2

Seed Formation
and Development

SEED FORMATION
Seed formation begins with the combination of a male and female gamete: a process
known as fertilization. Fertilization, or syngamy, can occur when both male and female
gametophytes are fully mature. This usually occurs in a dual fusion process known as
double fertilization (Figure 2.1). When the pollen grain lands on the stigma, it germinates
by sending out a pollen tube, which grows down the style, through the micropyle and
into the embryo sac, with the tube nucleus closely following the tube apex downward.
The tube nucleus soon degenerates, but the two pollen sperm cells enter the embryo
sac, one fusing with the diploid (2N) polar nucleus to form a triploid (3N) endosperm
nucleus and the other fusing with the egg cell to form a diploid (2N) zygote, or fertilized
egg.
The process of fertilization is very important because it not only results in the
formation of a seed but also dictates the level of genetic diversity present in the zygote.
Fertilization in angiosperms typically occurs either by self- or cross-fertilization.

Self-Fertilization
Self-fertilization occurs when pollen from the anthers of a flower is transferred to
the stigma of the same flower, resulting in fertilization. In most cases, this happens when
flowers do not open until the pollination and fertilization of the flower is complete.

Cross-Fertilization
Cross-fertilization occurs when pollen from one flower is transferred to the stigma
of another flower to cause fertilization. The flowers can be on the same or different
plants. In most agricultural crops, cross-fertilization occurs by two principal methods:
wind (anemophily) and insects (entomophily). Unlike self-fertilization, where progeny
are genetically similar, cross-fertilization results in progeny that are more dissimilar.

17

L. O. Copeland et al., Principles of Seed Science and Technology

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 1999
18 Seed Formation and Development

pollen
tube

Figure 2.1. Double fertilizatWn: (A) pollen tube with its two sperm cells and tube nucleus approaching the
micropyle, (B) sperm cells approaching egg and polar nuclei, (C) double fertilization has occurred.

This evolutionary approach produces a population of individuals that are more adapt-
able to a wide array of environmental conditions.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

In addition to sexual reproduction. some plants are able to reproduce asexually.
There are two types of asexual reproduction in plants: vegetative propagation and apomixis.
Vegetative propagation may be carried out by stolons. rhizomes. tubers. tillers. bulbs.
bulbils. or corms. Apomixis is the production of seeds and vegetative propagules
by asexual methods. The main features of apomixis are: (1) it substitutes asexual
reproduction for sexual reproduction. (2) it occurs in parts of the plant normally con-
cerned with the sexual process (flowering parts). and (3) it occurs without fusion of
egg and sperm cells.
There are two types of apomixis: vegetative proliferation and agamospermy. Vegetative
proliferation (also termed vivipary) is the conversion of the spikelet. above the glumes.