Int J Earth Sciences (Geol Rundsch) (2002) 91 : 93±110
DOI 10.1007/s005310100203
ORIGINAL PAPER
G. Delisle ´ U. von Rad ´ H. Andruleit
C.H. von Daniels ´ A.R. Tabrez ´ A. Inam
Active mud volcanoes on- and offshore eastern Makran, Pakistan
Received: 28 June 2000 / Accepted: 24 January 2001 / Published online: 20 April 2001
 Springer-Verlag 2001
Abstract To study the activity, source and driving
force of the venting of fluidized mud in the coastal
Makran, we carried out reconnaissance surveys of two
active onshore mud volcano fields (Chandragup and
Jebel-u-Ghurab) and of a newly born (March 1999)
offshore mud volcano (Malan Island). All studied on-
and offshore mud volcanoes line up along one south-
west/northeast-trending structural lineament, the axis
of the Dhak Anticline. Isotopic data point to a bacte-
rial origin of the gas (mainly methane). Mixed benthic
foraminiferal faunas and calcareous nannofloras sug-
gest that the source level of the extruded mud is at a
sub-surface depth of 2±3 km. Observed mud discharge
varied between 0 and 1.4 m3 h±1 and gas discharge
rates between negligible amounts to 1 m3 s±1. Mud
temperatures in the crater lake of Chandragup I are
near-ambient temperatures. They rise slightly
(^1.5 C) during episodes of modest mud outflow. An
area of 160,000 m3 of soft mud was vigorously
extruded from the sea floor at a water depth of 10 m
within days after 15 March 1999, forming Malan
Island. The island was destroyed within a few months
after its birth by deep-reaching wave action during the
SW monsoon. This was possibly aided by local sub-
sidence of the mud volcano structure due to the vol-
ume loss following rapid degassing and mud extrusion.
G. Delisle ()) ´ U. von Rad ´ H. Andruleit
Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR),
Stilleweg 2, 30655 Hannover, Germany
E-mail: g.delisle@bgr.de
Fax: +49-511-6432304
C.H. von Daniels
Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Bodenforschung, Stilleweg 2,
30655 Hannover, Germany
A.R. Tabrez ´ A. Inam
National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), St. 47, Clifton,
Block 1, Karachi, Pakistan
Keywords Mud volcano ´ Makran ´ Pakistan ´
Geothermics ´ Gas analysis ´ Gas seeps
Introduction
The processes of tectonic dewatering and degassing of
sediments undergoing compression at convergent mar-
gins have been studied in many of the world's subduc-
tion zones, especially around the eastern Pacific
Ocean (e.g. see Kahn et al. 1996; Suess et al. 1998;
Bohrmann et al. 1998). The thickly sedimented Mak-
ran accretionary wedge formed at the active boundary
of the oceanic Arabian Plate which is being subducted
below the continental Eurasian plate. It is character-
ized by a very shallow (<2) angle of subduction, a
thickness of >7 km of mainly terrigenous sediments
due to high sedimentation rates (ca. 0.2±>1 m/
1000 years), moderate convergence rates (5 cm/years)
and the extreme width (>500 km) of the accretionary
complex (White 1982, 1983). The submarine part of
this accretionary complex forms the convergent Mak-
ran continental margin off Pakistan. It is characterized
by a narrow shelf (commonly <25 km wide) and a
steep, approximately 90-km-wide continental slope
leading into the Oman Abyssal Plain (>3000 m water
depth). The continental slope consists of a sequence
of frontally accreted thrust slices that are cut by ero-
sive submarine canyons and are morphologically
expressed as long, narrow and steep accretionary
ridges separated by ponded slope basins (von Rad et
al. 2000; Kukowski et al. 2001). The up to 1000-m-
high, tightly folded and faulted anticlinal structures of
the coastal ranges of the Makran are made up by the
Hinglaj Formation or Group (Plio- to Pleistocene age)
and the Parkini Formation (Miocene age), followed by
the less intensely folded and faulted Ormara For-
mation of Quaternary age.
Mud diapirism (see e.g. worldwide compilation by
Snead 1980; Hovland and Judd 1988) occurs predomi-
94
nantly in areas of active continental margins (e.g. see
Henry et al. 1990), but also in continental interiors
(Hovland et al. 1997). The cause of the diapirism
might be buoyancy forces due to bulk density con-
trasts at depth (Ramberg 1968a, 1968b; Bishop 1978)
or fluidization by advected pore fluids or gases by
which sedimentary masses become entrained (Hovland
and Judd 1988; Brown 1990).
Mud volcanism in the onshore Makran area
received relatively little scientific attention (Hart 1840;
Stiffe 1874; Sondhi 1947; Snead 1964; Reimann 1989),
although these spectacular diapiric features provide a
valuable and perhaps unique opportunity to study this
phenomenon both onshore and offshore in an uplifted,
well-exposed, currently active accretionary margin.
The main objectives of our field trips (May 1997,
May 1998, November 1999) were:
1.1To collect gas, water and sediment samples of
active mud volcanoes
2.1To measure the thermal field of the Chandragup
mud volcano
3.1To survey the mud volcano island Malan Island
(formed on 15 March 1999)
4.1To reassess the origin of the ªExtrusive Mud For-
mationº exposed within the Parkini Formation
Our studies attempt to improve our understanding
of the structural setting, the onshore distribution of
gas seeps/vents and mud volcanoes in comparison with
the offshore occurrences discovered during the
SONNE cruise SO 130. A key element in our efforts
is to establish the relative contributions of the dissoci-
ation of gas hydrates (Delisle and Berner, unpublished
data; von Rad et al. 2000) and of the in situ produc-
tion by bacterial action in shallow- and deep-water
sediments to the provenance of gas-charged fluids
emerging from the sea floor and through the off- and
onshore mud volcano structures.
Geological and tectonic setting
The Pakistan part of the Makran coast is 600 km long
and extends from the Dasht River (west of Gwadar)
to the Hab River west of Karachi. Perennial streams
in the coastal Makran include the Dasht, Basul and
Hingol Rivers. Most other streams are ephemeral and
fail to reach the sea. The Makran coast (Fig. 1a) is
affected by spectacular tectonic uplift (resulting in
uplifted marine terraces up to 450 m above present
sea level), coastal sedimentation and erosion (Snead
1993). Neo-tectonic uplift of 1±2 mm a±1 (Page et al.
1979) results in a seaward migration of the coastline
causing ªupward shallowing sediment sequencesº (re-
gression), as well as in rapid erosion and destruction
of the soft semiconsolidated coastal sediments of the
east/west-trending ridges.
Due to active subduction, the Makran is also char-
acterized by moderate shallow-depth seismic activity.
Two severe earthquakes have occurred during the past
60 years. One earthquake on 27 November 1945 of
magnitude 8.25 (Gutenberg and Richter 1954) gener-
ated a tsunami and caused extrusions from several off-
shore mud volcanoes. The second earthquake with a
magnitude of 7.3 occurred in 1953.
Our area of investigation is characterized by the
Dhak Anticline (Fig. 1b) and (further seaward) by the
Jalpari anticlinal structure (Raza et al. 1990). Mud
vents (e.g. the Chandragup and Jebel-u-Ghurab fields)
are concentrated along anticlinal crestlines. Appar-
ently the top of the Dhak anticlinal structure forms
the outlet for overpressurized mud accumulated in the
core of the structure (Reimann 1989).
Mud volcanoes are abundant in the coastal areas of
Pakistan (Fig. 1a) within the Makran accretionary wedge,
especially in the Haro Range, Chandragup area, near
Ormara and near Gwadar (Hunting Survey 1960).
They were formed by mud extrusion which emerges
from overflows of mud-filled crater lakes. Mud diapir-
ism is a common phenomenon in the rapidly deposited,
poorly consolidated, overpressured shales under the
influence of subduction-related thrusting, faulting, fold-
ing and uplift processes. Release of the pressure is com-
monly provided by fault zones and anticlinal trends of the
folded and faulted Quaternary to Neogene sediments.
Before entering the Arabian Sea, the Hingol River
crosses the tightly folded (and faulted) coastal ranges
of the Makran (Fig. 1b). One unit in this N±S section
was termed ªExtrusive Mud Formationº (Hunting
Survey Report 1960) suggesting that in the past huge
amounts of gas- and water-charged mud were
extruded to the surface, in analogy to circular mud
volcanoes, and emplaced along fault structures (sev-
eral tens of kilometers long) unconformably into the
Parkini Formation of Late Miocene age (Hunting Sur-
vey 1960; Bannert et al. 1992).
The huge circular mud volcanoes, such as the
Khandewari Mud Volcano in the Haro Range (Fig. 1b),
resulted from the outpouring of mud from one or
more central vents. The mud erupting from the vent is
extremely fluid near its source but becomes more vis-
cous as it flows, due to loss of water. Presently, the
cone is built from a series of dried-up flows.
Large quantities of mud were ejected from mud
volcanoes during a short period after the Makran
earthquake of 1945. The results of these eruptions
(Sondhi 1947) included the temporary appearance of
islands off the coast. Offshore gas expulsions and tur-
bid waters were reported, indicating that the venting
activity extended over the Makran continental shelf.
A cursory comparison of the position of the onshore
expulsions and a structural map suggests that the
activity may be confined to strike-slip faults which run
obliquely to the overall E±W tectonic grain. On the
upper continental slope (300- to 800-m water depth)
south of Chandragup and west of Karachi, as well as
southwest of Ormara, multiple gas seeps were identi-
fied by white bacterial mats during the SO 90 and SO
130 expeditions (von Rad et al. 2000).
 95

Fig. 1 a Map of the investi-

gated area with the position of
mud volcanoes on land and at
sea. b Satellite picture
(LANDSAT-MSS scene no.
165±042) of the coastal region
of the eastern Makran desert:
mud volcano fields are posi-
tioned along dashed line, the
main axis of the Dhak Anti-
cline (modified from Bannert
et al. 1992, their Fig. 4)

in 1840 and allow us to follow changes in their mor-

History of the exploration of the Makran mud
volcanoes
Observations on mud volcanoes, in particular Chan-
dragup I and II (Figs. 1a, b, 2, 3), were first described
phology and activity. The first scientific report on the
Makran mud volcanoes by Hart (1840) describes the
Chandragup II mud volcano to possess two separate
craters. One crater was filled with clear water through
which few bubbles rose. The other crater contained
96
Fig. 2 Location map of the Chandragup mud volcanoes
(adapted from Hunting Survey Corporation 1960)
mud, frequently agitated by rising gas. Chandragup I
and III (for location see Fig. 2) were both reported to
have been active. Stiffe's paper on mud volcanoes
(1874) contains for the first time a drawing of the con-
figuration of the Chandragup I mud volcano. Esti-
mates on the height and diameter of the top of Chan-
dragup were given as 300±400 and 100 ft., respectively,
in agreement with estimates from Hart (1840). These
measures are close to the current values (elevation:
100 m; crater diameter: 16.5 m). Because we did not
notice any evidence of erosion on the flanks of Chan-
dragup I, we conclude that the Chandragup mud vol-
cano field has existed in its present form for more
than 160 years. The depth of the mud lake on Chan-
dragup I is given by Stiffe as at least 50±60 ft., which
is in reasonable agreement with our measurement in
1998 (29 m). Vredenburg (1909) mentioned mud vol-
canoes in ªsouthern Mekranº and noted the lack of
elevated temperatures associated with the fluids rising
in the mud volcano and assumed a shallow origin of
the fluids.
A first observation of the association of mud vol-
cano activity and major earthquakes was given by
Skrine (1936), who mentioned that the large Quetta
earthquake on 31 May 1935 (magnitude 7.5) was
immediately followed by massive outpouring of hot
mud from the hitherto dormant Thok mud volcano.
Three aerial photographs of Chandragup I and II
were taken in June 1940 and published by Harrison
(1944). The photographs show both volcanoes similar
to the present shape with evidence of a then active
small mud flow from Chandragup I to the south. The
two craters in Chandragup II must therefore have
coalesced to one crater prior to 1940.
The large earthquake on 28 November 1945 with
magnitude 8.2 offshore Gwadar was associated with
several unusual phenomena (Sondhi 1947). An erup-
tion of a ªlarge volume of gasº producing a fire ball
was observed near Hinglaj during the earthquake. Off-
shore, three new islands emerged, which were built by
the outpouring of gas-rich ªblack mudº. The islands
emerged at approximately the same locations, where
the Hunting Report (1960) mentioned ªthree emerged
islandsº that had appeared in 1935 offshore Makran.
Since no other record appears to be available, one can
only speculate at this point, if this alleged event was
associated with the Quetta earthquake in 1935, or if a
typographical error (1945 vs 1935) had occurred. The
Sondhi report, which does not mention the previous
occurrence of ªnew islandsº, established methane as
the main gas component associated with the emerged
islands. The three islands disappeared within months
due to wave action. A spectacular detail of the new
islands were the so-called frozen waves (Figs. 1 and 2
in Sondhi 1947), which were then explained as a con-
sequence of earth tremors. In our view, the observed
ridge topography might have resulted from different
pulses of mud expulsion from a fracture. Sondhi
(1947) confirms the observation by Vredenburg (1909)
that the active mud volcanoes lie along major fault
zones and noted that the position of the easternmost
island (then called Hingol Island) at 2518'N, 6541'E,
the axis of the Dhak Anticline, the Chandragup volca-
noes and the Khandawari mud volcano (2535'N,
6613'E) line up along a straight line. Aerial photo-
graphs taken on 25 January 1946 of Chandragup I and
the Khandawari mud volcano show evidence of recent
vigorous mud outflow from both craters.
Several descriptions of the mud volcano appeared
in the 1950s which do not show any change in the
shape of Chandragup I and II. Snead (1964) mentions
an increase in activity of Chandragup I and II follow-
ing a small earthquake on 26 September 1956. The
clear water in the crater of Chandragup II was
replaced by mud. The level of the fill had risen by
ª2 ft.º Thrown-out mud was found to have been
ªsplattered approximately 20 ft. upon the side of the
craterº. According to Snead, the now dormant, 30-m-
high mud volcano Chandragup III had erupted in
summer of 1959 and produced mudflows on its flank
which had dried up during his visit in fall. We doubt
this version, as it is difficult to comprehend how mud
could have escaped from a dry crater, which was then
(as at present) approximately 10±15 m deep.

Fig. 3 a Circular mud lake with 16.5 m diameter in crater of
Chandragup I. b Dried up mud flow, approximately 40 m long,
on flank of Chandragup I. c Centre View across the crater lake
of Chandragup II. Crater rim is approximately 10 m high. Chan-
dragup I is seen in background with one active mud flow
97
descending from the top. d Centre Mud volcano ruin with the
approximately 100-m-high Chandragup I in background. e View
across the Jebel-u-Ghurab-volcano field. Distance between mud
flow in foreground to mud volcano in background is approx-
imately 200 m
98
Recent work on Makran mud volcanoes
and associated features
We studied the offshore part of the Makran accretion-
ary wedge during SONNE cruises SO 122/130 by
BGR and investigated the structure and origin of the
accretionary wedge, searched for submarine gas seeps,
vents of fluids and gas hydrates and sampled ªcold
seepº sites at the sea floor and in the water column
(von Rad et al. 2000; Berner et al., unpublished data).
Previously, the tectonic structure of the offshore part
of the active Makran margin had been studied by geo-
physical surveys of the University of Cambridge (e.g.
White 1982, 1983; White and Louden 1983) and by
the BGR, GEOMAR (Kiel, Germany) and the Uni-
versity of Bremen (Roeser et al. 1997; Flüh et al. 1997;
Villinger et al. 1997).
Gas analyses of the water column offshore the
Makran coast in 1993 and 1998 firmly established the
presence of extensive gas plumes of bacterial CH4
which extend several tens of kilometers in N±S direc-
tion in the water column (Berner et al., unpublished
data). The plumes emerge from the sea floor at water
depths of <800 m. The 800-m boundary coincides with
the limit at which gas hydrates can exist under the
P±T conditions prevalent in the Arabian Sea. This
observation led G. Delisle and U. Berner (unpub-
lished data) to postulate that the gas hydrate layer in
the Makran accretionary complex acts as a cap rock
to free gas and fluids which are constantly being
produced by bacterial activity and sediment compac-
tion. This scenario suggests a landward migration of
free gas and fluids which leads to numerous gas seeps
in the shallow waters of the upper slope. The lateral
range of this landward migration is unknown.
Fig. 4 Record of echo-sounder during two passes over major
remnant of Malan Island (A, B) and and over a second remnant
(C, D) to the north (secondary peak E)
Malan Island mud volcano
Malan Island was formed on 15 March 1999 (Tabrez
et al. 1999). Its position at 25 20.1' N; 65 40.5' E
(Fig. 1a), established by a helicopter-based survey
conducted in May 1999, is practically identical with
the position of ªHingol Islandº, which had temporarily
emerged in 1945, as reported by Sondhi (1947). Unlike
in 1945, no earthquake in the region appears to have
triggered the rise of Malan Island. No remnants of
Malan Island were visible during our detailed search
at approximately minimum low tide with the fishing
trawler ªAl Razzakº in November 1999. When the
boat was positioned almost exactly above the given
coordinates, a small ªseamountº with a hummocky
sea-floor surface was detected by the echo-sounder
(Fig. 4). At the same time, we detected a spot with
vigorously rising gas bubbles. Later we made a bathy-
metric survey with a small echo-sounder in the vicinity
of the position of the former Malan Island (Fig. 5).
The measured bathymetry around the island position
was superimposed on the bathymetry map (sheet Phor
Nai to Ras Malan, 1:100,000; 1984) of the area. Fig-
ure 5 shows the bathymetry based on the map sheet
(black lines), the position of Malan Island in May
1999 and the new position of the 10-m water line, as
determined by our survey (stippled line in Fig. 5). The
sea floor around the former island appears now to
have been lowered by 1 or 2 m in comparison with
the former depth level. The development of mud vol-
canoes is commonly associated with the formation of
an area of subsidence (Bagirov and Lerche 1999).
Two elevated ªbanksº rising up to 4 m above the
12 m deep (almost flat) sea floor of the inner Makran
shelf are the only remnants of Malan Island. Figure 4
shows the echo-sounder profile crossing the former
island first in north to south direction (A±B), then in
south-to-north direction (C±E). The main body of the
island was crossed twice (A±B and C±D). The rise at
E is located to the north. It appears that these
elevated subsurface structures are identical with the
main masses of the island, as shown by the satellite
 99

Fig. 5 Bathymetry around

Malan Island: Depth readings
along the echo-sounder pro-
files (black lines) across the
Malan Island position discov-
ered a 2-m-deep depression,
probably formed during
emplacement of island. The
10-m water line was displaced
landward. The hatched area
represents a coastal cliff. Base
map: sheet Phor Nai to Ras
Malan, 1:100,000; 1984

picture of SUPARCO made available by NIO (Fig. 6).

The main mass of the island (A±B) or (C±D) is associ-
ated with the observed point of vigorous gas venting.
This gas seep in the water was sampled for further gas
analysis. In total, five samples (mud, clayey silt, sand
and a hard mudstone fragment were recovered (see
Tables 1, 2 and 3). The samples recovered from the
submerged Malan Island were analysed for their min-
eralogical and element composition, e.g. sample MA
99±1B-C (Tables 1, 2 and 3): MA99±1C is a semicon-
solidated silty claystone with 13% carbonate; MA
99±1B is a moderately sorted, fine sandy, clayey silt
with 16% carbonate, MA 99±1D a moderately sorted,
silty, fine sand with much shell debris (42% CaCO3).
The Malan Island samples taken in March 1999 by the
Pakistan Navy and NIO during the island stage are
mainly moderately sorted clayey silts (median grain
size ca. 10 m) to very fine sandy silty clays with
approximately 20% of detrital calcium carbonate
ªflourº (Tables 1, 2 and 3). They contain mainly
quartz with admixtures of feldspar, chlorite, mica-illite
and traces of pyrite.

Fig. 6 Satellite picture (SUPARCO) of Malan Island in April

1999. The main mass refers to sections A±D, the small island
north of it to section E of Fig. 4
100

Table 1 Geochemical composition of mud and rock samples taken at the visited mud volcano locations
Makran On- and Calcium CaCO3 Size Size Dominant Frequent Present Traces
offshore carbonate
free ca. % % >32 m % <32 m component component

MA 33 Hingol River TOC- and 24 14.9 85.1 q fs, chl, m-i

(30 cm +) CaCO3 free
MA 34 Hingol River TOC- and 19 11.3 98.7 q fs, chl, m-i
(100 cm +) CaCO3 free
MA 99±1C Malan Island 13% CaCO3; 13 q ca fs, chl, m-i m-i, do
calcium free
MA 99±1B Malan Island Sediment 16 15.2 84.8 q fs chl, m-i
MA 99±1D Malan Island Shelly sand 42 39.6 60.4 q fs m-i, chl
MA 99±4C Chandragup I TOC- and 22 10.7 89.3 q fs, chl, m-i
CaCO3 free
MA 99±8 Jebel-u-Ghurab TOC- and 19 24.9 75.1 q fs, chl, m-i
(MV I) CaCO3 free
MA 99±11B Parkini 11% CaCO3, 11 q ca fs, chl, m-i do
mudstone calcium free
MA 99±12 Malan Island 21 q fs, chl, m-i py
(NIO 2)
MA 99±13 Malan Island 47 q fs, py chl, m-i
(NIO 5)
MA 99±14 Malan Island 21 q fs, chl, m-i py
(NIO 6)

We determined the base of the mud-filled crater

Chandragup mud volcanoes
Four prominent mud volcanoes are located approx-
imately 5-km landwards of the coast at 2529.9'N,
6552.4'E (Fig. 1a, b). Two of them (Chandragup I
and II) are active (Fig. 3c centre), two extinct (Chan-
dragup III, and a largely eroded mud volcano ruin;
Fig. 3d centre). Only the core at the base of the
former volcano is preserved. The shape of Chan-
dragup III is largely left intact with a complete,
approximately 15-m deep, but dry crater depression in
the centre and flanks with few signs of recent erosion.
The present elevation of Chandragup I (Fig. 3c, d
centre) above the sabkha plain of the Dhak Desert is
approximately 100 m. Its body is entirely made up of
a sequence of mud flows that were periodically
extruded from overflow of the mud lake contained in
the circular caldera with a diameter of currently
16.5-m diameter. The slope of the volcano is approx-
imately 25, and the diameter of its base is approx-
imately 450 m.
The elevation of Chandragup II is approximately
50 m. Its caldera (Fig. 3c centre) contains a lake with
salt water. Large bubbles of methane gas rise continu-
ously through the water body to the surface. On its
flank, we observed a tiny spring with fluidized mud
feeding a mud creek.
Chandragup I
Measurements on the bathymetry, the mud flow rate
and the temperature field of the mud lake in Chan-
dragup I were carried out, the latter measurement
twice on 5 May 1998 and on 27 November 1999.
lake by lowering a 5-kg weight, until no further verti-
cal movement in the highly viscous mud fluid was
observed. Three profiles across the lake were carried
out (Fig. 7). Unexpectedly, the deepest portion of the
mud lake is not located at the centre, but under the
northern rim of the lake, where methane bubbles ris-
ing through the mud to the surface were observed.
The outline of the deepest part of the mud lake is of
ellipsoidal shape, apparently terminating into a N/S-
oriented, active fracture system off-centre near the
northern rim of the crater (Fig. 7). This geometry
points to the possibility of an eventual outbreak of
fluidized mud at the northern flank of the volcano
destabilizing the northern portion of the crater rim.
During 6 May 1998 we observed the early phase of
a slow outflow of muddy water over the crater rim at
the eastern flank of Chandragup I. The areal extent of
the mudflow had become considerably larger on the
following day and extended to near the base of the
volcano. The cross section of the breach of the crater
rim (11 cm wide, 9 cm high) was measured and the
outflow velocity of the mud determined as 4 cm s±1.
We calculate the mud discharge rate during this
period as 1.43 m3 h±1.
No overflow occurred during our visit in 1999, and
only one dried-up small mud flow was observed on
the southwestern flank (Fig. 3b). During both visits,
approximately equal amounts of gas bubbles rose
from the mud lake.
Temperature measurements were carried out in the
mud lake along two profiles in 1998 and in 1999
(Fig. 8) with commercially available thermistor sys-
tems (accuracy of measurement: 0.05 K). The
ambient air temperature during the measurements in
1998 was 28.1 C. The temperature measurements in
Table 2 Mineralogical composition of mud and rock samples taken at the visited mud volcano locations
SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO Na2O K2O P2O5 Ba Cr Ni Rb V Zr Ti Al K/Al K Ti/Al Zr/Al Rb/Al
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (%) (ppm) (%) (%) (%) *100 *1000 *1000

MA 33 Hingol 66.86 0.99 15.74 4.65 0.03 2.17 1.24 2.95 0.07 327 190 161 116 125 270 0.6 8.3 0.3 2.4 7.2 3.2 1.4
River(30cm+)
MA 33 Hingol River 66.86 0.99 15.74 4.65 0.03 2.17 1.24 2.95 0.07 327 190 161 116 125 270 0.6 8.3 0.3 2.4 7.2 3.2 1.4
(30 cm +)
MA 34 Hingol River 64.14 0.91 16.01 6.59 0.03 2.84 1.27 2.62 0.08 304 180 100 194 134 175 0.5 8.5 0.3 2.2 6.4 2.1 1.1
(100 cm +)
MA 99±1C Malan Island 57.74 0.88 16.76 7.31 0.08 3.91 1.41 2.98 0.21 287 185 113 195 168 163 0.5 8.9 0.3 2.5 6.0 1.8 1.1
MA 99±1B Malan Island 65.72 0.94 16.46 4.51 0.02 2.62 1.27 3.16 0.05 302 186 169 128 146 191 0.6 8.7 0.3 2.6 6.4 2.2 1.5
MA 99±1D Malan Island 69.81 1.00 15.34 2.34 0.01 1.57 1.26 3.19 0.04 326 163 124 124 129 186 0.6 8.1 0.3 2.7 7.4 2.3 1.5
MA 99±4C Chandragup I 63.21 0.95 17.33 5.51 0.03 2.84 1.07 2.83 0.07 307 192 187 152 150 176 0.6 9.2 0.3 2.4 6.2 1.9 0.6
MA 99±8 Jebel-u-Ghurab 58.00 0.96 18.53 7.35 0.04 3.69 0.85 3.39 0.11 737 202 115 135 174 164 0.6 9.8 0.3 2.8 5.9 1.7 1.4
(MV I)
MA 99±11B Parkini Mudst. 57.34 0.83 17.08 7.04 0.08 4.17 2.37 2.86 0.19 297 186 160 190 142 153 0.5 9.0 0.3 2.4 5.5 1.7 1.0
MA 99±12 Malan Island 64.10 0.89 15.07 4.32 0.03 2.31 1.17 2.83 0.04 280 162 121 198 137 177 0.5 8.0 0.3 2.4 6.7 2.2 1.2
(NIO 2)
MA 99±13 Malan Island 69.41 0.84 12.40 5.11 0.02 1.54 1.33 2.36 0.04 250 169 138 179 109 218 0.5 6.6 0.3 2.0 7.7 3.3 1.2
(NIO 5)
MA 99±14 Malan Island 62.98 0.85 14.6 4.15 0.03 2.38 1.33 2.8 0.05 270 170 161 105 143 174 0.5 7.7 0.3 2.3 6.6 2.3 1.4
(NIO 6)

Table 3 Smear slide optical investigation of mud and rock samples taken at the visited mud volcano locations. No pteropod fragments, radiolarian diatoms or diatoms were
found at any of these stations
Sample Location Sorting Grain size Quartz Feld- Undifferen- Mica Heavies Opaques Car- Planktic Cocco- Mollusc Remarks
no spar tiated clay chlo- pyrite bonate forami- liths frag-
minerals rite ªflourº nifera ments

MA±33 Hingol (30 cm +) Moderate/ Silty clay 35 3 39 5 2 10 2 2 Reworked

River well (Md 4 m) Pleistocene coccoliths
MA±34 Hingol 100 cm + Well Clayey silt 40 2 30 5 2 2 19 T
River (10 m)
MA 99±1B Malan Moderate Fine sandy, 35 4 40 5 15 1 T Up to 100-m
Island clayey silt quartz/clay aggregates
MA 99±1D Malan Moderate Fine sandy, 35 4 40 5 15 1 T
Island clayey silt
MA 99±4C Chandrag- Moderate Clayey silt 35 3 37 3 20 T 2
up I (10 m)
MA 99±8 Jebel-u- M.V. I Well Fine silt 20 5 46 5 19 T 5% brn aggregates, T
Ghurab (Md 10 m) carbonate fragments
MA 99±12 Malan NIO 2 Moderate Clayey silt 30 3 38 5 3 20 1
Island (10 m)
MA 99±13 Malan NIO 5 Moderate Silty, fine sandy, 40 3 14 1 41 2 3
Island clayey silt
MA 99±14 Malan NIO 6 Well Very fine sandy, 30 3 39 5 2 21 T Similar to MA-99±8!
Island silty clay
101
102
Fig. 7 Chandragup I. A Schematic cross section across mud
lake in crater. B Measured bathymetry (May 1998) of mud lake.
Depth readings (black boxes) were taken along three profile
lines (thick lines). All measurements are in meters
1998 demonstrate nearly isothermal conditions (crater
centre) or fluctuating mud temperatures (crater rim)
from the surface down to a depth of 4.5 m followed
by a temperature increase (Fig. 8). The temperature
field in May 1998 was clearly non-stratified and in dis-
equilibrium, apparently due to the injection of mud
with a slightly elevated temperature at depth. The
measurement in 1999 showed a linear increase of the
mud temperature down to 6.5 m and then nearly iso-
thermal conditions below. The temperature curve
below 6.5 m depth can be interpreted as evidence for
a weak density stratification in the mud lake.
The steep temperature gradient within 50 cm of the
lake surface measured in the morning hours of 27
November 1999 is a reflection of the cold temperature
Fig. 8 Measured temperature profiles in mud lake of Chan-
dragup I in May 1998 and November 1999. Note the ~1.6 C
temperature drop in 1999 during a phase of relative inactivity of
the mud volcano
wave of the previous night. The temperature gradient
down to 6.5 m represents cooling of a previously
slightly warmer crater lake fill, possibly associated
with the observed small, already dried up overflow.
The largely isothermal mud fill (27.3 C) below 6.5 m
depth is interpreted as evidence of a longer period of
quiescence of the mud volcano.
We note a clear difference of approximately
>0.5±1.7 C in mud temperatures between 1998 and
1999. The measured mud discharge rate of 1.4 m3 mud
in 1998 allows a quantitative assessment, if this tem-
perature difference can be explained by heat transport
of extruding mud. A numerical analysis of heat trans-
port in a pipe (see e.g. Bodvarsson et al. 1974) was
carried out for the boundary conditions given in
Table 4. A discharge rate of 1.4 m3 will result at the
Table 4 Base parameters for numerical calculation of theoreti-
cal temperature increase in mud lake of Chandragup during a
short-term eruption
Regional heat flow density 40 mW m±2
Length of conduit 500 m, alternatively 2000 m
Conduit cross section 0.3 ” 0.3 m
Thermal conductivity of mud 1.7 W m±1 K±1
 103

Fig. 9 Calculated temperature

increase as function of time
5 m below surface of mud
lake assuming an expulsion
rate of 1.4 m3 h±1 and a pipe
cross section of 900 cm2

top of the pipe (here, 5 m below the surface of mud
lake) in a rapid temperature increase of 1.6 C within
40 min after discharge initiation (Fig. 9). The temper-
ature will further increase at a rate of 0.02 K per
10 min. The quasi-stationary temperature increase of
1.6 C is in close agreement with the measured values
in 1998. The short-term temperature increase in the
mud lake is practically independent of the considered
pipe length (here taken as 500 or 2000 m). However,
with a given discharge rate, the temperature increase
is largely dependent on the assumed size of the pipe.
The larger the pipe size is, the smaller is the temper-
ature increase, and vice versa. The numerical analysis
assumed that pipe cross section of 900 cm2 is approx-
imately equivalent in surface area to a fissure with a
cross section of 2 cm”4.5 m. This appears reasonable
considering the termination of the mud lake at 29 m
depth into a fissure approximately 5 m long (see
Fig. 7).
Composition of investigated sediment and gas samples
The mud slurry samples taken from the Chandragup I
crater lake contain moderately sorted clayey silt (with
a median of 10 m) with 22% calcium carbonate (de-
trital ªcarbonate flourº), 20% quartz, 3% feldspar,
37% chlorite/mica-illite, and trace amounts of benthic
and planktic foraminifera, coccoliths and mollusk frag-
ments (Tables 1, 2 and 3). The foraminifera and coc-
coliths were derived from the source sediments feed-
ing the extrusive mud diapirism deep below the mud
volcano. It is questionable as to whether they were
deposited in situ in the source sediments or reworked
from older (Cretaceous to Paleogene) sedimentary
source rocks exposed nearby and re-deposited into
younger (Neogene) mudstones which formed the
source material for the over-pressured mud extrusions
(see below).
According to Eickhoff (pers. commun.), the C iso-
topes of the gases from Chandragup (analysed in
1989) suggest an origin from bacterial (biogenic) gas.
Gas samples taken in May 1997 indicated high meth-
ane contents, apparently of biogenic (bacterial) origin
with a d13C content of ±63½. The samples taken in
1999 (MA99±4A,B) had similar d13C values of approx-
imately ±57½ (Table 5).
The samples taken from the Jebel-u-Ghurab mud
volcano field had almost identical contents of d 13C
(±58 to ±61½) suggesting a similar origin and source
as the Chandragup gases (Table 5).
A detailed analysis is available for the gas sample
taken from the water column of the offshore Malan
Island gas seep (MA 99±1; Table 5): the sample con-
tained 97.6% methane, 3296 ppm ethane, 1023 ppm
propane and 385 ppm butane with d 13C values of
methane being ±59.4½ and d 13C values of ethane
being ±30½. All data point to microbiologically gener-

Table 5 Gas analyses from Malan Island and all known mud volcanoes in the Chandragup- and Jebel-u-Ghurab area
LIMS Sample Locality Sub-locality/ CH4 C2H6 ppm C3H8 ppm i-Butan ppm n-Butan ppm
no. sample type vol.% (vol.%) (vol.%) (vol.%) (vol.%)

9936654 MA 99±1 Malan Island Gas bubbles in seawater 97.6 3296.5 1023.4 385.0 53.4
9936655 MA 99±4A Chandragup I Gas from mud volcano 95.3 1509.8 1173.3 126.5 10.0
9936656 MA 99±4B Chandragup I Gas from mud volcano 97.5 1703.3 1118.4 110.0 10.0
9936657 MA 99±5 Jebel-u-Gurab Mud Volcano IV 90.2 1529.9 1148.9 167.9 54.5
9936658 MA 99±6A Jebel-u-Gurab Mud Volcano I 96.8 1167.9 1110.0 110.0 19.6
9936660 MA 99±7A Jebel-u-Gurab Mud Volcano II 96.4 1133.1 1110.0 110.0 14.0
9936661 MA 99±7B Jebel-u-Gurab Mud Volcano II 97.5 1158.7 1114.7 110.0 11.4
104

ated bacterial methane, excluding a thermogenic
origin.
Source level of gas-charged mud inferred
from micropaleontological studies
Although all accumulations of extrusive mud in the
Makran appear to be relatively young (Quaternary)
and closely connected with active orogenic structures,
the mud from Chandragup I contains erupted pieces
of consolidated rock and an excellently preserved
foraminiferal assemblage, mixed from different hori-
zons and source areas. According to von Daniels (un-
published NLfB Report; see also Reimann 1989) the
mud contains a four-component fauna (Table 6) con-
sisting of: (a) Late Paleocene/Early Eocene planktonic
foraminifera, probably reworked and eroded from the
hinterland (Fauna C); (b) ?Miocene planktonic fora-
minifera (Fauna B), apparently from deeper horizons
of shales (deep shelf/slope environment); (c) a deep
shelf/slope benthic foraminiferal assemblage from
overpressurized shale from the deep subsurface; and
(d) a shallow-shelf benthic foraminiferal association
from higher overlying strata (?Ormara Formation; see
Table 6). The two benthic foraminiferal associations
could indicate (a) the deeper, overpressurized mud
source level of former deep shelf to slope depositional
environment, whereas (b) the shallow-water associa-
tion comes probably from overlying younger strata.
H. Andruleit (unpublished data) studied samples
from four mud volcanoes (Chandragup, Jebel-u-Ghu-
rab, Ormara and Gwadar) for their content of calcare-
ous nannoplankton (Table 7). All samples contained
calcareous nannoplankton in moderate to good preser-
vation. Similar to the foraminiferal results, the results
prove that the extruded mud contains mixed nannoflo-
ras with ages ranging from Early Cretaceous to
Recent, i.e. originating from stratigraphic levels deep
below the surface mud volcano structures. The cocco-
liths belong to five stratigraphic horizons (Table 7):
Assemblage A is of Pleistocene to Recent age; Assem-
blage B of Neogene (Miocene to Pliocene) age;
Assemblage C of Paleocene±Oligocene age; Assem-
blage D of Late Cretaceous; and Assemblage E of
Early Cretaceous age. Several samples straddle two
stratigraphic age assignments (e.g. A/B, B/C and
D/E).
Chandragup II
The top of the structure is made up of two inter-
twined circular craters, probably the result of a flank
rupture and formation of a new mud volcano, where
the breach had occurred. The crater encloses a lake

Table 6 Foraminiferal fauna of rock fragments erupted from Chandragup I (modified from von Daniels in Reimann 1989). A abun-
dant; C common; F frequent; R rare; VR very rare
Species Foraminifera Age Stratigraphy Faunaa Environment
type (assemblage)

Globigerinoides trilobus (F) Planktic Not older than Miocene B

Globigerinoides extremus (R) Planktic Not older than Miocene B
Globoturborotalita sp (R) Planktic Not older than Miocene B
Ammonia ex gr. beccarii (F) Benthic ?B Shallow shelf
Pseudorotalia aff. schroeteriana (R) Benthic ?B Shallow shelf
Bolivian striatula (R) Benthic ?B Shallow shelf
Nonion aff. boueanum Benthic ?B Shallow shelf
Nonion tassonyi (VR) Benthic ?B Shallow shelf
Hanzawaia hughesi (R) Benthic ?B Shallow shelf
Cibicides sp. (F) Benthic ?B Shallow shelf
Heterolepa dutemplei (VR) Benthic ?B Shallow shelf
Elphidium sp. (R) Benthic ?B Shallow shelf
Cancris auriculus (R) Benthic ?B Shallow shelf
Cassidulina laevigata (R) Benthic ?B Shallow shelf
Morozovella acuta (F) Planktic P4-P7 Lt.Paleocene/E.Eocene C
Morozovella edgari (C) Planktic P5-P7 Lt.Paleocene/E.Eocene C
Morozovella velascoensis (R) Planktic P4-P6 Lt.Paleocene/E.Eocene C
Morzovella subbotinae (R) Planktic P6-P8 Lt.Paleocene/E.Eocene C
Planorotalites pseudomenardii (R) Planktic P7-P15 Lt.Paleocene/E.Eocene C
Pseudohastigerina wilcoxensis (F) Planktic P7-P11 Lt.Paleocene/E.Eocene C
Subbotina hornibrooki (R) Planktic P5-P10 Lt.Paleocene/E.Eocene C
Subbotina ex gr. linaperta (F) Planktic P4-P20 Lt.Paleocene/E.Eocene C
Bolivina mekranensis (F) Benthic ?C Deep shelf/slope
Bulimina cf. inflata (VR) Benthic ?C Deep shelf/slope
Globobulimina cf. pyrula (VR) Benthic ?C Deep shelf/slope
Dentalina cf. perprocera (VR) Benthic ?C Deep shelf/slope
Nodosaria aff. setosa (VR) Benthic ?C Deep shelf/slope
Globocassidulina aff. subglobosa (VR) Benthic ?C Deep shelf/slope
Uvigerina probiscidea (R) Benthic ?C Deep shelf/slope
a
Approximate biostratigraphic age: B=Mio- to Pliocene; C=Paleogene
 105

Table 7 Coccoliths from mud volcanoes (modified from H. Andruleit, unpublished data)
Coccoliths species From mud volcanoes Assem- Chandragup I Jebel-u-Ghurab Jebel-u-Ghurab
stratigraphy blagea (MA-2) (MA 30A) (MA 31)

Gephyrocapsa oceanica Pleistocene Recent (NN19±21) A X X

Small Gephyrocapsaca Pliocene Recent A/B X
Helicoshaera sellii Miocene±Pleistocene (NN12±19) A/B X X
Discoaster calcaris Miocene (NN 9±11) B X
Discoaster musicus Miocene (NN 5) B X X
Catinaster coalitus Miocene (NN8±10) B X X
Discoaster quinqueramus Miocene (NN11) B X
Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilicus Miocene±Pliocene (NN4±15) B X X
Sphenolithus belemnos Miocene (NN3) B X
Cyclicargolithus floridanus Paleogene±Miocene B/C X X X
Cyclicargolithus abiesectus Palaegene to Miocene (NN1) B/C X
Discoaster cf. deflandrei Paleogene±Miocene B/C X
Cruciplacolithus tenuis Paleocene (NP2±9) C X
Sphenolithus radians Eocene C X X
Spenolithus tribulosus Oligocene C
Sphenolithus akropodus Oligocene (NP 22±23) C X
Spenolithus conicus Oligocene±Miocene C X
Dictococcites bisectus Eocene±Oligocene (NP15/16-NP15) C X X
Discoaster barbadiensis Eocene (NP12±20) C X X X
Helicosphaera salebrosa Eocene±Oligocene C X
Lithastrinus grillii Coniacian±Campanian D X
Micula decussata Coniacian±Campanian D X X X
Micula mura Maastrichtian D X X
Plagozygus fibuliformis Campanian±Maastrichtian D X
Prinsius bisulcus Campanian±Maastrichtian D X
Cibrosphaerella ehrenbergii Albian±Maastrichtian D X
Ceratholithoides kampteri Maastrichtian D X
Prediscosphara cretacea Cenomanian±Maastrichtian D X
Corolithion kennedyi Cenomanian D X
Manivitella pemmatoidea Tithonian±Maastrichtian D/E X
Retecapsa crenulata ?Berriasian±Maastrichtian D/E X X
Cyclagelosphara deflandrei Tithonian±Maastrichtian D/E X
Rotelapillus sp. Tithonian±Maastrichtian D/E X
Watznaueria britannica Bajocian±?Coniacian D/E X
Cruciellipsus cuvillieri Berriasian±Hauterivian E X X
a
Approximate biostratigraphic age: A=Quaternary; B=Mio- to Pliocene; C=Paleogene; D=Late Cretaceous; E=Early Cretaceous

with a salt-water concentration of 50 g l±1 within its
approximately 10-m-high, nearly vertical walls (Fig. 3c).
The surface water is of greenish colour (caused by
algal blooms). Near the centre of the lake, we
observed a continuous discharge of methane gas. The
main constituents of the gas bubbles are methane
(91.5%), nitrogen (6.4%), oxygen (1.8%) and CO2
(0.21%).
One interesting aspect of the Chandragup II vol-
cano is the occurrence of a mud spring on the flank of
the volcano, for the first time observed in 1959 and
reported by Snead (1964). It is situated at or slightly
below the crater lake level and is of the same muddy
bluish-grey colour as agitated water near large gas
bubbles rising through the water surface.
Mud volcano field north of Jebel-u-Ghurab
The Jebel-u-Ghurab mud volcano field (Fig. 3e,) is
located 11 km west±southwest of the Sapat Bandar
Coast Guard Station and 1.5 km north of Jebel-u-
Ghurab (Reimann 1989). The mud volcano field lies
in the absolutely flat Dhak Desert (formed by playa-
like former lake sediments), approximately 1 km west
of the end of the Dhak Anticline. We suggest that the
location in the extension of the centre of this anticline
might be the tectonic reason for concentrating the gas
near the crestline. This spectacular field of small mud
volcanoes shows in small-scale detail most of the proc-
esses of active and inactive mud volcanism, observed
in much larger scale in the Chandragup area.
The field of active mud volcanoes consists of one
comparatively large mound (I; 8-m elevation, 50-m cir-
cumference; Fig. 10), one smaller structure (II;
approximately 5 m high, 30-m circumference), one
small volcano (III; 1.5-m elevation), one small volcano
(IV; 2-m elevation, 5-m circumference) and several
very small ªmud moundsº (~1-m elevation), some of
them extinct, some of them water filled (as II). We
measured water/mud samples from mud volcanoes I,
II and IV (Fig. 10; Table 5).
Mud volcano I is a hummocky hill (with a compar-
atively flat top). The surface is covered by approx-
imately 30 small mini-craters, including three larger
ones, all with vents bubbling of gas discharge and
106
Fig. 10 Position of mud volcanoes of the Jebel-u-Ghurab mud
volcano field
minor outflow of mud. Mud volcano I shows also the
stratification of successive mudflows which have built
up this mud volcano. The mud from a mini-crater lake
is similar to that from Chandragup (Tables 1, 2 and
3): well-sorted fine silt (median ca. 10 m) with 19%
calcium carbonate (detrital calcite ªflourº and cocco-
liths).
Mud volcano II shows lateral slumps (overstee-
pened mudflows), fans of mudflows onto the adjacent
playa-like plain, and on top two subcircular, water and
mud-filled craters approximately 1 m in diameter.
Mud volcano III contains an upper inactive (water
filled) crater, and a lower active, mud-filled crater.
Genetic sequence and source of mud volcanoes
The appearance of Chandragup II would be equiv-
alent to the extinct mud volcano Chandragup III, had
the salt water lake of Chandragup II dried up. This
suggests the following genetic sequence of mud vol-
cano evolution: most likely, the main body of mud
volcanoes is emplaced during a violent eruption (stage
1 in Fig. 11). The flows, which generated the main
mass of Chandragup I and III, which are well exposed
at the foot of the volcanoes, are ropy-shaped and
metre thick. They differ in size substantially from the
present mud flows which produce only centimetre-
thick layers. These mud flows disintegrate quickly into
dried-up mud fragments (Fig. 3) which are then
eroded away by wind and during episodic rain falls. In
our opinion, the upbuilding and outbuilding of Chan-
dragup I is entirely due to the former metre-thick
flows, indicative of one or several massive early extru-
sion events. This argument rests on two facts: (a)
descriptions on the shape of the volcano contained in
the literature since 1840 do not differ from the present
shape; (b) recent mud flow activity has not been
observed to contribute to the outbuilding of the vol-
cano to any extent, since the thin mud flow deposits
are prone to rapid erosion or deflation.
Chandragup I and Chandragup II represent mud
volcanoes in their mature stage (stage 2 in Fig. 11).
Erosion on flanks of dormant mud volcanoes (Chan-
dragup III) is apparently slow. Extinct mud volcanoes
are eventually eroded away during heavy monsoonal
rains, whereby hardened walls of dried up mud in
mud volcano ruins offer the greatest resistance to
destruction (stage 3 in Fig. 11).
Figure 2 shows a circular structure around Chan-
dragup III, which we tentatively interpret as the out-
line of the former maximum diameter of the volcano.
In the field, this structure is evident as a <1-m-high
embankment of poorly sorted sand mixed with poorly
consolidated blocks of clay. Figure 2 shows also that
Chandragup I and II are partially surrounded by such
an embankment. If this interpretation is correct, this
would point to the existence of an earlier larger
mud volcano complex which was completely eroded
away and later replaced by the two present mud
volcanoes. This interpretation suggests a cycle of vio-
lent mud emplacement, followed by a long period of
low-level discharge and, finally, erosive decay of mud
volcanoes.
The volcanoes tap different sources at depth. The
highly viscous mud of Chandragup I differs noticeably
from the discharged water-rich slurry of Chandragup
II, only approximately 1 km away. The fluid pressures
in the conduits of both volcanoes rise well above the
regional groundwater table as demonstrated by the
elevation of the crater lakes (100 vs 30 m above the
sabkha plain of the Dhak Desert). Nevertheless, the
pressure levels differ by approximately 7 bar, indicat-
ing again different in situ pressure conditions in their
source regions of the rising fluids. The muddy waters
of Chandragup II must connect to a groundwater zone
at moderate geo-pressure which is penetrated by the
more overpressured and much more viscous mud of
Chandragup I.
Part of the nannofloras, found in the extruded
mud, contain coccoliths which were reworked from
older (Cretaceous to Paleogene) source rocks during
sedimentation, i.e. they are not age-diagnostic for the
host sediments. However, we suggest that at least the
Neogene strata were actually penetrated by the mud-
diapiric extrusion process. This suggests that the con-
duits or chimneys for the mud volcanoes reach poten-
tially to a deep stratigraphic level (>2±3 km depth),
into the Miocene Parkini Formation within the core of
the Dhak Anticline (Fig. 12a, b). This is shown by the
N±S profile across Chandragup to the offshore Jalpari
well, modified after Raza et al. (1990). These authors
report for the Dhak-1 and Dhak-2 drill holes hydro-
static pressures at the depth level of 1.4 km and a rise

Fig. 11 Suggested evolutionary stages of on- and offshore mud
volcanoes
to ªmoderate geopressuresº at depth levels of
>2.3 km. This observation defines the minimum depth
of the source regions for the gas-charged fluids. This
is also supported by the study of the ages and
stratigraphic level of the mixed nannofloras and
benthic foraminiferal faunas contained in the extruded
mud.
Comparison of Chandragup with Azerbaijan mud
volcanoes
A comparison of the properties of the mud volcanoes
of the Makran with mud volcanoes of the Gobustan
region of Azerbaijan (Hovland et al. 1997) suggests
striking similarities: both areas were rapidly uplifted
(61 km uplift) and folded during the Quaternary.
Mud diapirs are frequently formed in the cores or
flanks of anticlines. For both areas the source area of
the discharge mechanism, the buoyancy of the gas-
charged mud is suspected to rest at a depth of approx-
imately 2±3 km. Also common for both occurrences
107
are the separation of the rising gas-charged mud into
separate fractions with widely different viscosities
which rise through different conduits at varying dis-
charge rates to the surface resulting in surface features
ranging from highly viscous mud pools, as compared
with springs of muddy and gas-rich waters.
However, unlike the onshore volcanoes in the Mak-
ran, the mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan have a history
of periodic (every 6±32 years) major eruptions. In the
case of Chandragup I, the mud discharge during the
past 160 years was characterized by an uninterrupted
low-level activity. Other onshore mud volcanoes of
the region show no evidence of recent major activity.
We do not know if the offshore mud volcano of
Malan Island erupts periodically. Its first recorded
eruption in 1945 was associated with strong earth-
quake activity, whereas the second eruption in 1999
was not connected to any seismic event.
The apparently periodic strong gas emission from
Chandragup II (up to 1 m3 s±1) into the atmosphere
contrasts strongly with the reported estimate of an
annual discharge rate of only >800 m3 by the Dashgil
mud volcano/Azerbaijan (Hovland et al. 1997). Pos-
sibly, the gas loss of the Makran mud volcanoes is too
effective to allow for a periodic build-up of overpres-
sures at depth to cause periodic major eruptions.
108
Fig. 12 a Idealized stratigraphic and structural N±S cross section
perpendicular to main axis of Dhak Anticline. Modified from
Raza et al. (1990, their Fig. 4). b Idealized stratigraphy at Chan-
dragup mud volcano location
The ªExtrusive Mud Formationº
Previous authors (Hunting Survey 1960; Bannert et al.
1992) suggested that huge amounts of gas- and water
charged mud, in analogy to circular mud volcanoes,
had been extruded unconformably into the Parkini
Formation of Late Miocene age over distances of tens
of kilometers along fault structures. This would
increase the total amount of mud extruded from
depth, as calculated from localized mud volcano cen-
tres, by several orders of magnitude. If this interpreta-
tion were true, the Parkini mudstone would be com-
pletely structureless and chaotic (i.e. without any
bedding structures), since the muds originated by
intrusive or extrusive mud diapirism. Superficially, the
pitted karst relief of the soft mudstones (ªbadlands
topographyº) looks indeed very similar to the surface
appearance of unequivocal mud volcano structures.
However, we observed that the massive mudstones of
the ªParkini Formationº are locally interbedded with
very thin siltstone layers, indicating the vertical bed-
ding plane of the massive mudstones. Also the contact
of the mudstone sequence (called ªExtrusive Mud
Formationº by Hunting Survey) with units of the Par-
kini Formation show clear evidence that the contact is
of sedimentary origin. Therefore, we doubt that such a
massive outpouring of mud had indeed occurred and
suggest that the term ªExtrusive Mud Formationº,
which is in fact part of the Parkini Formation, should
be abandoned.
Conclusion
Apparently, the mud volcanoes in the Makran desert
have existed for several centuries without major
changes in their shape and activity. Their origin
appears to be closely connected either to major earth-
quakes, which result in violent outpouring of mud
along fracture zones, or with some other process in
the subsurface which leads to gas-driven outflow of
mud. A likely candidate for the latter case is the vio-
lent gas discharge from a supersaturated fluid, trig-
gered by a minor disruption (for comparison, see the
gas eruption of Lake Nyos/Cameroon in 1986; Tietze
1992).
After the rapid initial build-up of the Chandragup
mud volcanoes no or only minimal up- or outbuilding
took place. The present mud and gas discharge rate is

closely related to fluid generation by sediment com-
paction and gas generation or advection in the source
regions at depth from which at an earlier stage mud
and gas had broken through to the surface in one or
several violent episodes with much greater force and
with greater discharge rates than at present.
The reported observation of increased gas dis-
charge during monsoon periods points to a now effec-
tive connection between the pressure level of shallow
groundwater and deeper aquifers. Local heavy rains
may produce pressure fluctuations in aquifers which in
turn might trigger dissolution of gas, followed by rapid
discharge.
Our evidence points to continuous and episodically
enhanced eruptions of gas-charged fluidized mud
through mud volcanoes on land. The escaping gases
are predominantly composed of methane of bacterial
origin.
The gas discharge rates from depth are high in
comparison with other mud volcano regions of the
world and possibly too high to allow the build-up of
significant overpressures at depth which would result
in periodic major eruptions, as described from other
large mud volcano fields (e.g. Azerbaijan).
The temperature distribution in the mud lake of
Chandragup I indicates that it is weakly stratified. The
mud temperatures in the lake react rapidly to new
eruption phases and fall back to ambient temperatures
during phases of decreased activity.
Apparently, there are different source levels of the
rising mud. Based on considerations of the required
overpressures, a minimum depth of 2.3 km is sug-
gested for the mud reservoirs from which mud volca-
noes are fed. This is supported by detailed studies of
age- and environment-diagnostic benthic foraminifera
and coccoliths which suggest that the mixed faunas
and floras in the extruded mud were derived from
stratigraphic levels of Quaternary to at least Miocene
age, which, according to seismic data, are located up
to 2±3 km below sea level.
The birth of Malan Island on 15 March 1999 was
followed by a 2-m subsidence of the ocean floor at the
point of emplacement. The compositions of the
extruded mud and gases are comparable to those
observed for mud outflows on land. Wave action dur-
ing the SW monsoon destroyed the island (as previous
mud volcano islands on the shelf) within a few
months. Vigorous gas expulsion was still evident
8 months after creation of the island.
Unresolved issues
The following key questions remain unanswered:
1.1Details of the driving force and the timing of the
venting of fluidized mud are unclear. Undoubtedly,
the tectonic pressures of the accretion process and
the gas concentrations associated with the mud play
an important role.
109
2.1The total amount of gas that has escaped through
time from all onshore mud volcanoes is very diffi-
cult to estimate but obviously substantial.
3.1It is unknown whether or not the bacterial gas ris-
ing from depth is produced in situ or advected by
fluid flow.
Ultimately, the investigation of the structural set-
ting and genetic development of mud volcanoes,
including the distribution and activity of gas vents and
mud volcanoes, the thermal field, the composition and
derivation of the gases, the composition of the ker-
ogens and the maturity of the potential source rocks
require monitoring of gas and mud expulsion over
extensive time periods. Such an undertaking must be
left to a future collaborative science program in the
area.
Acknowledgements The field trips to the Makran and Malan
Island were well organized by NIO, especially by A.R. Tabrez
and A. Inam. We thank S. Amjad, Director General of NIO,
A.R. Tabrez and his colleagues from NIO (A. Ali Khan, M.
Danish and G.M. Memon), and our BGR colleagues (H. Doose-
Rolinski, B. Harazim, A. Lückge, C. Reichert, M. Wiedicke and
M. Zeibig) participating in the field trips, as well as the Officers
of the Pakistan Coast Guard at Aghor for their kind help, guid-
ance and hospitality during the field trips. Our offshore studies
during SONNE cruise SO-130 were funded by the Federal Min-
istry of Education, Science, Research and Technology (BMBF,
Bonn, Berlin; project 03G 0130 A).
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