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Economic Organization

The society world has been through several changes, advancements and innovation since the
dawn of the Neolithic stage. Consequently, these changes have greatly affected the social, cultural,
political and most especially economic aspect of societies. Due to various and numerous technological
improvements, the whole economic processes have also been developed. From (2014) argued that
the shift in the technological capacity of societies has allowed for “the formation and extension of
markets, modifications of property relations (such as the change from feudal lord-peasant relations to
contractual proprietor-tenant relations), and changes in the organization of labor (such as the change
from independent craftsmen to factories).”

RECIPROCITY

In the most situations, when you give something away, you expect something in return. This kind

of situation reflects the concept of reciprocity. This economic process entails the exchange of
commodities between parties, often on an individuals basis. It is also a binding method which holds
people, peers and families together (Anthropology, 2008)

In reciprocity, there are no goods and services lost because it is circular process wherein you just
receive and return the favor. Barter is the most common form of reciprocity, as this process includes
the exchange of commodities between individuals.

According to Marshall Sahlins (1965), there are three major types of reciprocity.
TRANSFER

When resources from one individual or organization are given to another with no expectation of
return, an economic transfer is in place. This type of economic process allows for the redistribution of
resources within an economic system.

Some examples of this process include the transfer of financial aids, government subsidies and
social security.

REDISTRIBUTION

Economic redistribution occurs when the resources of one, several individuals or groups are collected
and distributed proportionally or equally to participating members.

EXAMPLES:Progressive income tax Charity donations

Progressive income tax systems allow for a success of ensuring that the poorer members of society are
given ample resources to cover their basic needs through the imposition of higher taxes among wealthy;
this is a form of redistribution. On the other hand, when wealthy people make charity donations, they get
similar effects that are highly beneficial for them. These donations can affect their social conscience or
social social image, allowing them to gain public recognition and admiration. In less complex societies, this
can be seen in the form of a tribute, a process where members of society give gifts to their chief, expecting
that the latter would ensure their group’s economic and political security.

The marriage tradition of patrilineal societies known as bride price, or the transferring of wealth from
the man’s family to the woman’s family as a form of gift prior to the wedding is an example of how
redistribution occurs on a micro level.

The marriage tradition of patrilineal societies known as bride price, or the transferring of wealth from the
man’s family to the woman’s family as a form of gift prior to the wedding is an example of how
redistribution occurs on a micro level.

MARKET TRANSACTIONS

Market is referred to as the exchange of goods and services that involves buying and selling processes.
However, it is a not a simple process of exchanging materials, goods and services . It involves several
elements and transaction. Market is about making money, capital, income and growth (Women and
Economy, 2011).

Humans have several needs and wants that are deemed as bases of market sellers for producing goods
and services. After the production of goods and services, everything is brought to the market supplies
(goods and services) for the purpose of consumption and satisfying their needs. These market transactions
will continue to happen as long as there are buyers, sellers, supplies and demands in society.

The key element that separates market transaction from reciprocity and redistribution is the use of
standardized currency. This means that you cannot buy a can of soda from the grocery by giving a chicken
that you raised in your backyard.

Moreover, market transactions may affect not only part of the economic aspect of human society; it
affects the other societal and economic aspects as a whole. One key argument against market economy is
its delimiting effect on the lives of participating individuals.
Market and State

Basically, market involves all the human actions associated with economic aspects. On the other hand,
the state serves as the institution that protects and maintains economic balance through its economic laws
and policies. Ferarro et al. (2010) argues that “societies with self-developed market economies have to
decide as to what extent they would allow free markets or the government to control the economy.”

This relates to often dichotomous perspective on the relation of the state and the market: the free
hand of the market or the heavy hand of the state. The first option, the free hand of the market, promotes
an unbridled economic exchange between people and organizations in their pursuit of profit and surplus.
The second option, heavy hand of the state, promotes a highly structured and codified economic
engagement of individuals and organizations as mandated by state-led procedures. In the most ideal
setting, the state, through its government, should work hand in hand with the economic sectors of its
society to ensure economic and even political stability.

Types of Economic Subsistence(Edward B. Tylor Lewis Henry Morgan)

Modern anthropologist subscribe to four categories of economic subsistence that accepts the
diversity of human population without giving privilege to one category over the other. These four
categories are foraging, horticulture, pastoralism, and agriculture.

Foraging

One of the most ancient types of subsistence pattern is known as foraging. During ancient times,
people lived in the simplest way by being highly dependent on their environment. Hunting for animals and
gathering wild plants were their most common activities. O’Neil (2011) further described the group’s
activities: “They do not plant crops and the only domesticated animals that they usually have are dogs.
These useful animals often have multiple functions for foraging people. They serve as pets, hunting aid,
watch-animals, camp refuse scavengers and even surplus food when needed.”

Due to the type of activities that they had, their form of technology was also simple – ranging from
digging sticks, hunting spears and to other crude forms of hunting materials. Human power and muscle had
been their source in performing economic roles. Most task and work labor were divided according to
gender. There were specific tasks, and roles that were associated with men and with women. Hunting wild
animals were for men and gathering plants for women.

In terms of settlement, the foragers were considered to be early nomads. Nomads are individuals or
group of people who stay in place for a short period of time. These people usually built temporary
dwellings in a certain area for the purpose of survival. The length of their stay in a specific area is highly
dependent on the availability oi resources, such as food and water, in that area. Climate variability affected
the length of stay of nomads in the area as they adapted to the resource limitation per season in a region.
This implies a more consistent movement dependent on type of season.

PEDESTRIAN

Hunting and gathering on foot was the simplest way of living and survival. Foragers mostly occupied
riversides, valleys and grasslands. A simple digging stick served as the tool of early foragers.Foragers hunted
large mammals while on horseback, which served as their mode of transportation. Equestrian were larger
and more mobile. This society was dominated by men.

Foragers hunted aquatic animals such as fish, mollusks and other marine animals.
EQUESTRIAN

Foragers hunted large mammals while on horseback, which served as their mode of transportation.
Equestrian were larger and more mobile. This society was dominated by men. North American equestrian
foragers are those in the Great Plains in the late 19th century.

AQUATIC

Foragers hunted aquatic animals such as fish, mollusks and other marine animals. Well-known aquatic
foragers lived on the Northwest Coast of North America from Klamath River of of Alaska. California to the
Aleutian Islands

Pastoral

Pastoralism is a subsistence pattern that is primarily focused on "tending herds of large animals"
(O'Neil,2011). Various kinds of animals available in their environment became the biggest source of the
survival of the pastoralists. These animals tended by pastoralist societies are sheep, deep, goat, cattle, and
horses.

Men appear to be more aggressive toward outsiders, but they are very much cooperative within the group
they belong to. These men are often involved in making fast economic decisions, as the survival of the
group is often reliant on external forces such as drought, weather variability, and threat of other predators.

There are two classification of pastoralism: pastoral nomads and transhumance pastoralists. "Pastoral
nomads" have similarities with the way of life of foragers because of temporary settlements. However, they
only difference is that early foragers do not focus on tending animals. Therefore, their search for food and
water is for their own personal consumption. On the other hand, pastoral nomads transfer from one place
to another in search of food and resources that are not just limited for their consumption alone but also for
the consumption of their animals. Most destinations of pastoral nomads are highly dependent on the
needs of their animals.

O'Neil (2011) described "Transhumance pastoralists" as Following a cyclical pattern of migrations that
usually take them to cool highland valleys in the summer and warmer lowland valleys in the winter. This is
seasonal migration between the same two locations in which they have regular encampments or stable
villages often which permanent houses" Transhumance pastoralists are not dependent on their animals for
food. They are into planting and vegetation, which serves as their food. These pastoralists are also into
trading their animals in exchange for grain or food from the market.

Presently, pastoralism is still being practiced by some modern societies and countries. Even though
they may be from different regions of the world, they still share similar qualities that make them a real
breed of early pastoralist societies.

Horticulture

Horticulture is a combination of small-scale farming and domesticating animals for the purpose of food
and prestige. Unlike foraging, this subsistence. Pattern allows for the accumulating of food products
because horticultural societies participate in small surplus or selling in exchange of the goods they cannot
produce.

One of the primary characteristics of horticulture societies is their shifting planting process that entails
movement from the cultivated land to another. Swidden farming is one key example of this pattern, as
swiddeners prepare and plant in one land area for a period of time and move to another area after the
produce is harvested from the first area. In the Philippines, this takes the form of "kaingin", a form of slash
and burn planting method.

Horticultural societies follow a certain pattern that can shift rapidly, depending on their situations and
conditions. It also has several economic advantages because of its flexibility and soil, horticulturists move
to another available field using their strategies and techniques.

AGRICULTURAL

Most large-scale societies dependent on agriculture as their primary mode of economic subsistence.
As early as 10,000 years ago, farming methods and domestication of animals were developed intensively to
meet the needs of the growing population. Improved water management systems paved the way for the
spread of agriculture among different societies. The number of large animals for pulling plow rapidly
increased for better soil and agricultural production. This has been the reason that farming is one of the
major sources of living and income in early societies. Most families are farmers who work together in
agricultural lands.

During ancient times, agriculture was highly practiced in the ancient civilization in Egypt, Mesopotamia
(now Iraq and Eastern Syria) India, Pakistan, North China, Mesoamerica and Western South America
(Ferraro and Andretta, 2010). As farming continued to flourish to the different regions all over the world,
agricultural system changed constantly, especially when agricultural technologies and inventories were
discovered and introduced to different societies.

Societies viewed farming and agriculture as permanent and sustainable subsistence pattern for their
survival. As a result, permanent settlements in various area increased and more buildings and structures
were built. Market selling and trading also started, which brought about an increase in population over
time. Agriculture resulted in the division of social classes, wherein the farmers who were the working class
decreased their power over their goods due to the coming of the leaders or the upper classes who
controlled agricultural services and production.

NON- STATE INSTITUTIONS

Are institutions not related to the components of the state. These institutions function with minimal
intervention from state institutions. Although states possess the official political power in a given territory,
the capacity of nonstate institutions to affect the political and economic trajectory of a society cannot be
discounted.
BANKS AND CORPORATION

There are several financial institutions that aid people in terms of money and investments. In these
institutions, everything is associated, related, and linked to money and financial transactions.

They cater to different types of people and organization. Financial institutions may be categorized into
major forms such as commercial banks, investments banks, insurance companies, brokerages, and
corporation.

1) Commercial banks Financial deposit with security and convenience which could be in the form of
credit card, debit card, and check
Provide business, individual and personal loans, enabling commercial banks to earn interest
Serve as payment agents within and outside the country through wire transfer
Subjected to more regulations
2) Investment banks Financial intermediaries that perform a variety of services for businesses and some
governments Issue securities to the investing public Make markets, facilitate mergers, and other corporate
reorganizations Act as a broker for institutional clients Under the supervision of regulatory bodies such as
the Securities and Exchange Commission, FINRA, and the US Treasury Subjected to fewer regulations

3) Insurance companies Aid individuals and companies in terms of risk management and wealth
preservation Capable of earning profit and paying claims, through their large number of insurances

4) Brokeages Intermediaries in the transaction between buyers and sellers for the purpose of security
Commission – based earnings

5) Investment companies or corporations Help individuals invest funds or money with other investors
to manage portfolios of security Purchase securities indirectly through a package product such as a mutual
fund

COOPERATIVES AND TRADE UNIONS\

Trade unions and cooperatives have the primary role of promoting labor welfare and good
industrial relations. Trade unions and cooperatives are organizations comprising workers and laborers with
common goals, purposes, and interest. They mostly concern employment relations, decency, and welfare.

Roles of Trade Unions

Political Can be powerful and influential in creating political impact

Can be in conflict with other parties due to large number of members with common interests that are
different from other union’s interest

Market Reactive because of preoccupied economic aims that concern employment salaries, wages, and
inflation rates and rights (macro and micro economic policies)

Regulatory Influential in determining and improving job qualities and standards to regulate employment
functions

Democratizing Promote rights to economic democracy and participation to industrial democracy

Service Promote the welfare of members through various initiatives and partnerships with different
organizations that provide service to them
EnhancementConcerned for potential development and member’s improvement

Welfare Multifunctional institutions, conforming more to the idea of the trade union as being part of a
movement

TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY GROUPS

Societal issues and problems are not concentrated in a certain society or within a specific area only. It may
also be extended across borders and countries. Most of these issues have something to do with
international policies that are not responsive to contemporary issues. Keck and Sikkink (1998) argue that
international law – making undergoes changes and have been more concerned of public issues. These
changes were brought about by the rapid growth of transnational advocacy networks that constantly
influence the policy- making in a country by sponsoring advocacy campaigns publicizing social issues.

The pressure that Transnational Advocacy Groups (TAGs) create in state institutions, and at times to the
general public, creates a negative image. Evans (2008) argue that “transnational networks and corporations
are considered as bad guys whereas that nongovernment organizations are the good guys”, This is despite
the fact that NGOs are highly interrelated with TAGs. Transnational actors could be categorized into local
social movements, foundations, media, religious organizations, scholars, international agencies, and
regional intergovernmental organizations (Keck and Sikkinik, 1998)

DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES

Development agencies are organizations with specific aims and goals. The common denominator among
these organizations is the term development. These agencies concentrate on the growth, progression, and
advancement of specific societal concerns, which can be infrastructure or social institutions.

Several sectors of the international community have issues with development, as they believe that it is
laden with various social constructs that revolve around postcolonial and hegemonic arguments.

There two major types of organizations that are considered as development agencies: International
organizations and NGOs.
International Organizations

Coppee (2011) Stated that "one of the important roles of international organizations is to translate agreed-
upon values into obligations." These central role of international organization is essentially provide support
and assistance through organized framework to international cooperation. This cooperation aims to be
developed across several institution over time. The United Nation (UN) is premier example for this as it
aims to achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural
or humanitarian character, and in improving and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental
freedom for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion (UN Character).

International organization concentrate mostly in distribution of equitable health and social development.
Also, these organizations have deserve networks that enable them to provide and exchange support across
different borders and localize their implementation of international policies.
The following are the example of international organizations as listed by. Coppee (2011): UN and its
specialize agencies; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development(OCED); Organization of
Africa Unity(OAU); Organization of Americans States (OAS); Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN),
wherein the philippines is a founding member; European Union(EU, formerly the european communities);
MERCOCUR(Southern Market or mercado coman del sur); Carbbean Community(CARICOM); European
Free Trade Association (EFTA); and North American Free Trade Argument(NAFTA)among Canada the United
States, and Mexico.

NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS
Mostly working in limited territories, NGOs are often characterized by their intensive collaboration with
local stakeholders to improve their beneficiaries' conditions. Este (1992) defined NGOs as "those non-
profit, often voluntary, organizations that carry a broad range of social development functions with and on
behalf of people. The vast majority of these organizations exists outside of government and, thus, their
programs emanate more from the expressed needs of people rather than from governments."

Most NGOs aim to promote the practice of democracy among societies. These organizations are
independent, and they encourage participation from the public. NGOs also aim to promote social change
through their initiatives and organizational methods.

Sometimes, NGOs seek sponsorship from some other institutions and organizations to find their projects
and programs. Many NGOs have targeted their efforts toward population groups that tend to be
underserved by governmental programs, including women, the aged, physically and mentally disabled
persons, the poor, and various social groups that have been marginalized by virtue of race, religion,
ethnicity, caste, and social class. The World Bank (1989) provides a classic categorization of NGOs.

Categories of NGOs and Their Descriptions

Community associations Represent voices of people from different communities, and act as bridge
between members of the communities and government

Policy advocacy groups Have local, national, and international levels of participation; serve as catalysts
for collective action among poor persons in societies unaccustomed to such behavior

Service provider intermediaries Have national and international levels of participation; serve remote areas
and communities especially those who fail to receive government programs; seek fund through income
generating activities which are mostly nonprofit

Contractors Involved in sponspored projects as consultants to government agencies or to international


financial institutions that gain no profit at all

Cooperatives Protect and provide economic benefits to the needy; are formed when a task cannot be done
on the individual level, such as obtaining credit (Cernea, 1988;13-4 in Estes, 1992).

Interrelationship of Government and Non state Institutions

Government plays a vital role in human society because it is expected that its effort and initiatives must be
aligned with public welfare and services. Personal Interest must be the least concern of the bureaucracy to
ensure good will and avoid societal dysfunction. Failure to perform bureaucratic functions will lead to
different forms of conflict among societies.

ECONOMIC ALLIANCE

In a continuously globalizing world, interdependence among states in procuring commodities and services
is inevitable. The lack of supply in one country can be addressed by another country that has a surplus of
which .As raw materials become scarcer and more difficult to procure, economic alliance presents itself as
one of the solutions. This aims to promote economic improvement and, at the same time, resolve issues
concerning closed economies.

NATIONAL SECURITY

National security is " a state or condition where our most cherished values and beliefs, our democratic way
of life, our institutions of governance and our unity, welfare and well being as a nation and people are
permanently protected and continuously enhanced .(DLSU,2011). This definition is one of the many
definitons attributed to national security.

Elements

SOCIOPOLITICAL STABILITY

Regardless of social differences, societal harmony must be achieved and maintained through the effort of
the government, public, and other institutions

TERRITORIAL INTEGRITY

This refers to the permanent inviolability of our national territory and its effective control by the
government and the state.

ECONOMIC SOLIDARITY AND STRENGTH

Economic equality must prevail considering public interest, dignity, and labor's welfare.

ECOLOGICAL BALANCE

This refers to the conversation of the environment through initiatives and sustainable development.

CULTURE COHESIVENESS

This refers to the common set of norms and values rooted from cultural ethics.

MORAL-SPIRITUAL CONSENSUS

There should be national cooperation guided by common deeds, goals, and objectives.

DISASTER MITIGATION AND RISK REDUCTION

One of the areas where non state institutions are actively involved in is disaster response. There has been
an observed increase in weather variability that has caused climate- induced disasters in human
population. This is often associated to climate change. The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk
Reduction (UNISDR) argues that “ there is no such thing as a ‘natural’ disaster, only natural hazards.”

According the figure 11.1 the main cause of disaster is the combination of hazard and vulnerability. Hazards
may be caused by natural phenomena or by humans. Society and its environment are vulnerable to these
kinds of incidents. The preparations and planning must be led by the governing body, and they must be
followed by the society under it, making other institutions react also to the given situations .

KEY ELEMENTS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT

The first step in disaster risk management is the identification or assessment of risks. It involves monitoring,
identifying risk, and analyzing vulnerability. Followed by the prevention and mitigation process,
management will set up plans and actions toward these risks and disasters. Then, warning and notice are
provided to the public, which includes evacuation and emergency planning. Last, the adaptation, or
recovery, stage takes place, wherein rehabilitation, reconstruction, and rescue services happen.Ideally, the
first responders to a disaster are the institutions related to the government. However, in institutions where
logistical support is lacking, nonstate institutions often become the first responders in areas devastated by
disasters. In the aftermath of Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan), leyte and other neighboring provinces received
support from both state and non state institutions.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Social development is one of the goals of every society. Any society that undergoes social development is
expected to move upward or attain progress, Social development entails productivity, better efficiency,
accomplishment, and innovations (Cleveland and Jacobs,1999).

The pursuit of public health equity, or equal access to health systems, is one of the primary foci of
international organizations such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and World
Health Organization. Human rights and social justice is the focus of organizations such as Amnesty
International, Save the children, and International Justice Mission. All of these examples highlight the
clamor for social development.

On one hand, the government continues to search for different ways to achieve social development. On the
other hand, non state institutions also participate in promoting social development through their various
initiatives and advocacies relating to social welfare. Social development is a very long process that requires
proper strategic planning (long term) and operational planning (short term). This is not possible without
the union of public, government, and other institutions including non state institutions the perform a great
role not only in social development but also in terms of social empowerment

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STRATIFICATION

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Implies the division or clarification of members of society into different strata (Singular: Stratum)
promoting the development of hierarchy among social groups. Each group is characterized by a shared
common identity and life style that are brought upon by status ascribed to its members. Hence, the may
kaya (middle class) Filipinos practice a different set of values and beliefs from those who belong to the
walang-wala (subsistence poor).The disparity in practices and beliefs between social groups from different
ranks of society intensifies in-group and out-group dynamics

The creative of hierarchies in human groups is associated with the development of complex economics
system that required the specialization of labor. Technologically simple societies that are based on foraging
minimally practice social stratification, if not at all. At the advent of agricultural revolution, human groups
started creating social categories that can support the new economic system. The production of surplus
resources created economic elites who were later accorded political ascendancy as they controlled the
forces of production.

SOCIAL DESIRABLES
In a society where social stratification is present, social desirables are inevitable. Social desirable refer to
factors that are somewhat accepted or desired in a certain society. Social desirables may be associated with
social status, popularity, acceptance, or approval. These factors can be considered as qualities that make
individuals appear as socially desirable in the community. There are three most desired qualities in every
society: wealth, power, and prestige.

WEALTH

Wealth pertains to the accumulated economic capital of an individual or group usually determines its
capacity for influence in decision-making in society. Marxist perspective argues that the differentiation in
wealth create social, economic, and political inequality, which ultimately promotes social suffering among
the disadvantaged.
POWER

Dahl (Curtis 2001) defined power as a capacity of an individual to influence another person to perform an
act that he or she would not otherwise do. This associated with wealth, as economic capital permits
selected members of society to determine the norms that are often more beneficial for the elite than for
the majority who are bound to follow them power involves benefits and privileges. The power to
determine the course of policies and economy can provide an individual with distinct advantage as
compared with those who cannot wield influence on others.

PRESTIGE

The last social desirable that serves as the result of the two previous elements is prestige. Wealth
combined with power leads to prestige. Sociologist define the term prestige as a level of honor in human
society attached to different groups with reference to the group’s occupation. The measurement of
occupational prestige depends on social standing and desirability. The level of prestige depends on the job
professionalism of individual in relation to training rather than their job income (Pearson: Sociology, 2005).
For instance a, wealthy and powerful individual is expected to have a stable and high form of occupation to
maintain societal rank and position. Hence, occupational prestige, together with wealth and power, has
always been seen as the basis of social status and rank in human society.

SOCIAL MOBILITY

Social mobility is the shift in social status or rank of an individual within the frame of a social structure.
Individuals who gain position in a certain social class may progress to higher status. The forms, nature, and
directions of social mobility are highly dependent on the social stratification of every society, which may
change from time to time. For instance, a country or community where agriculture is predominant
indicates a lower social mobility as compared with other countries (Landes, 2013)

Social mobility may be vertical and horizontal. Vertical mobility involves the upward and downward
mobility, which means a progression of social status related to class, power, and prestige. It can be from
higher to lower and vice versa.

On the other hand, horizontal mobility refers from the movement from one status to another within the
same social category. It may be a transfer of position to another area but with no other changes in the
position. For instance, a government employee at a certain level may transfer to another government
organization in the same level of position.

Social stratification occurs in a variety of social structures. There are four types of stratification system:
Class, Caste, Estate and Slavery.

CLASS

Class system denotes the classification of an individual or group of persons having explicit societal status
based on acquired characteristics. In 17th century Europe, the main qualification to be a member of a
certain hierarchical class depends mostly on three things: wealth, economic occupation, and power.
Nonetheless, this qualification changes over time, reliant on existing societies especially those societies
that consider legal differentiation as the basis of social classes (Social Stratification, 2014

Class may also be characterized in different ways, but the term status is always associated with it. Status in
a class system is not ascribed, but it is rather achieved in many different ways. Class and status differ
according to their accustomed behavior, which include lifestyle, recreation and culture. The standard of
living, preference, taste, and mode of dress is reflected on lifestyle and behavior.

Vertical social mobility is seen as a movement in the class system because it represents an open system,
wherein an economic area is the main concern rather than economic group or division. It involves
subjective criteria such as social class consciousness, solidarity and identification, whereas wealth property,
income, occupation, and education serve as the objective criteria (Landes, 2013). Class system is merely
class conscious and characterized by relations of each individual member toward other members within
their classes and other classes.

The traditional perspective presents class as a three-fold classification consisting of the following:
upper class, middle class, and lower class. The upper class is composed of the elite group (e.g., institutional
leaders, capitalists). The middle class consists of the scientific and technical individuals of the society (e.g.,
engineers, accountants, lawyers). The lower class comprises the working class (e.g., laborers) and the poor.

Pitrim Sorokin, a 20th century sociologist, identified three major types of social class stratification:
economic, political, and occupational (Sorokin, 1947). In more industrialized societies, these categories are
expanded to include subcategories. For example, middle class can be divided into upper and lower
categories.

CASTE

The caste system is related to the concept of Hindu practice, tradition, and culture, which is rooted in
divine sanction and custom. The term caste is derived from the Spaniards meaning “breed.” Thus, caste
also means “race” in society. The Sanskrit word for caste is varna meaning “color”. Also, Hindu society is
composed of four types of varna or caste known as Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and shudra. The Hindu
caste system is closed system as it does not allow for social mobility. An individual who is born a Shudra
(worker) came from parents who are of the same caste.

Each caste system has specific duties


and responsibilities. The brahmins
are placed in the highest position
next to the gods, and they include
the priest and academics. Moreover,
brahmins enjoy special privileges
such as conducting temple worships
and prayers, making them superior
and sacred. Kshatriyas are composed
of warriors and kings for the purpose of defense and protection management. Vaishyas include landowners
and merchants who perform agricultural production. The lowest position in the caste system is occupied by
the shudras, who are servants and workers for the other caste system. The untouchable have no caste
system, which signifies that these groups are outcasts.

The caste system was created to ensure the continuity and preservation of Indian culture from the earliest
generation up to the present one (Social Stratification, 2014). However, it has been one of the main reasons
why alienation, division, and discrimination are present. It is because of the different positions in the caste
system, which are linked to specific standards and criteria, that some individuals enjoy superiority and
privileges more than others.
In the precolonial period, the Philippines had an open caste system that divided the society according to
four categories: maharlika, timawa, aliping namamahay, and aliping saguiguilid. This was an open caste
system, as it allowed for social mobility within the lifetime of an individual.

ESTATE SYSTEM

The estate system is identical to the practice of feudalism. It has its roots in pre-Revolution France, where
individuals were ranked according to three categories: clergy, nobility, and commoners. The final authority
in the system was the king. The estate system was based on existing legal structures that defined members’
status, rights, and duties. The broad division of labor was also present in the system including specific
functions. Like feudalism, the estate system related to political group participation, and possessed political
powers (Sociology Guide, 2014)

SLAVERY

This system is the most extreme form of inequality in society. For instance, slaves are often maltreated by
their owners. In the most cases, slaves have no right it all and, deprived of everything because it is believed
that they are created to work only for others. Ancient Greeks and Roman allowed various forms of slavery
of non-Greek or non-Roman individuals. This system persisted in western countries such a United States,
which only formally abolished the practice in 1865, through an amendment in the US constitution but with
much resistance from slave owners and their supporters. The condition of the slaves in the United States
can be seen in this quotation from Harriet Beecher Stowe’s classic work Uncle Tom’s Cabin, which sparked
antislavery sentiments in the United States that resulted in the American Civil War.

SOCIAL INEQUALITY

Social Inequality is one of the dimensions of stratification that concerns the gap between the rich and the
poor (Neckerman and Torche, 2007). In the United States, social inequality is more rampant than in other
countries because of their higher economic capacities and capabilities. Social inequality is visible many
other social institutions affecting other social aspects such as gender, capital (social, political, and
symbolic), ethnic minorities and other minorities (e.g,. persons with disabilities), and global inequality.

ACCESS TO SOCIAL, POLITICAL,, AND SYMBOLIC CAPITAL

According to Pierre Bordieu, capital “is a force inscribed in the objectivity of things so that everything is not
equally possible and impossible.” The existing social world is innate and depends on the structures of
capital. There are three fundamental types of capital: economic, symbolic, and cultural capital. How do you
differentiate one from the other?

These
forms of
capital are
present in
every
human,
society,
affecting
social
stratification and inequality. The access of these forms of capital is limited on one’s social status. People
and groups in higher position enjoy more and unlimited resources because of their wealth and power. Most
of these people are popular and noble, allowing them to gain power in society in the form of having
positions in politics or government.

In general, these forms of capital serve as the privileges of every individual in human society, which is
highly dependent on their rank and position. Thus, this is an evident form of social inequality because not
everyone has access to this capital.

ETHNIC MINORITIES AND PERSONS WITH

DISABILITIES

Are you familiar with the concept of social exclusion? This term defines the inequality between and among
ethnic minorities and other minorities. Social exclusion is the concept of alienating or dividing individuals or
a group in a certain society. Race and ethnicity have also been the basis of social division I the whole world.
Racial and ethnic differences entail widespread conflict which can be economic, political, social, and
cultural. Racial identity is the main concern of ethnic inequalities (Nazroo, 2013). For instance, African
Americans often suffer from racial discrimination, making them feel alienated from other societies. Again,
this is a visible example of social inequality.

GENDER INEQUALITY

GENDER

Another widespread form of inequality is gender inequality. This has been a major issue and problem
around the world. Gender has always been a sensitive topic in every argumentation. Violence against
women and children rapidly increase every day. Gender discrimination among LGBTQI continues even if
several organizations have already developed advocacies and means to eliminate discrimination in every
society and community.

Dowry deaths are responsible for the murders of the thousands of women every year, especially in south
Asia.

Honor killings continue to take place in Pakistan, Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Egypt, Lebanon, Iran, Morocco, and
other Mediterranean and Gulf countries.

Physical and sexual abuse of girls is serious concern across all regions.

Child marriage continues to put young girls at great risk for too-early pregnancy and other sexual and
reproductive health issues.

Female genital cutting mutilation (FGC/M) causes serious injury to millions of young women every year.

The rate of femicide (murder of women and girls) has significantly escalated over the last few years.

INEQUALITY

One of the most debated issues in the world is that of global inequality. This type of inequality refers to the
unequal distribution of scare resources and values across territories. The devise between resource-rich
territories and those that face the challenge of ensuring basic human needs and care have been
conceptualized in dichotomized terms such as developing versus developed countries, first world versus
third world, and more recently, Global South versus Global North. In all these dichotomies, the prevalent
theme is the unequal access to world resources among countries.
Although the Philippines and Singapore are part of Southeast Asia, they are categorized under opposing
economic development context. Singapore belongs to the Global North, which comprises powerful
countries such as United States, United Kingdom, Japan, and China. The Philippines belong in the Global
South which comprises of economically and politically struggling countries. The lived experience of living in
the Global North are significantly different from those of the Global South, even if they belong in the same
social class. This is to say the poverty that is lived by a person in the Global south is significantly more
challenging than that of his or her Global North counterpart (Neckerman and Torche, 2007).

Various complex economic structures are created that perpetuate this system of inequality. In the United
States the rise of food and recreational deserts is being observed by social scientist. These deserts refer to
the lack of food sources such as grocery stores and the lack of recreational centers such as parks or theaters
in poor communities. This isolation promotes a string of social problems such as the increase in obesity
among people living in food deserts. This increase in obesity is due to the consumption of unhealthy food
items, which are chiefly available in convenience stores. Communities experiencing recreational deserts
have been observed to have a ride of drug dependency and practice of unsafe sexual behaviors. This food-
and-recreation-deprived communities are situated in societies where other communities are experiencing
the convenience of multiple markets and grocery stores, which are secure places where various forms of
recreational facilities are available.

THEORIES IN INEQUALITY

For the past years, inequality has been analyzed by sociologist because it is present in every human society.
This section provides various perspectives of sociologist regarding social stratification and inequality.

CONFLICT THEORIES

Karl Marx’s idea of conflict theory is highly based on the modern society which is divided into two classes:
the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. Proletariats are the workers or the working class. On the other hand,
the bourgeoisie are the landlords and owners of the production (Curtis, 1976).

For Marx, proletariats or workers are being exploited by the bourgeoisie. The proletariats were given food,
shelter, and clothing by the owners. However, exploitation occurs without the workers noticing it due to
their false consciousness and mistaken beliefs that the bourgeoisie are the ones working for them. Marx
predicted that a revolution would happen between the proletariat and bourgeoisie as the rich became
richer. This revolution would involve true class consciousness together with shared identity that is deeply
rooted from exploitation. Marx believed that a communist society is better than a capitalist society, where
in people will be treated equally, and no one controlled wealth. However Marx hypothesis failed and never
came into the lime light. As modern societies developed, the working class became more educated,
allowing them to acquired skilled and better jobs. Instead of exploitation, labor laws of the protection
working class were developed letting the members of the working class earn salaries of their financial well-
being.

Max Weber looks into how Marx viewed social stratification. For Weber, there are other factors and
element to consider in determining ones social class including power, wealth and prestige. As people
acquire more wealth, prestige, or popularity, they also acquire more power.

According to Davis and Moore, each member of society has specific roles and responsibilities to take and
accomplish. Each role has levels of difficulty, and a task with higher level of difficulty entails more wealth,
power, and money. Davis and Moore also believe that the unequal distribution of work among people
enables them to exert more effort toward the accomplishment of social rewards. On the contrary, Tatum
argues that gender and family income is more likely a determinant of social stratification. Men have a
higher place in social stratification because paternalistic culture has been implanted to the human mind. A
wealthier family has higher capacity of accomplishing them roles because of its higher income.

HUMAN DIGNITY, RIGHTS AND

COMMON GOODS

Although social groupings and stratification function in promoting social order and organization, the that
they often have in human groups is unsettling due to the issues that they create pertaining to the
achievement of human dignity and rights. The right of the individuals in the quality education is often
tampered by political arguments contesting that it should be reserved to those who can afford it. The
pervading issue in the Philippine educational system that promotes unequal learning opportunities
between private and public school is one of the negative impacts of inequality.

The structural or institutional sources of inequality promote social dynamics that is perpetuates the
oppression of the marginalized groups. A child who grew malnourished due to his or her parent’s inability
to secure nutritious food for him or her will have fewer chances of performing well in school. This child may
drop out of school even before he or she finishes elementary education. This would disqualify him or her
from securing high-paying jobs. In the event that he or she decides to form a family, there is high
probability that his or her children will experience the same process.

The unequal access to resources has the capacity of making several sectors of society vulnerable to disease
and criminality, as people use their bodies and other mechanism to secure basic needs such as food, clean
water, education, and shelter. This brings us to the topic of human dignity, which is continuously threatened
by the lack of basic sources of comfort and need. As an individual fails to access his or her basic needs from
his or her community through no coercive and nondestructive processes, he or she becomes entangled in
activities that may be illegal and/or illegitimate to ensure his or her survival.

The pursuit of the common good is a primary challenge among societies with diverse population. As each
sector clamors for its perceived rights, the scarcity of available resources poses a continuous threat to the
attainment of common good. In developing societies, the need for inclusive growth implies the inclusion of
all members of the society in policies for development. This promotes the equal chance of every member
of society to participate in the economic development in his or her area.

EDUCATION

-in sociology, education is viewed of social interaction.

-Means the development of intellect. It is an act of critical thinking.

-mainly concern much of social ,economics, political and cultural system.

Educational System

- one of the most prevading

TWO CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATION


Formal Education

used term when student learn in a classroom. A student follow his curriculum and is being graded on his or
her performance. Experiences in current school is fostered.

Nonformal Education

enables student to learn skills and knowledge through structure learning experiences.

Philip H. Coombs (1967)


emerged in response of the world crisis education identified

He said that formal education system id failed to address the changing dynamics of the environment and
the society. The skills that are needed to foster economic development ate lacking due to untrained labor
forced .

The Function Of Education That Affects Society


Herbert Spencer

British sociologist said "function are important to be performed as the make the society whole.

2 Functions of Education

√to produce productive citizens

√ to develop self-actualization

Productive Citizenry

Education system enable the citizen to be productive member of the society, as the equipped with
knowledge and skills that could contribute to the development of their society's system and institution.

K to 12
Adapted by the Philippines

Provide sufficient time for students to learn and develop knowledge and skills that are demanded by the
global community

It covers kindergarten include primary education, junior high school and senior high school.

Aim of the curriculum to produce high school graduates who are employable to skill based sector.

PRODUCTIVE CITIZEN
Requires critical thinking

Have the ability to understand his or ger duties and be able to respond and respond to them by making
decision.

Individuals are introduced to concept democracy , power, inequality and others.

Promotes greater awareness his or her society

SELF- ACTUALIZATION

Education develop one's sense of self. As a huge part of discovery process of oneself , education
encourages having the vision to become self actualized. It enable to see your strengths and maintain them
even the weaknesses. It helps one reach full potential and establish oneself as a whole.

Abraham Maslow

Self-actualization is the highest form of human need. It was defined "to become more and more what one
is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming".
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OH NEEDS
Through education, human are empowered to experience and learn their true capacities the lead self-
actualization. 8t was also tend boundless enthusiasm in learning outside classroom , which is basically
through experience. It will become easier for them to socialize , to identify career ,to create self identity .
They will tend to have a ability to analyze, evaluate and decide on their own.
PRIMARY EDUCATION AS A HUMAN RIGHT
Primary education is essential in the early stages of human life. Humans need education to enable them to
adopt to the dictates of their society. UNESCO declares that

Education is a fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all other human rights. It
promotes individual freedom and empowerment and yields important development benefits. Yet millions
of children and adults remain deprived of educational opportunities, may as a result of poverty.

Normative instruments of the United Nations and UNESCO lay down international legal obligations for the
right to education. These instruments promote and developed the right of every person to enjoy access to
education of good quality, without discrimination or exclusion. These instruments bear witness to the great
importance that Member States and the international community attach to normative action for realizing
the right to education. It is for government to fulfill their obligations both legal and political in regard to
providing education for all of good quality and to implement and monitor more effectively education
strategies.

Education is a powerful tools by which economically and socially marginalized adults and children can lift
themselves out of poverty and participate fully as netizen.

The quality of education experience by students are noticeably differentiated. The rift in the quality of
education received by students from private schools and those from publics school have been observed in
both developed and developing countries. Formal education, in particular, tries to keep pace with the
changes in the economy, as can be observed in the constant tuition fee increases in situation of higher
learning.

Situation in a public school in the Philippines

This issue on education taps the economic aspect of the society, as classism stand as a barrier to the social
development of humans. This also digs on the impact of social inequality, as a systematic oppression lies
especially on the lower class. They experience discrepancies in educational opportunities due to financial
problems.

BIG IDEA

Education can be both empowering and limiting depending on how it is facilitated in a given society.

Nonformal Education

Nonformal education is also known as alternative learning system (ALS). This type of education focus on
empowering marginalized sectors through skills and knowledge acquisition. One of the most marginalized
groups in the Philippines consist of the indigenous population such as the Aetas of Luzon, the Atis of
Visayas, and the Lumads of Mindanao. Most of this group are economically challenged as their traditional
sources of livelihood are empowered by urban - based industries.

Characteristics and content of learning material

As notable authors, create a learning material for a specific indigenous population,

The following learning material should have the following characteristics and content:

1. It should enable the learners to gain a skill or knowledge that would be useful for economic
advancement (e.g., sewing, preparing proceed meat, weaving). Be. Mindful of the natural resources
available in the learners area.

2. It should be written in learners language or a language that the learners can understand.

3. It should be creative. Include drawings and illustration to accentuate your point.

4. It should have at least five pages.

EXTEND YOUR KNOWLEDGE


Als enables individuals to access the education despite some obstacles. In the Philippines the Department
of Education (DepEd) has been implementing Als program.

RELIGION AND BELIEF

RELIGION

Anthropologists define religion as "a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices, pertaining to supernatural
beings and forces. Such beliefs may vary with in a culture as well as among societies, and they may change
over time"(Ember,Ember, and peregrine, 2010)

Another issue in defining religion is rooted in the belief in the existence of a divide between the spiritual
and natural world. Some societies such as that of Nyoro in uganda believer that the two worlds are not
seperated and they coexist in one space.
Christians, on the other hand, believe that there is a spiritual world that is separate from the natuiral world.

Early societies such as the Egyptias, greeks, and Sumerians used religious symbols and practiced ritualistic
ceremonies. Which made religion one of the central parts of the development of human socities
(Crossman, 2014) the earliest record on the existence of religion dates to 60 000 years ago Cave wall
carvings in france( Ferraro and Andreatta, 2010)

FUNCTION OF RELIGION

There are several function of religon that can be best explained through various theoretical orientations.

SOCIOLOGISTS study religion while considering diverse societal factors such as gender, age, race, and
education.

Sociological perspectives aim to look into the roles, issues, problems and porpuses the religion may serve
to people and society ( Emerson, Monahan, and Mirola, 2011 in Barkan, 2012)

Functionalism
Emile Duckheim argues tha religion serves may function for societies. First, religions give meaning and
purpose to life. Second, religion reinforces social unity and stability. Third, religions serve as an agent of
social behavior control through the teachings they provide. Fourth, religion promote physical and
psychological well-being by being the source of other’s comfort and happiness in times of obstacles and
distress. Last, religion serve as a motivation toward social change.

Conflict Theory

Understand religion in relation to inequality and conflict as inspired by the works of Karl marx who stated
the ‘religion is the opiate of the masses’ (Marx, 1964). Marx implied the use of religion by the governing
elite to pacify the discontent of the masses, he further argued that instead of seeing poverty as the direct
result of unequal access to resources, the masses percieve it as a manifestation of the will of the divine.

Gender inequality concern also arise from religion by representing stereotypical views about women being
subordinate to men ( Klassen, 2009)

Symbolic interactionism

Looking into the micro perspective of religion, Max Weber’s symbolic interactionism approach argues that
relion is integrated with symbols and interpreatations. The world is symbols depend on the perception of
the believer. Hyence, the practice of wearing a veil among muslims can be either a religious or a
nonreligious ritual as the wearer could associate varying meaning to it depending on her belief.

ANIMISM

Religion involves several pattern that are incorporated with different social structure,norms and values.

According to Kurtz(2007) all religions certain cosmogonies stories and beliefs on how the world was created
and how it actually started.

ANIMISM means " spirit " and referred to given form of religion where in humans are aware of every spirit
tthat can be found in the environment.

Considers spiritualism as a modern cult that is deficient of human motivation of animism.

In animism, spirit can be good or bad


Polytheism

Another religious pattern that was established during ancient periods is polytheism .

Rooted in these two word “Poly” which means “Many” and “ theism” which means “God”.

Characterized by the workship many deities, which illustrate ways of life including beliefs, practices, and
tradition (Kowulcyzk 2012

Polytheism was the earliest form of religion among several societies.

MONOTHEISM

Monotheism strongly believes in one god, which is accountable for all the things happening in the world
including the word's creation and existence.

(Hume, 1755) believed that the differences between polytheism and monotheism led to the changes of the
human mind, where in rationality is more associated with monotheism while tolerance is to polytheism.

The development of religious pattern across societies reflect the sociopolitical dynamics experienced by its
followers.

This is parallel to the status and relationships of spirits that are worshipped in animism all are of equal
stature.

Monotheistic societies tend to have one supreme political leader, such as a president or a king, which is
consistent with the beliefs that there is also one supreme deity.

INSTITUTIONALIZED REGION

Wide scale religious clout

The number of individuals affiliated with this religious institutions is immense that is crosses political and
international borders and cuts across social status

2. Hierarchical leadership and membership

Followers of this type of faith system are related to sociopolitical posts with in the system, provides ranking
and status thus implies that access to the divine may not be given to every member but is a privilege of a
select few.

3. Codified rituals

The process of interacting with the divine and with fellow members are guided by written rules and
regulations that have a power of the law, such that a member a member's inability to comply results in the
imposition of sanctions .

Separation of Curch and State

In ancient societies, the church and the state are synonymous as the leaders of the church are also the
political elite.

Political scientist refers to this as theocracy or the rule of the divine.

The prewar Japanese society believed that their emperor was the direct descendant of a God.

Ancient Egyptian and Sumerians regarded their Pharaohs and kings as God-king as they believed that they
were earthly incarnations of the divin
A shaman is also known as a community healer. It is a position that is usually occupied by a malewho has
fairly high status in his community. A shaman is also involved in other nonreligious activities in his
community, making his religious function an occasional preoccupation

A sorcerer and a witch are poorly regarded in their societies due to the perceived malevolence that they
inflict on individuals. They have very low social and economic status, and ther are often ostracized by
members of their communities. Accordingly a sorcerer uses "materials, objects, and medicines to invoke
supernatural malevolence," whereas a witch can accomplish "malevolence by means of thoughts and
emotions alone" (Ferraro and Andretta, 2010)

A medium is well favored by members of his or her community as he or she is involved in healing rituals
while in a possessed trance. A medium is also capable of performing divination to predict future courses of
action. Most medium tend to be females who perform other roles when not in religious practice

A priest tends to be a male whose sole preoccupation is to officiate religious ceremonies and rituals. Due to
his status in religious hierarchy, he is highly regarded by community members

MAGIC

This form of religious activity constitutes the "manipulation of supernatural forces for the purpose of
interventing in a wide range of human activities and natural events" (Ferraro and Andretta, 2010). Although
popularly related to forms of trickery, the anthropological definition of magic is more complex than a fast
hand maneuver of playing cards. Magic deals with solving a current problem by seeking the intervention of
the divine through the performance and offering of gifts

DIVINATION
This religious activity intends to gain from the divine practical answers for any concern that may range from
war plants to marriage choices

SORCERY AND WITCHCRAFT

Popularized by modern literature such as Harry Potter novels, sorcery and witchcraft have been depicted by
media as a socially accepted activity. A sorcerer inflicts harm on individuals by the use of materials such as
dolls, wands, and medicines. The practice of witchcraft promotes the same effect wuth a mere difference in
method. Unlike with sorcery that uses materials to inflict harm, witchcraft only uses emotions and words of
the practitioner to impact its victim

PRAYERS, FEASTS, AND SACRIFICES

These activities promote a direct interaction with the divine, as individuals or groups communicate their
thoughts and desires to the supernatural through uttered requests (prayers), celebrations (feasts), and gifts
(sacrifices)

ETHNOGRAPHERS- studythe culture of groups of people by participating and observing their interactions
and activities

Religious Organizations Human groups create various religious organizations depending on the political
and economic norms of their society. Anthropologist associate religious organizations to the concept of cult

A Cult is ppularly defined as a small group of individuals who have extreme religious beliefs and practices

There are four types of cults: individualistic cults, shamanistic cults, commural cults, and ecclesiastical cults

INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTS- tend to be practiced in food-collecting societies where equality is central to the
group's culture. Individuals are able to access the divine without restrictions or need for an intercessor
SHAMANISTIC CULTS- are similar to the structure of individualist cults except that this type believes in the
shaman or medicine man. This cult is also present in most egalitarian societies that are based on
economies focused on foraging horticulture, and pastoralism. The functions of the shaman includes
healing, intercession, and punishment

INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTS- tend to be practiced in food-collecting societies where equality is central to the
group's culture. Individuals are able to access the divine without restrictions or need for an intercessor

SHAMANISTIC CULTS- are similar to the structure of individualist cults except that this type believes in the
shaman or medicine man. This cult is also present in most egalitarian societies that are based on
economies focused on foraging horticulture, and pastoralism. The functions of the shaman includes
healing, intercession, and punishment

THEORIES ON SOCIAL HEALTH

Social health is one of the most contested territories in public policy as question on equality , quality and
availability of health care remain submerged in international and local political dialogues among
stakeholders

PAUL FARMER (1997)

An anthropologies presented the concept of structural violence to refers to the systemic process of putting
several sectors of society in greater vulnerability to dreaded diseases.

Farmer argued that in the case of HIV-AIDS in Haiti, individual who constructed the disease were made
vulnerable to it by the lack of institutional provisions that allow for equitable acess to health information
and resources.

ARTHUR KLEINMAN ET AL. (2010)

Argued that heath issues are best understood within the frame of the individuals local moral world which
embodies the rationalizations are often rooted on their set of values and morality

Hence a person's interpretation of cancer may range from a very scientific perspective to a morally
detected one, where in such health condition can be perceived as punishment from God for transgressions
commited in the past

CULTURE SPECIFIC SYNDROMES AND ILLNESSES

“Pwera usog” this is catch phrase often heard from elderly filipinos when they compliment an infant for its
weight and size. This is at times accompanied by the marking of a cross on the foot of the child using a
saliva coated fingertip.

Science provides a universal understanding of diseases. However despite the bredth of scientific discoveries
on diseases and their cures, some scientific truths on diseases remain obscured by local interpretation.A
person who suffers from schizophrenia experiencess disconnection from reality which causes hallucination,
confusion, paranoia and acceptance of false beliefs Banerjee (2012) citing the work of Baver et al. (2011) on
the cultural variation on the treatment and understanding of schizophrenia, revealed that over the
symptoms of the illness varyper culture

Found that not only where there across the board differences in the rates of incidence of each of these
types of hallucinations (with auditory hallucinations being the most common and gustatory hallucination
being the least common) but there were also pronounced differences in hallucination patterns among the
countries
Among the algonquian peoples in canada and the united states a legendary creature known as the wendigo
is believed to exist this half demon and half beast creature is known for consuming human fresh. It is also
believed that humans can be possesd by the wendigo and turn to cannibalism western medicine in the
1900s labelled this behavior as wendigo psychosis a culturally specific mental disorder observed among
north americans. This is a contentious label as there are no proven cases of wendigo members of the
algonquian culture argue that their legendshave been misinterpreted by western medicine.

Another type of culturally specific disease is Latah which is observed in parts of southeast asia this mental
disorder embodies a set of abnormal behavior such as uncontrol label laughter, cursing, screaming or even
repetitive movements and statements this has been labelled as a startle disorder due to the fact that the
abnormal behavior is usually triggered by shock that an individual feels

SYSTEMS OF DIAGNOSIS, PREVENTION


AND HEALING

The process of understanding the nature of the disease and the actions that must be made to arrest its
development vary per society. In fact even in one society individuals are often observed to have differing
opinions as to how their health condition can be officiently managed there are three healing systems that
people subscribe to traditional western and alternative

TRADITIONAL MEDICINE

At the heart of traditional medicine is the local molral world of an individuals society this includes not only
morality but also the spiritual perspectives that are held true by its members crucial in the practice of
traditional medicine is the belief that health conditions are interrelated to human and divine interactions

This implies that a cold is not just a cold as it can be a form of a reminder from the divine to purpose
morally upright actions and decisions healing is a sickness can be both community wide or individually
sought through the medication of a healer

According to who (2007) there are six types of traditional healer based on the scope of their healing
functions

SHAMANS

The shamans cures the sick using the special powers that has received during state of trance heading is
often done in the house of the sick who is believed to have lost his or her soul it is the task of shaman to
return the lost soul to its body to cure the illness.

MAGIC BASED HEALER

This types of healer uses magic to counter the illness experienced by an individual who is believed to have
such condition due to black magic and causes the rituals that the healer can use vary per society. Among
the nyoro of uganda such healers often facilitate the process of vomiting by the sick to cleanse the letter
from all sins and transgressions

FORTUNE TELLERS

Some individuals believe that their disease has some underlying spiritual explanation that if learned can be
addressed and promote healing. Often individuals who seek the help of fortune tellers are the ones
suffering from psychological and emotional pains.

TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANTS

These healers do not only assist expecting mothers in their process of giving birth they also perform
traditional messages on individuals who are complaining of physical pain that may also be rooted in
psychological issues.

TRANCE BASED HEALER

These healers provides relief for sickness and pain through meditation and trance based activities they
believe that the nature and appropriate cure for the sickness can only be uncovered through medication as
such each consultation despite its similarity to another ailment will often produce different rationalization
and cure

HEALTH AS A HUMAN RIGHT

Who (2013) has defined the “right to healt” as the fundamental right of every human to be able to live
health through equal “acces to timely,acceptable,and affordable health care of appropriate quality “shown
A figure 15.3 an individuals right to health is not only focused on access to health care but is also
embedded with underlying determinants (UDS) such as water,sanitation,and food.such inclusiveness of the
definition presents the angument that without proper and acceptable access to the UD an individuals
health will be vulnerable to diseases

In low inconomic countries, the challenge to provide equitable health care access becomes a davating task
as other UDS are either lacking or inefficient WHO (2013) dentified that roughly 150 million people face
economic challenges due to health care issues

Change – is a state of becoming different from the status quo.

Social Change – is a concept used to portray any changes in human social system.
- this may happen in any social relationships, social structure, organization and institutions.

Marx – according to him social change is a proactive state where in people will only attain social
change or development when freedom and equality is already attained.

Parsons – believes that social change is associated with homeostasis or the state of balance
(equilibrium).

Tim Dyson’s – his point of view of social change as interrelated with the concept of demographic
transition.
All the changes that happens in human in the society are deeply rooted on three aspects
 cultural
 Social
 political

Innovation
- may be in form of new scientific knowledge, new beliefs, and additional inventions.
-introducing new ideas, device or method.
Diffusion
-this involves the process of
transferring cultural traits and concepts from one human group to the other.
- this is a cultural trait that can be introduced to another culture through facilitating such as
migration and media.
- this process involves two cultures in contact with one another.
- This also becomes a factor in social change as it allows for the incorporation of new perspective and
practices in the existing cultural fabric of the society.
Acculturation and Assimilation

Acculturation
- is the process of learning a culture other than ones own.
- this implies that it is geared toward a second-culture learning.
- the dominant society cultural complex is adapted by the less dominant group.
Assimilation
- is a gradual process of culture change that allows for the indistinguishable cultural similarity
between two different cultural groups.
- this process is often observed
In immigrant societies where in the
Migrants often assimilate the culture
Of the local to adapt to the new
Society rules and regulation.

Social Contradiction and Tensions


- this are two inevitable (sure to happen) circumstances among societies that can be seen in
different forms such as issues, problems, struggles and conflicts.
Conflicts – arise in every society because of certain societal differences or inequalities.
- in many instances , cultural, social, and political differences often led to disagreement and
conflict.
- moreover, people who seem to be oppressed or violated often form a collective actions.
- for instance, ethnic groups with specific cultures and practices often generate conflict with other
groups because of their differences.
- in terms of class struggle, those individual from the lower class are deprived of rights and
privileges, unlike those in the higher social class.

Collective Action
- refers to any action being taken by a certain group who shares common aims and goals to
achieve specific changes or objective that would benefit the members of the group.
- another most common source of social change is the subject involving gender issues.
- Gender differences, inequalities, and discrimination are not yet eliminated in the social world.
- consequently, more gender organization are being formed, and several initiatives or
measures are being taken to fight gender issues especially gender discrimination.
- these org. share common goal to bring change in the way people see or perceive the concept
of gender and its component.
Three Forms of Social Tensions
1. Ethnic Conflict
2. Armed Conflict
3. Terrorism
1.Ethnic Conflict – is referred to as ethnic war and is usually characterized by homogenous cultural
groups having an armed struggle with each other or with other social institutions.
2. Armed Conflicts – are mostly political in nature as non-state actors clamor for their rights that are
perceived to be withheld from them by the state.
- in the Phil. we had witnessed several armed conflicts with non-state actors such as New
Peoples Army (NPA) and the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom fighters (BIFF).
3. Acts Of Terrorism – are highly political activities that are meant to give an statement to organizations
or state that are believed to have hegemonic ( influence) power over subjugated (defeat) territories or
sectors of society.
- the attack on the Twin Tower of the (world Trade Center) in New York in 2001 changed the
political landscape of the United States, as it launched its intensive campaign against international
terrorist groups such as the Al-Qaeda.
New Challenges to Human Adaptation and Social Change
1. Global Warming
2. Climate Change
3. Transnational Migration

What is Global Warming?


- the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2012) defined Global Warming as:
 the earths climate is fueled by the Sun. Most of the sun energy, called Solar radiation, is
absorbed by the Earth, but some is reflected back into space.
 a natural layer of atmospheric gases absorbs a portion of this reflected solar radiation,
eventually releasing some of it into space, but forcing much of it back to earth.
 there it warms the Earths surface creating what is known as the natural “greenhouse Effect”
1. Global warming– this have been identified as one of the key indicators for policy making in most
countries as all present day government have admitted to the magnitude of implications that these two
factors can have on their citizens live.
2. Climate Change – the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change (2012) define
climate change as “ a change in climate which is attribute directly or indirectly to human activity that
alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is addition to natural climate variability
observed over comparable time periods.

- some observed impacts of global warming are


a. rise in sea level
b. increase in wildfire events
c. severe drought
d. increase the frequency of severe storms in many areas
e. flooding
f. increase in weather variability.
 the rise in temperature in most areas can also trigger health risk
1. Spread of vector-borne disease ( malaria and dengue)
2. increase in frequency of heart stroke and skin disease.
3. Transnational Migration – is the process by which individual from one country migrate to another
country for economic, political and social reasons.
- best example of transnational migration are the OFW’s across different geographical
locations.
What do you think is the major factor that drives Filipino to go abroad?
 root causes of this large number of migration cases among Filipinos are their families and
issues on development.
 huge number of Filipinos are experiencing unemployment and poverty.
Transnational Migration – is a big leap and challenge for Filipinos because there is no assurance of
success and development.
- but the topmost identified positive effect of the OFW phenomenon is the economic
development of the country through their remittances.
OFW – gained a popular title of Bagong Bayani.
- their constant remittances to their families in the country have allowed for a consistent cash
flow in the country.
- however, the high rate of migration out of the country has also caused the phenomenon of brain
drain.

Brain Drain – decreasing number of well-trained and equipped members of the labor force, as they take
job offers in other countries that assure them significantly higher compensation.
 Responding to Social, Political an Cultural Change
 Every societal change entails certain reactions, responses, and adaptations
 Individuals have several kinds of responses (positive and negative) to these growing numbers
of societal changes.
 some easily adapt with the new changes being imposed, but others reject systemic changes,
causing them to establish social movements to defeat or transform what has been already
changed.
 Inclusive Citizenship and Participatory Governance
 in a democratic society, citizen participation in politics is encouraged.
 This participation is sometimes contested
 UN is the leading organization highlighted the importance of participatory governance.
Categories of Public Governance

1.Civic and Political governance


- this deals with issues that are related to human rights.
2.Development Governance
- this pertains to planning, budgeting, monitoring and accountability of socio eonomic
policies and program.

Participation
- is a fundamental goal and object of value in and of itself.
- this is also has instrumental value because it can help achieve other primary goals.
-this can help also deepen the democracy, strengthen social capital, facilitate efficiency and
sustained growth and promote pro-poor initiatives, equity and social justice.
Political efficacy
- relates to an individual’s perception of his or her capacity to influence the political system
toward a political end.

Political Will
- is the extent of engagement that an individual has with the political system in the attempt to
achieve a goal.
 given the two preconditions, it can be said that an individual who has negative political
efficacy and low political will may not be inclined to participate in the conduct of governance
as he or she believes that he or she is not capable of influencing the system.
Youth Volunteerism
- this is one of the key observable social change in the recent decades.
- most non-state institution have targeted the youth to participate in the implementation of
their advocacies.

New Forms of Media and Social Networking


1. First written word
2. Movable type
3. Mass publication
4. Email
5. Twitter
 Media - has already undergone a series of technological innovation and development.

 written historical record – served as the medium of communication during the ancient times.
 Movable type printers – were used as society changes and developed to spread information to
people.
 mass publication – this was made to ensure that messages and information reach more people,
allowing them to have enough information and public awareness.
As society experienced modernization, several forms of media –particularly social media-arose,
resulting in modernized development of communication.
Types of Social Media and Their Characteristics
1. Social Networking- Services that allow you to connect with other people of similar interest and
background. Usually they consist of a profile, various ways to interact with other uses, and ability to
setup, to name a few.
2. Bookmarking Sites – services that allow you to save, organize and manage links to various web sites
and resources on the internet.
- most allow you to “tag” your links to make them easy to search ad share.
3. Social News – services that allow people to post various news items or links to outside articles and
then allow it users to “vote” on the items.
- the voting is the core social aspects as the items that get most votes are displayed the most
prominently.
- the community decides which news items get seen more people.
4. Media Sharing – services that allow you to upload and share various media such as pictures and
videos.
5. Microblogging – services that focus on short updates that are pushed out to anyone subscribed to
receive the updates.
6. Blog Comments and Forum – online forums allow members to hold conversation by posting
messages.
 The different forms of social media have specific characteristics that can overlap.
 presently, this forms serve as one of the fastest and biggest media of communication.
 Social media has also been used as a medium for change.
 individuals and organizations use social media to promote their initiatives and advocacies,
which in turn encourages more support from the viewers.
 Social media can also provide information to people across the world.
 Communicating thoughts, trends, or campaigns have become global in scope and on real time.
 Talents and capacities are also shared globally and instantaneously with just a press of a button.
 This allowed for the rise of internet sensation and global trends.
 Communication has also been revolutionized by the development of texting.

 From a very exclusive privilege of instant communication due to the expensive charges of
mobile calls, texting equalized this field by allowing more individuals to communicate with
one another at a cheaper rate.
 the Philippines has been one of the countries that highly benefit from this development, as
evidence by the 43% margin of texter’s in the Philippines, as compared to their American
counterparts.
 Texting has also allowed for the creation of subcultures in the country such as jejemons, who
are infamous for sending text messages that reformulate English and Filipino words into near
incomprehensibility, such that a typical greeting of “hello po” for example, is transformed to
“eowz phowz”.
 Social Movements Model
Social Movement – is a process that involves three elements:
1. Individual
2. Group
3. Society
 Individual are aware of their personal qualities, characteristics, and values, enabling them to
act according to what they practice or believe in.
 when they experience any form of change in the society where they belong to, reactions and
responses follow
 then, this individual finds another individual or group that has views and sentiments similar to
his or hers.
 as a result, there is a series of social interactions between the individual and the groups,
allowing them to collaborate with same goals and objectives.
 These goals focus on bringing change for their welfare and for the common good.
 This process paves the way to the formation of social movements among different societies.
David Aberle – an anthropologist who stated that movements can be categorized according to the
number of their participants and the extent of the movement impact on the structure.
Aberle’s Categories of Social Movement
1. Alternative Social Movement– social movements have limited goals that are often related to specific
parts of the structure that specific individual would like to alter.
2. Reformative Social Movements - when the scope of the change intended is limited but the
membership to the movement is on wider scale.
- example of this is the group of individuals who joined under the banner of pro-reproductive
health bill during the deliberation process of the law.
- the change that this group wanted is the availability of reproductive health options for
everyone in society regardless of socio-economic background.

3. Redemptive Social Movement – this movement tends to gather participants from specific sectors of
the society with a goal of radically changing the status of individual members.
- religious groups and cults have such impacts.
4. Revolutionary Social Movement – when the changed that is expected is radical and the beneficiary
includes everyone.
- the communist revolutionary movement in China led by Mao Tse-tung is an example of this,
as it changed the entire social structure of China.
 One of the pervading issues in our country today is the rise of teenage pregnancy.
 According to WHO, around 16.3% of Filipinos from 15-19 age cluster have become mothers
in 2012.
 this is significantly higher than the 6.3% report for 2002.
 Various sectors have been in opposing perspective as to the nature and potential resolution of
this issue.
 it was further reported that this phenomenon is highly observable in low-income communities.
The Dynamics of Social Movement
 Using a unilinear evolutionary perspective, social movements are believed to follow a
transitory process that commences with its emergence as solitary units that soon coalesce to
create stronger support systems.
 this coalition necessitates the bureaucratization of the movement.
 as the movement fights for its causes, its members experience five processes, success, failure,
co-optation, repression, and going mainstream.
 whatever trajectory social movements take, they all cease to exist after sometime.

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