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THE CYTOPLASM
CYTOPLASM
- cellular material found outside the
nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
- site of most cellular activities
- “factory floor” of the cell
CYTOSOL
- semitransparent fluid that suspends other
elements
- water is mainly dissolved in the cytosol, MITOCHONDRIA
along with other nutrients, and other - depicted as tiny, lozenge-like or sausage
solutes shaped organelles
INCLUSIONS - they lengthen and change shape almost
- chemical substances that may or may not continuously in living cells
be present depending on the specific cell - mitochondrial wall consists of a double
type membrane, equal to 2 plasma
- most are stored nutrients or cell products membranes placed side by side
floating in the cytosol - the outer membrane is smooth and
- include the water droplets common in fat featureless, while the inner membrane
cells, glycogen granules abundant in liver has shelflike protrusions called cristae
and muscle cells, pigments such as - enzymes dissolved in the fluid within th
melanin in skin and hair cells, mucus and mitochondria, as well as membranes
other secretory products, and various enzymes that form part of the cristae
kinds of crystals membranes, carry out the reactions in
- can be thought of as the cellular “pantry” which oxygen is used to break down
where items are kept in hand until foods
needed - as the foods are broken down, energy is
ORGANELLES released-------much of this energy escapes
as heat, but some is captured and used to
ORGANELLES form ATP molecules
- “little organs”
-because the mitochondria supply most f - can be thought of as the cell’s membrane
of this ATP, they are the “powerhouses of factory
the cell” - the proteins made on its ribosomes
- metabolically “busy” cells, such as liver migrate into the rough ER tunnels, where
and muscle cells, use huge amounts of they fold into their functional three-
ATP and have hundreds of mitochondria dimensional shapes
which replicate themselves by pinching in - these proteins are dispatched to other
half areas of the cell in small “sacs” of
- cells that are inactive, like the unfertilized membrane called transport vesicles that
egg, have fewer carry substances around the cell
ATP - abundant in cells that synthesize and
- provides the energy for all cellular work secrete proteins
- every living cell requires a constant supply
ex. Pancreatic cells produce digestive enzymes to be
of ATP for its many activities
delivered to the small intestine. That enzymes that
catalyse the synthesis of membrane lipids reside on
RIBOSOMES
the external (cytoplasmic) face of the rough ER, where
- tiny, bilobed, dark bodies made of
the needed block are readily available.
proteins and one variety of RNA called
ribosomal RNA
- are the actual sites of protein synthesis in
the cell
- ribosomes that float freely in the
cytoplasm manufacture proteins that
function inside the cell, while others
attach to membranes such as the rough
ER, which produces proteins that function
outside the cell
LYSOSOMES CYTOSKELETON
- appear in different sizes - elaborate network of proteins structures
- membranous “bags” containing powerful extending through the cytoplasm
digestive enzymes - act as the cell’s “bones and muscles” by
- these enzymes are capable of digesting furnishing an internal framework that
worn-out or non-usable cell structures determines the cell’s shape
and most foreign substances that enter - supports other organelles
the cell - provides machinery for intracellular
- function as cellular “stomachs” transport and various types of cellular
movements
-made of microfilaments, intermediate CILIA
filaments, microtubules - “eyelashes”
MICROFILAMENTS - whiplike cellular extensions thatmove
- actin and myosin substances along the cell surface
- involved in cell motility and producing
ex. Mucus is carried up and away from the lungs by
changes in cell shape
“crowd surfing” on the ciliated cells lining the
(You could say that cells move when they get their respiratory system
act(in) together. Gikan ni sa book HAHAHAHAHA)
- when cilia appear, many of them project
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS from the exposed cell surface
- strong, stable, ropelike - when a cell is about to make up cilia, its
- made up of fibrous subunits centrioles multiply, then line up beneath
- help form desmosomes, and provide the plasma membrane at the free cell
internal guy wires to resist pulling forces surface
on the cell - microtubules then begin to “sprout” from
MICROTUBULES the centrioles and put pressure on the
- tubelike membrane, forming the projections
- made up of repeating subunits of the FLAGELLA
protein tubulin - projections formed by the centrioles are
- determine the overall shape of a cell and substantially longer
distribution of organelles
- important during cell division ex. Sperm, which has a single propulsive flagellum
called its tail.
MICROVILLI
- “little shaggy hairs”
- tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma
membrane that project from a cell’s
surface
- increase the cell’s surface area
tremendously and so are usually found on
the surface of cells active in absorption
CENTRIOLES
(intestinal and kidney tubule cells)
- collectively called centrosome
- have core of actin filament that extend
- lie close to the nucleus
into the internal cytoskeleton of the cell
- rod-shaped bodies that lie at right angles
and stiffen the microvilli
to each other
- “alcoves” projecting off one cell surface
- internally made up of a pinwheel array of
and do not involve microtubules
nine triplets of fine microtubules
- major function is to generate
microtubules and directing the formation
of the mitotic spindle during cell division
CELL EXTENSIONS
CELL DIVERSITY
FIBROBLAST
- elongated
- has cable-like fibers that it secretes
- abundant rough ER and large Golgi
apparatus to make and secrete protein
building blocks of these fibers
ERYTHROCYTE
- red blood cell
- carries oxygen in the blood
- biconcave disc provides extra surface are
for the uptake of oxygen and streamlines
the cell so it flows easily through the
bloodstream
- so much oxygen-carrying pigement is
present that all other organs have been
shed to make room
EPITHELIAL CELL
- hexagonal shape is exactly like a “cell” in
a honeycomb
- allows epithelial cells to pack together in
sheets
- has abundant intermediate filaments and
desmosomes that resist tearing when the
epithelium is rubbed or pulled
FAT CELL
- huge spherical shape
- produced by a large lipid droplet in its
cytoplasm
NERVE CELL
- neuron
- has long processes (extensions) for
receiving messages and transmitting
them to other structures in the body
- processes are covered with an extensive
plasma membrane, and plentiful rough ER
that synthesizes membrane componens
and signalling molecules called
neurotransmitters
CELLS OF REPRODUCTION
OOCYTE
- female
- largest cell in the body
- contains several copies of organelles for
distribution to the daughter cells that
CELL PHYSIOLOGY
arise when the fertilized egg becomes an
embryo - Each of the cell’s internal parts is
SPERM designed to perform a specific function
- long and streamlined for the cell
- built for swimming to the egg for
fertilization
- flagellum acts as a motile whip to propel
the sperm
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT *HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 3.2
DIFFUSION
- process by which elements and ions move
INTRACELLULAR FLUID
away from areas where they are more
- nucleoplasm and cytosol
concentrated
- solution containing small amounts of
- all molecules possess kinetic energy, and
gases (O2 and CO2), nutrients, and salts
as the molecules move about randomly at
dissolved in water
high speeds, they collide and change
direction with each collision
- molecules move down their
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID OR INTERSTITIAL concentration gradient (spread out)
FLUID - because the driving force (source of
- fluid that continuously bathes the exterior energy) is the kinetic energy of molecules,
of our cells the speed of diffusion is affected by the
- can be thought of as a rich, nutritious, size of molecules and temperature (the
and rather unusual “soup” smaller and warmer, the faster)
- contains nutrients (amino acids, sugars, - the hydrophobic core of the plasma
fatty acids, vitamins), regulatory membrane is a physical barrier to
substances such as hormones and diffusion
neurotransmitters, salts, and waste - molecules will diffuse through the plasma
products membrane if any of the following are
true:
Molecules are small enough to
SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY pass through the membrane’s
- means that a barrier allows some pores (channels by membrane
substances to pass through it while proteins).
excluding others The molecules are lipid-soluble.
- allows nutrients to enter the cell but The molecules are assisted by a
keeps many unnecessary substances out membrane carrier.
- allows valuable cell proteins and other - unassisted diffusion of solutes though the
substances kept within the cell, and plasma membrane is called simple
wastes are allowed to pass out of it diffusion
- solubles transported this way are lipid- - substances that pass into and out of the
soluble (fats, fat-soluble vitamins, oxygen, cells by diffusion save the cell a great deal
carbon dioxide) of energy
FILTRATION
- process by which water and solutes are
forced through a membrane (or capillary
wall) by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
- hydrostatic pressure is usually exerted by
blood
- the gradient is a pressure gradient that
pushes solute-containing fluid (filtrate)
from the higher-pressure area through
the filter to the lower pressure area
- filtration is not very selective
- only blood cells and protein molecules
too large to pass through the membrane
pores are held back
OSMOSIS
- diffusion of water through a selectively ex. Kidneys, water and small solutes filter out of the
permeable membrane capillaries into the kidney tubules because the blood
- because water is highly polar, it is pressure in the capillaries is greater than the fluid
repelled by the (non-polar) lipid core of presseure in the tubules. Part of the filtrate formed in
the plasma membrane this way eventually forms urine.
- water can easily pass through special
pores called aquaporins (“water pores)
made by proteins in the membrane
- osmosis happens all the time as water ACTIVE PROCESSES
moves down its concentration gradient - the cell provides the metabolic energy
- occurs quickly (ATP) that drives the transport process
- anyone admininstering an IV solution - process that uses ATP to move substances
must use the correct solution to protect across the membrane
the patient’s cells from life-threatening - substances moved actively are usually
dehydration or rupture unable to pass in the desired direction by
FACILITATED DIFFUSION diffusion
- provides passage for certain needed - they may be too large to pass through the
substances (glucose) that are both lipid- membrane channels, the membrane may
insoluble and too large to pass through lack special protein carriers for transport,
the membrane pores, or charged (as in they may not be able to dissolve in the fat
the case of chloride ions passing through core, or they may have to move “uphill”
a membrane protein channel) against their concentration gradients
- follows the law of diffusion – substances
move down their concentration gradient ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- a protein membrane protein channel is - active transport sometimes called solute
used, or a membrane protein that acts as pumping
a carrier is needed to move glucose and - similar to facilitated diffusion where both
certain other solutes passively across the processes require protein carriers that
membrane into the cell interact specifically and reversibly with
the substances to be transported across - involves help from ATP to fuse or
the membrane separate membrane vesicles and the cell
- uses ATP to energize protein carriers membrane
called solute pumps - moves substances into or out of cells “in
- amino acids, some sugars, and most ions bulk” without their crossing the plasma
are transported by solute pumps, and in membrane directly
most cases these substances these EXOCYTOSIS
substances move against concentration - “out of the cell”
(or electrical) gradients - mechanism that cells use to actively
SODIUM-POTASSIUM (Na+ -K+) PUMP secrete hormones, mucus, and other cell
- alternately carries sodium ions (NA+) out products or to eject certain cellular
of and potassium ions (K+) into the cell wastes
- necessary for normal transmission of - the product to be released is first
nerve impulses “packaged” (typically by the Golgi
- there more sodium ions outside the cells apparatus) into a secretory vesicle
than inside, so those inside tend to - this vesicle migrate to the plasma
remain in the cell unless the cell uses ATP membrane, fuses with it, and then
to “pump” them out ruptures, spilling its continents out of the
- ATP is split into ATP and Pi (inorganic cell
phosphate), the phosphate is attached to - involves a “docking” process in which
the sodium-potassium pump through docking proteins on the vesicles recognize
phosphorylation plasma membrane and bind with them
- there are more potassium ions inside cells - binding causes the membranes to “cork-
than in the extracellular fluid, and screw” together and fuse
potassium ions that leak out of cells must
be actively pumped back inside
- because each of the pumps in the plasma
membrane transports only specific
substances, active transport provides a
way for the cell to be very selective in
cases where substances cannot pass by
diffusion
VESICULAR TRANSPORT
with lysosome and its content are
digested (by lysosomal enzymes)
- sometimes, the vesicle travels to the
opposite side of the cell and releases its
contents by exocytosis there
PHAGOCYTOSIS
- “cell eating”
- happens when engulfed substances are
relatively large particles (bacteria or dead
body cells), and the cell separates them
from the external environment by
pseudopods
- certain WBC such as the macrophage, act
as scavenger cells that protect the body
by ingesting bacteria and foreign debris
- protective mechanism
PINOCYTOSIS
- “cell drinking”
- the cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular
fluid
- the plasma membrane indents to form a
tiny pit, or “cup”, and then its edges fuse
around the droplet of extracellular fluid
containing dissolved proteins or fats
- routine activity of most cells unlike
phagocytosis
- important for cells that function in
absorption
RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
- main cellular mechanism for taking up
specific target molecules
- receptor proteins on the plasma
membrane bind exclusively with certain
substances
- both receptors and high concentration of
the attached target molecules are
internalized in a vesicle are dealt with
various ways (shown in the picture)
- specific substances taken in through this
process include enzymes, some
ENDOCYTOSIS hormones, cholesterol, and iron
- “into the cell” - flu viruses exploit this route to enter and
- includes those ATP-requiring processes attack our cells
that take up, or engulf, extracellular
substances by enclosing them in a vesicle
- once the vesicle is formed, it detaches
from the plasma membrane and moves to
the cytoplasm, where it typically fuses
- Nucleotides join in a complementary
way: Adenine (A) and Thymine (T),
Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C)
- The order of the nucleotides on the
template determines the order on the
new strand.
CELL DIVISION
INTERPHASE
- aka metabolic phase
- the cell grows and carries on its usual
metabolic activities
- longer phase of the cell cycle
CELL DIVISION
- where the cell reproduces itself
ANAPHASE
- centromeres that have held the chromatids
together split
- chromatids (now called chro-
3 Varieties of RNA:
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- helps form the ribosomes
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
- long, single nucleotide strands that resemble
half of a DNA molecule
- carry the “message” containing instructions
for protein synthesis from the DNA (gene) in
the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- small, cloverleaf-shaped molecules that
escort amino acids to the ribosome
2 Major Phases:
TRANSCRIPTION
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
- involves the transfer of information from the
Fibrous (structural) proteins - major building sequence of bases in a DNA gene into the
materials for cells complementary sequence of mRNA by an
Globular(functional) proteins - perform enzyme
functional roles - DNA is the template for transcription, and
- ex.: enzymes (catalysts that speed up mRNA is the product
chemical reaction) - Triplet (three-base sequence specifying a
particular amino acid); Codons (corresponding
Gene: The Blueprint for Protein Structure three-base sequences on mRNA)
GENE TRANSLATION
- DNA segment that carries the information - the language of nucleic acids (base sequence)
for building one protein is“translated” into the language of proteins
- DNA’s information is encoded in the (amino acid sequence)
sequence - occurs in the cytoplasm and involves three
of bases. Each sequence of three bases (a major varieties of RNA
triplet)
calls for a particular amino acid (building Steps of Protein Synthesis:
blocks of proteins) 1. Transcription
- ex.: a DNA base sequence of AAA specifies
phenylalanine, and CCT calls for glycine 2. Once the mRNA attaches to the ribosome,
- a single gene contains an estimated 300 to tRNA transfers/delivers amino acids to the
3,000 base pairs in sequence ribosome, where they are linked together by
peptide bonds (formed by dehydration synthesis)
The Role of RNA in the exact sequence specified by the gene (and
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) its mRNA).
- decodes DNA and carries instructions for
building proteins to the ribosomes 3. tRNAs have to recognize the mRNA codons to
- differs from DNA in being single-stranded, “double check” that the amino acid they are
in having ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose, toting will be added in the correct order. They can
and in having a uracil (U) base instead of do this because they have a special three-base
thymine (T) sequence called an anticodon on their “head”
that can temporarily bind to the complementary amino acid, and a hydroxyl group (OH) is removed
codons. from the other.
Hallmarks of Epithelium
Remember: The joining of amino acids by the Except for glandular epithelium, epithelial
ribosome into peptide bonds is the result of cells fit closely together to form continuous
dehydration synthesis reactions. To make room for sheets. Neighboring cells are bound
the new peptide bond, water (H2O) must be together at many points by specialized cell
removed. A hydrogen atom is removed from one junctions, including desmosomes and tight
junctions
The classifications byNumber of Layers
the shape of its cells are
the squamous cells (flattened like fish scales
One layer; More than one
(“squam” = scale)), cuboidal cells (cube-
Cell shape layer; stratified
simple cells (like columns)
shaped) and columnar epithelial
epithelial
tissues tissues
Transitional Epithelium
- highly modified, stratified squamous
STRATIFIED EPITHELIA epithelium that forms the lining of the urinary
- consists of 2 or more cell layers bladder, the ureters, and part of the urethra
- function primarily in protection (all of these organs are subject to considerable
stretching)
Stratified Squamous Epithelium - cells of the basal layer are
- most common stratified epithelium cuboidal/columnar; those at the free surface
- usually consists of many cell layers vary in appearance
- cells at the free edge are squamous cells, - when the organ is not stretched, the
whereas those close to the basement membrane is many-layered, and the
membrane are cuboidal or columnar superficial cells are rounded and domelike
- when the organ is distended with urine, the - secretions (all hormones) diffuse directly
epithelium thins like a rubber band being into the blood vessels that weave through
stretched, and the surface cells flatten and the glands
become squamouslike - Ex.: thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary
- has the ability to slide past one another and
change their shape which allows the ureter Exocrine glands
wall to stretch as a greater volume of urine - retain their ducts
flows through it - secretions exit through the ducts to the
- allows more urine to be stored in the bladder epithelial surface
- include the sweat and oil glands, liver, and
pancreas
- both internal and external
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- connects body parts
- found everywhere in the body
- most abundant and widely distributed of the
tissue types
- primarily involved in protecting, supporting, and
binding together other body tissues
- The major differences of its types reflect
specific cell types, fiber types, and the number of
fibers in the matrix.
BLOOD
- vascular tissue
Cardiac Muscle
- consists of blood cells surrounded by blood
- found only in the heart wall
plasma (nonliving, fluid matrix)
- as it contracts, the heart acts as a pump to
- its fibers are soluble proteins that become
propel blood through the blood vessels
visible only during blood clotting
- also has striations, but cardiac cells have
- transport vehicle for the cardiovascular
only a single nucleus and are relatively
system
short,
branching cells that fit tightly together (like
3. MUSCLE TISSUE
clasped fingers) at junctions called
- highly specialized to contract or shorten, which
intercalated discs (contain gap junctions
generates the force required to produce movement
that allow ions to pass freely from cell to
- 3 types:
cell)
Skeletal Muscle
- This ties the cardiac cells into a functional
syncytium (syn = together, cyt = cell),
resulting in rapid conduction of the
electrical signal to contract across the heart
- under involuntary control
4. NERVOUS TISSUE
- neurons → receive and conduct electrochemical
impulses from one part of the body
to another
Smooth Muscle → 2 major functional characteristics:
- no visible striations irritability & conductivity
- cells have a single nucleus & are tapered at → has a unique structure; cytoplasm is
both ends drawn out into long processes
- found in the walls of hollow organs such as (extensions), as long as 3 feet or more
the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels in the leg, which allows a single
- the cavity of an organ constricts when neuron to conduct an impulse to
smooth muscle contracts, or dilates when distant body locations
smooth muscle relaxes, so that substances - neuroglia → insulate, support, and protect the
are mixed and/or propelled delicate neurons in the structures
through the organ along a specific pathway of the nervous system—the brain,
- contracts much more slowly than spinal cord, and nerves
the other two muscle types, and these
contractions tend to last longer
- ex.: Peristalsis → a wavelike motion that
keeps food moving through the small
intestine
TISSUE REPAIR (WOUND HEALING)
- Ex. of body defenses exerted at the tissue level
are intact physical barriers such as the skin and
mucous membranes, cilia, and the strong acid
produced by stomach glands
- Inflammation → a general (nonspecific) body
response that attempts to
prevent further injury
- Immune response → extremely specific and
mounts a vigorous attack
against recognized
invaders, including bacteria,
viruses, and toxins
Homesostatic Imbalance
SCAR TISSUE
- lacks flexibility
- unable to perform the normal functions of
the tissue it replaces
- may severely hamper the the functioning of
the organ where it forms
CONTRACTURE
- permanent tightening of the skin affecting
the underlying tendons or muscles
- develop during the healing process as
inelastic fibrous tissue replaces the normal
elastic connective tissues
- because fibrous tissue resists stretching,
movement of the affected area may be limited