carskadon & Dement, 2005; O’Connor &
Youngstedt, 1995), and the percentage of time that
they spent awake during sleep periods on nights prior
to training days (i.e. 18%) and rest days (i.e. 16%)
was higher than normal (i.e. 5%; Carskadon &
Dement, 2005; O’Connor & Youngstedt, 1995).
The swimmers may have taken longer than normal
to fall asleep because some elite athletes experience
elevated levels of anxiety during intensive training
(Fry et al., 1994; Millet, Groslambert, Barbier,
Rouillon, & Candau, 2005), and anxiety can inter-
fere with a person’s ability to fall asleep (Lindberg et
al., 1997). The swimmers may have been awake
more than normal during sleep periods because elite
athletes are often on hydration programmes that
increase the frequency of toilet visits (Robson-Ansley
et al., 2009), and the muscle soreness and physical
discomfort associated with high-intensity training
can disturb sleep (Driver et al., 1994). In addition,
caffeine and alcohol ingestion close to bedtime are
known to affect sleep latency and sleep efficiency
(Arnedt et al., 2011; Drapeau et al., 2006) and the
swimmers in this study were free to consume both of
these substances during the two-week data
collection period.
The amount of sleep obtained by swimmers was
greatly influenced by their training schedule.
On nights prior to training days, the swimmers spent
less time in bed and obtained less sleep compared
with nights prior to rest days. The primary cause of
this difference in sleep appears to be the fact that the
first session on training days was scheduled to start
very early in the morning (i.e. 06:00 h). Indeed, the
swimmers got out of bed 4 h earlier on training days
than on rest days (i.e. 05:48 vs. 09:47 h). The
swimmers attempted to compensate for having to
wake earlier on training days by going to bed earlier,
but the difference in bedtimes on nights prior to
training days and rest days was only 2.5 h (i.e. 22:05
 S314 C. Sargent et al.
vs. 00:32 h). Although some of the swimmers
supplemented night-time sleeps with daytime naps
on training days, they still obtained significantly less
sleep in total on training days than on rest days. The
results obtained from this observational study
indicate that a certain type of training schedule
(i.e. early-morning starts) has a negative impact on
sleep. In future, it will be important to systematically
evaluate the impact of different types of training
schedules on sleep in randomised controlled trials.
The impact of early start times on the amount of
sleep obtained by elite athletes has not been shown
previously, but similar results have been found with
other populations (see Ingre, Kecklund, Åkerstedt,
Söderström, & Kecklund, 2008; Kecklund &
Åkerstedt, 1995; Roach et al., 2012). For example,
Spencer and Montgomery (1997) examined the
Downloaded by [Central Queensland University] at 00:22 05 February 2014
impact of various work schedules on the sleep
patterns of 175 short-haul airline pilots and found
that approximately 30 min of sleep was lost for every
hour that the start of work was advanced prior to
09:00 h. In this study, the swimmers’ first session on
training days occurred 3 h before 09:00 h, and they
obtained 1.7 h less sleep on training days than on
rest days. These results are consistent with those
that would be expected based on Spencer and
Montgomery’s data. At a basic level, it seems
reasonable to expect that people required to get up
early should be able to obtain a reasonable amount
of sleep by going to bed earlier. However, the
swimmers in this study, and the pilots in the Spencer
and Montgomery study, were not able to do so.
There are two reasons why it is difficult, in practice,
to substantially advance one’s bedtime. First, from a
lifestyle perspective, many people have social and/or
family commitments in the evening that limit the
extent to which they can advance their bedtime
(Folkard & Barton, 1993; Tucker, Smith, Macdo-
nald, & Folkard, 1998). Second, from a physiologi-
cal perspective, there is a ‘forbidden zone’ for sleep
in the early evening, such that even if one is in bed,
it is difficult to initiate or maintain sleep (Lavie,
1986).
There are some limitations of this study that
should be considered when interpreting its results.
First, the number of participants was limited by the
size of the training squad. In this study, we specifi-
cally recruited participants from the same training
squad. However, these squads typically consist of
only 7
10 athletes. It is possible that the small
sample size may have resulted in the study being
under-powered, but the fact that five out of the nine
mixed model analyses showed a significant difference
between training days and rest days indicates that the
study had sufficient power. Second, given that this
study was conducted in a field setting, there were
many uncontrolled factors that may have affected
participants’ sleep, other than the timing of training
sessions (e.g. use of caffeine and alcohol). Third, the
amount and quality of sleep obtained by the parti-
cipants in this study was assessed using wrist activity
monitors rather than PSG. PSG is considered to be
the gold-standard for monitoring sleep in laboratory-
based studies because it measures the depth of an
individual’s sleep. However, in field-based studies
such as this one, where the primary measure is sleep
duration rather than sleep depth, activity monitors
are a reasonable alternative.
Although early-morning starts are a common
practice amongst coaches and elite athletes in many
sports (e.g. swimming, rowing, triathlon), there are
actually no published data to indicate that there is a
sound physiological rationale to train in the early
morning. Rather, it is likely that early-morning starts
are a legacy from a time when non-professional
athletes had to train before work or school. The
results of this study clearly indicate that training
schedules that require early-morning starts restrict
sleep to a level below the recommended daily target
for healthy adults. While an obvious strategy to
compensate for early-morning starts is an advance
of bedtime, the presence of a ‘forbidden zone’ for
sleep may discourage individuals from going to bed
much earlier than normal. In the case of the present
group of swimmers, delaying the start of morning
training by 2 or 3 h should enable them to obtain
more sleep than they currently do.
Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by the
Australian Research Council. The authors are grate-
ful to the athletes and coaching staff for their time
and commitment during this study.
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