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Chapter 1
CEMENT
1.1. Types of Cement
1.2. Chemical Composition
1.3. Testing of Cement
1.4. Manufacturing of Cement
1.5. Method of Cement Storing

Cement is a manufactured construction material and widely used for structural

constructions such as buildings, bridges, tunnels, dams, factories, pavement and
etc. It is an instant glue and capable to bond mineral fragments into compact
whole. There are variety type of cements can be found in the market. Each type
is manufactured under certain condition depending on its special properties.
However today, Portland cement is the most commonly used as mortar and
concrete in structural construction.

Mortar:
A mixture of cement, fine aggregates or sand and water to
form a paste

Concrete:
A mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregates and water
under certain ratio

Portland cement was patented by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 and was named after
the limestone cliffs on the Isle of Portland in England.

1.1 Types of Cement

Cement is manufactured with two basic raw ingredients called calcareous and
an argillaceous material. The cement in making of concrete has the property of
setting and hardening under water by virtue of chemical reaction with it and this
type of cement is called hydraulic cement.

Calcareous:
The calcareous material is a calcium oxide, such as limestone, chalk, or oyster shells.

Argillaceous:
Argillaceous is a combination of silica and alumina that can be found from clay, shale,
and blast furnace slag.

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Setting Time
Setting refers to the stiffening of the cement paste or the change
from a plastic state to a solid state. The setting time refers to
changes of the cement paste from fluid to rigid. Setting is usually
described in two levels namely, initial setting and final setting.

Initial Setting
Initial setting is defined as the beginning of the noticeable
stiffening in the cement paste and it’s corresponding to the rapid
rise temperature. This normally takes about 45 – 175 minutes.

Final Setting Time

This refers to completion of setting which correspond to the peak
temperature in the cement paste. The stiffening of cement paste
increase as the volume of the gel increases and the stage at
which this is completed, the final hardening process begins. It
normally takes between 3 to 10 hours for this to happen.

Hardening
This is referred to the gained of the strength of the cement paste.
Actually during the setting time, the cement gained very little
strength.

Different concrete applications require cements with different properties. Some

applications require rapid strength gain to expedite the construction and other
applications require low heat hydration to control volume change and associated
shrinkage cracking. Hence, each type of cement is manufactured by altering the
ratios of four basic compounds namely Tricalcium Silicate, Dicalcium Silicate,
Tricalcium Aluminate and Tetracalcium Aluminoferitte to fit the applications.

Table 1.1.1: Main Compound of Portland Cement

Name of Compound Usual Abbreviation Reaction

Tricalcium Silicate C3S Quick

Dicalcium Silicate C2S Slow
Tricalcium Aluminate C3A Very quick
Tetracalcium Aluminoferitte C4AF Not very important

Cements can be classified into two categories namely hydraulic cement and
high alumina cement.

1.1.1 Hydraulic Cement

Hydraulic cement is consists of silicates and aluminates of lime. This type of
cement can be classified as;

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a. Natural Cement
Natural cements are powders obtained from certain natural rocks (clayey lime
stone type) which are quarried, crushed and processes. Enough heat is
required to dry off carbonic acid gasses. Besides, it is brown in colour and
sets slowly or quickly when mixed with water, depending on the amount of
clay in the limestone. The strength is low and not used for concrete work.

b. Aluminous Cement
The chief ingredients of aluminous cement are calcareous and aluminious
materials (limestone or chalk and bauxite). These are heated to a
temperature of 1400oC and the whole mass is grinded to powder form.

c. Portland Cement
The hardening of Portland cement is a chemical process during which heat is
evolved. Modified forms of Portland based on different ratio of four main
compositions are made, to suit the varying demands of different kinds of
structural application.

Table 1.1.2: Classification of Portland Cements

Name Application
General concrete work when the special properties of
Normal other types are not needed. Suitable for floors,
reinforced concrete structures, pavements, etc.

Protection against moderate sulfate exposure, 0.1-0.2%

weight water soluble sulfate in soil or 150-1500ppm
Moderate Sulfate sulfate in water (sea water). Can be specified with
moderate heat of hydration, making it suitable for large
Resistance
piers, heavy abutments, and retaining walls. The
moderate heat of hydration is also beneficial when
placing concrete in warm weather.

Used for fast-tract construction when forms need to be

High Early of Hydration removed as soon as possible or structure need to be put
in service as soon of possible. In cold weather, reduces
time required for controlled curing.

Low Heat of Hydration Used when mass of structure, such as large dams,
requires careful control of heat of hydration.

Protection from severe sulfate exposure, 0.2-2.0%

High Sulfate
weight water soluble sulfate in soils or 1500-10,800 ppm
Resistance
sulfate in water

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What is cement
hydration?

Hydration is chemical reaction between cement particles and water. The features
of this reaction are the change in matter, the change in energy level, and the rate
of reaction. Example:
Tricalcium silicate + Water  Calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) + Calcium hydroxide

C-S-H makes the hydrated cement paste strong and calcium hydroxide is
susceptible to attack by sulfate and acidic water

i) Ordinary Portland Cement – OPC ( BS 12 : 1971)

OPC has a medium rate of hardening and is suitable for most type
of work. It is the one most commonly used for structural purposes
when the special properties specified for other four types of cement
are not required.

ii) Rapid Hardening Portland Cement – RHPC (BS 12 : 1971)

RHPC hardens rather more rapidly than OPC. It is similar in
chemical composition to OPC but the proportions of the various
compounds may be slightly different, and it is finely ground. Due to
its finer grinding, it will increase the rate of hydration at early ages,
and this leads to the increased rate of early hardening as implied by
the name.

This early strength is achieved by increasing C2S and C3A content

of the cement and finer grinding. Since it has high heat evaluation,
RHPC should not be used in large masses. With 15% of C3A, it has
lower sulfate resistance. The may be limited to obtain moderate
sulfate resistance or to 5% when high sulfate resistance is required.

Rapid-hardening Portland cement should not be regarded as quick-

setting cement. The setting time specified in BS 12:1971 for
RHPC is similar as specified for OPC

iii) White and Coloured Portland Cement (BS 12 : 1971)

Generally used for decorative work. It is made by using China clay
in place of ordinary clay to exclude impurities, especially iron oxide
and limestone.

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Coloured cements are made by mixing pigments with Portland

cement

iv) Low Heat Portland Cement – LHPC (BS 1370: 1974)

LHPC hardens and evolves heat more slowly than OPC. It has
slightly different chemical composition. It is obtained by increasing
the proportion of C2S and reducing C3S and C3A. It thus hydrates
more slowly and evolves heat less rapidly than OPC. The strength
of LHPC is slow developed but the ultimate strength is same.
However, the initial setting time is greater than OPC.

Trace Setting Time

for OPC, RHPC and
LHPC

Setting Time

Cement Initial Setting Final Setting

Type Time, minutes Time, minutes
(min) (max)
OPC 30 600
RHPC 30 600
LHPC 60 600

v) Portland Blustfurnace Cement - PBC (BS 146: 1973)

PBC is made by grinding a mixture of OPC clinker with selected
granulated blast furnace slag. The proportion of slag is limited by
the British Standard to not more than 65% of the finished cement.

The properties of blast furnace cement are very similar to those of

OPC but it hydrates slower than those of Portland cement so this
cement evolves less heat and hardens more slowly than OPC. The
resistance to sulfate is often considered to be intermediate between
that of sulfate-resisting Portland cement.

vi) Sulfate-Resisting Portland Cement – SRPC (BS 4027: 1972)

SRPC is specified where there is extensive exposure to sulfate.
Typical applications include hydraulic structure exposed to water
with high alkali content and structures subjected to seawater
exposure. The surface resistance to SRPC is achieved by reducing
the C3A content to a minimum since that compound is most

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susceptible to sulfate attack. It usually has a higher content of C4AF.

Concrete made with this cement is more resistant to attack by
sulfate compounds which may be found dissolved in ground water
and which are present in sea water. SRPC tends to be darker in
colour than OPC.

vii) High Strength Portland Cement – HSPC

HSPC is produced from the same material as the case of OPC. The
higher strength achieved by increasing C3S content and also by
finer grinding of clinker. The initial and final setting times are the
same as that of OPC.

At higher water cement ratios, the HSPC has about 80% higher
strength and at lower cement ratio 40% higher strength than OPC.

viii) Masonry Cement (BS 5224: 1976)

For hand work such as rendering and bricklaying, mortar composed
only of Portland cement and sand are not ideal. Such mortars
harden too quickly, are too strong, and lack the plasticity and water
retention desirable in a masonry mortar. It has been customary to
overcome this difficulty by mixing lime with the cement mixtures.
Masonry cement, under various brand names consists of Portland
cement with a fine inert admixture and plasticizing agent.

Table 1.1.3: Minimum Compressive Strength of Concrete Cube specified by

BS 4550 for Portland Cement
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)
Type of Portland Cement 3 days 7 days 28 days
OPC 13 - 29
RHPC 18 - 33
PBC 8 14 22
LHPC 5 - 19
SRPC 10 - 27

1.1.2 High Alumina Cement

High alumina cement is quite different both in composition and properties from
Portland cement. It is comparatively slow-setting but rapid hardening, thus,
produces very high early strength. As a considerable amount of heat is
generated during the setting and hardening process, it should not be used in rich
mixes or large masses. It is essential that the concrete be kept continuously wet

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for at least 24 hours from the time it begins to harden. About 80%of the ultimate
strength is developed at the age of 24 hours. High alumina cement has an initial
setting time about 4 hours and final setting time about 5 hours. The heat that
generated during the hardening period has one advantage, as it enables the
concrete to be placed at lower temperatures than OPC.

For the same water cement ratio, the alumina cement is more workable than
Portland cement. If high alumina cement concrete is used in place where
moisture and a high temperature present simultaneously, there will be a loss
strength whether these conditions occur early of late in the life of the concrete.
High alumina cement concrete is more resistant than OPC to the action of
sulfates, therefore suitable under sea water applications. The chemical oxide
composition for high alumina cement is as shown in Table 1.1.4.

The raw materials are limestone or chalk and bauxite which are crushed into
lumps not exceeding 100mm. The materials are heated to the fusion point at
about 1600oC. The solidified material is fragmented and then ground to a
fineness of 2500-3200 cm2/g. The product of very dark grey powder is passed
through magnetic separators to remove metallic iron. The alumina cement is
considerably more expensive.

Table 1.1.4: Chemical Oxide Composition for High Alumina Cement

Alumina (Al2O3) 39%
Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) 10%
Lime (CaO) 38%
Ferrous Oxide (FeO) 4%
Silica (SiO2) 6%

1.2 Chemical Composition

Several types of cements can be obtained by changing the percentages of
chemical composition. Table 1.2.1 shows the chemical composition limit of
Portland cement:

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Table 1.2.1 Chemical Composition Limit of Portland Cement

Name of Raw Material Chemical Composition Percentage Limit
Lime CaO 60 – 67
Silica SiO2 17 – 25
Alumina Al 2O3 3–8
Iron Oxide Fe2O3 0.5 – 6
Magnesium MgO 0.1 – 4
Alkalis (Soda and or/ potash) Na2O,K2O 0.2 – 1.3
Sulphur Trioxide SO3 1-3

The interaction of Portland cement raw materials are interacted in kiln by forming
complex chemical compounds. Calcination in the kiln restructures the molecular
composition by producing four main chemical compounds.

Table 1.2.2 Main Compounds of Portland Cement

Usual Range by Weight
Name of Compound Chemical Formula
(%)
Tricalcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO2 45 – 60
Dicalcium Silicate 2CaO.SiO2 15 – 30
Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 6 – 12
Tetracalcium Aluminoferitte 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 6-8

The minor compounds such as magnesium oxide, titanium oxide, manganese

oxide, sodium oxide, and potassium oxide are represented a few percentages by
weight of cement.

1.3 Testing of Cement

1.3.1 Setting

Vicat Set Time Apparatus

Setting time can be determined with the Vicat apparatus. The Vicat test requires
sample of cement using the amount of water required for normal consistency
according to a specified procedure.

Procedure:
The 1 mm (0.04in) diameter needle is allowed to penetrate the paste for 30
seconds and the amount of penetration is measured. The penetration process is
repeated every 15 minutes until a penetration of 25 mm (1in) or less is obtained.
By interpolation, the time when a penetration of 25 mm occurs is determined and

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recorded as the initial set time. The final set time is when the needle does not
penetrate visibly into the paste.

Vicat Set Time Apparatus

Gilmore Set Time Apparatus

The Gilmore requires a normal consistency cement paste sample. A pat with a
flat top is molded and the initial Gilmore needle is applied lightly to its surface.
The application surface is repeated until the pat bears the force of the needle
without appreciable indentation, and the elapsed time is recorded as the initial
time. This process is then repeated with the final Gilmore needle and the final set
time is recorded.

Gilmore Set Time Apparatus

Soundness
Soundness of the cement paste refers to its ability to retain its volume after
setting. Expansion after setting, caused by delayed or slow hydration or reactions,
could result if the cement is unsound. The autoclave expansion test is used to
check the soundness of the cement paste. In this test, cement paste bars are
subjected to heat and high pressure, and the amound of expandsion is measure.
ASTM c150 limits autoclave expansion to 0.8%.

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Cement Autoclave Expansion

Compressive Strength
Compressive strength of mortar is measured by preparing 50mm (2in.) cubes and
subjecting them to compression according to ASTM C109. The mortar is
prepared with cement, water and standard sand (ASTM C778). Minimum
compressive strength values are specified by ASTM C150 for different cement
types at different ages. The compressive strength of mortar cubes is proportional
to compressive strength of cylinders. However, the compressive strength of the
concrete cannot be predicted accurately from mortar cube strength, since the
concrete strength is affected by aggregate characteristics, the concrete mixing
and the construction procedures.

1.4 Manufacturing of Cement

Production of Portland cement deals with two basic raw ingredients namely
calcareous and argillaceous. These materials are crushed and stored in the silos.
The raw materials, in the desired proportions, are passed through grinding mill,
using either wet or dry process. The ground material is stored until it can be sent
to the kiln.

Modern dry process cement plants use a heat recovery cycle to preheat the
ground material, or feed stock, with the exhaust gas from the kiln. Some plants
use a flash furnace to further heat and feed stock. Both the preheater and flash
furnace improves the energy efficiency of cement productions. In the kiln, the raw
materials are melted at temperatures 1400oC to 1650oC, changing the materials
into cement clinker. The clinker is cooled and stored. The small amount of
gypsum is added to regulate the setting time of the cement in the concrete.

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The finished product may be stored and transported in either bulk or sacks. The
cement can be stored for long periods of time, provided it is kept dry.

Assignment (Due Date : 22nd January 2007)

1. What is the best storing system for cement?. Explain

2. How to speed up the strength development of concrete?. Explain.
3. What are the effects of non-potable water on concrete quality? Explain.

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