Acknowledgement

I feel profound happiness in forwarding this industrial training report as an

image of sincere efforts. It is almost inevitable to ensure indebtedness to all who
generously helped by sharing their valuable experience and devoting their
precious time with us, without whom this seminar report would have never been
accomplished.

I extend my thanks and gratitude to the teachers, whose guidance, teaching

and invaluable suggestions provided me a deep insight in my chosen field of
technology, enhanced my knowledge and supported in widening my outlook
towards the communication industry.

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 IntroductIon to AutomAtIon

Automation, the application of machines to tasks once performed by human

beings or, increasingly, to tasks that would otherwise be impossible. Although the
term mechanization is often used to refer to the simple replacement of human labor
by machines, automation generally implies the integration of machines into a self-
governing system. Automation has revolutionized those areas in which it has been
introduced, and there is scarcely an aspect of modern life that has been unaffected
by it.
The term automation was coined in the automobile industry about 1946 to
describe the increased use of automatic devices and controls in mechanized
production lines. The origin of the word is attributed to D.S. Harder, an
engineering manager at the Ford Motor Company at the time. The term is used
widely in a manufacturing context, but it is also applied outside manufacturing in
connection with a variety of systems in which there is a significant substitution of
mechanical, electrical, or computerized action for human effort and intelligence.
In general usage, automation can be defined as a technology concerned with
performing a process by means of programmed commands combined with
automatic feedback control to ensure proper execution of the instructions. The
resulting system is capable of operating without human intervention. The
development of this technology has become increasingly dependent on the use of
computers and computer-related technologies. Consequently, automated systems
have become increasingly sophisticated and complex. Advanced systems represent
a level of capability and performance that surpass in many ways the abilities of
humans to accomplish the same activities.
Automation technology has matured to a point where a number of other
technologies have developed from it and have achieved a recognition and status of
their own. Robotics is one of these technologies; it is a specialized branch of
automation in which the automated machine possesses certain anthropomorphic,
or humanlike, characteristics. The most typical humanlike characteristic of a
modern industrial robot is its powered mechanical arm. The robot’s arm can be
programmed to move through a sequence of motions to perform useful tasks, such
as loading and unloading parts at a production machine or making a sequence of
spot-welds on the sheet-metal parts of an automobile body during assembly. As
these examples suggest, industrial robots are typically used to replace human
workers in factory operations.
This article covers the fundamentals of automation, including its historical
development, principles and theory of operation, applications in manufacturing

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and in some of the services and industries important in daily life, and impact on the
individual as well as society in general. The article also reviews the development and
technology of robotics as a significant topic within automation.

Tools of Automation:
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA).
Human Machine Interface (HMI) or Touch Screen (TS).
Variable Frequency Drive (VFD).

Advantages:

Replacing human operators in tasks that involve

hard physical or monotonous work.
Replacing humans in tasks done in dangerous environments.
Performing tasks that are beyond human capabilities of size, weight,
speed, endurance, etc.
Economy improvement: Automation may improve in economy of
enterprises, society or most of humanity.

Disadvantages:
Unemployment rate increases due to machines replacing humans and
putting those humans out of their jobs.
Technical Limitation.
Security Threats.
High initial cost.

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 Plc (ProgrAmmAble logIc
controller)
Initially industries used relays to control the manufacturing processes. The
relay control panels had to be regularly replaced, consumed lot of power and it
was difficult to figure out the problems associated with it. To sort these issues,
Programmable logic controller (PLC) was introduced.

Fig. 1: Graphical Representation of PLC

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a digital computer used for the

automation of various electro-mechanical processes in industries. These
controllers are specially designed to survive in harsh situations and shielded from
heat, cold, dust, and moisture etc. PLC consists of a microprocessor which is
programmed using the computer language.

The program is written on a computer and is downloaded to the PLC via

cable. These loaded programs are stored in non – volatile memory of the PLC.
During the transition of relay control panels to PLC, the hard wired relay logic
was exchanged for the program fed by the user. A visual programming language
known as the Ladder Logic was created to program the PLC.

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 HIstory
Programmable Logic Controllers were discovered by the automotive industry
to substitute the re-wiring of the machine’s control panel. Prior to the invention of
PLC, automobiles were manufactured using plenty of relays, cam timers, and closed
loop controllers. The electricians had to re-wire every part of the machine daily
which was time consuming and highly expensive on the financial front.
Later in the year 1968, a request for an electronic device for the hard-wired
relay systems was made by GM hydromantic. Bedford Associates won the
proposal and started a new company to develop, fabricate, sell, and service this
new launched product. The first PLC launched was designated 084 as it was the
eighty fourth projects of Bedford Associates. Dick Morley worked on this
project and is being considered as the Father of PLC. In the year 1977, the
brand invented by Modicon was sold to Gould Electronics. The Gould
Electronics later sold it to German Company AEG which was later taken over by
French Schneider Electric.
The first 084 model of PLC was revealed in North Andover, Massachusetts
at the Modicon headquarters.
The automotive industry is one of the largest users of PLC.

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Plc system

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 Plc HArdwAre

The hardware components of a PLC system are CPU, Memory,

Input/Output, Power supply unit, and programming device. Below is a diagram of
the system overview of PLC.

Fig. 2: An Overview of Hardware Components Of A PLC System

CPU – Keeps checking the PLC controller to avoid errors. They perform
functions including logic operations, arithmetic operations, computer interface
and many more.
Memory – Fixed data is used by the CPU. System (ROM) stores the data
permanently for the operating system. RAM stores the information of the status
of input and output devices, and the values of timers, counters and other
internal devices.
I/O section – Input keeps a track on field devices which includes sensors,
switches.
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 O/P Section - Output has a control over the other devices which includes
motors, pumps, lights and solenoids. The I/O ports are based on Reduced
Instruction Set Computer (RISC).
Power supply – Certain PLCs have an isolated power supply. But, most of the
PLCs work at 220VAC or 24VDC.
Programming device – This device is used to feed the program into the
memory of the processor. The program is first fed to the programming device
and later it is transmitted to the PLC’s memory.
System Buses – Buses are the paths through which the digital signal flows
internally of the PLC. The four system buses are:
o Data bus is used by the CPU to transfer data among different elements.
o Control bus transfers signals related to the action that are controlled
internally.
o Address bus sends the location’s addresses to access the data.
o System bus helps the I/O port and I/O unit to communicate with each other.

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 workIng & APPlIcAtIon of Plc
Working of PLC (Programmable Logic Controller):
The Programmable logic controller functions in four steps.

Fig. 3: Typical Block Diagram of Programmable Logic Controller Functions

Input scan: The state of the input is scanned which is connected externally.
The inputs include switches, pushbuttons, and proximity sensors, limit
switches, pressure switches. Ideally, they are transformers and not relays.
Program scan: The loaded program is executed to carry out the function
appropriately.
Output scan: The input sources have a control over the output ports to
energize or de-energize them. The outputs include solenoids, valves, motors,
actuator, and pumps. Depending on the model of PLC, these relays can be
transistors, triacs or relays.
Housekeeping: Includes communicating with programming devices and
performing internal diagnostics.

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 ProgrAmmIng In Plc:
Languages used in PLC for the purpose of programming are:
1. Ladder language
2. Functional Block Diagram (FBD)
3. Instructional List (IL)
4. Drive Functional Block (DFB)
5. Structural test language

Ladder language used in PLC programming:

There are two PLC in which ladder programming is used:
• ZELIO PLC: It uses Zelio soft 2 software for the programming.
• DELTA PLC: It uses WPL soft software for their programming.

Parameters used in Zelio and delta PLC in ladder

programming:

NO and NC Contact:
One of the most confusing aspects of PLC programming for first-time users is
the relationship between the device that controls a status bit and the programming
function that uses a status bit. Two of the most common programming functions

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are the normally open (NO) contact and the normally closed (NC) contact.
Symbolically, power flows through these contacts when they are closed. The
normally open contact (NO) is true (closed) when the input or output status bit
controlling the contact is 1. The normally closed contact (NC) is true (closed)
when the input or output status bit controlling the contact is 0.

INTERLOCKING in PLC:
Interlocking means to interlock something by placing NC of coil or input in
front. The concept of interlocking reduces the complexity in PLC programming.
Interlocking in ladder programming means whenever we want to off some output
by input or any type coil, then we have to place NC of that input or a coil in front
of output which we want to off.

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Memory Coil:
Coils represent relays that are energized when power flows to them. When a
coil is energized, it causes a corresponding output to turn on by changing the state
of the status bit controlling that output to 1. That same output status bit may be
used to control normally open and normally closed contacts elsewhere in the
program.

Latching:
Latching is the process in which once output or a coil is energized it remains
energized forever. Latching is done by the contact of output or coil which we want
to switch ON permanently.

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Timer:
Timer is basically used add some delay in the programming circuit by
adding a particular time to each circuit.
Types of timers:
• ON delay timer
• OFF delay timer

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 APPlIcAtIon of Plc

Conveyor System:

PLC can be used to start/stop latching logic for motor control.

Counters can be used for monitoring product amounts.
Conveyor system using PLC can be used in car washing system.

Gate Control:

PLC can sense a vehicle at the entrance or exit, and open and close the gate
automatically.
The current vehicle count is easily determined by programming a simple
counter.
Gate control system can also be used for domestic purpose.

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 Plc Problems

Problem One:

Problem Description
Two simultaneous processes are to be performed in two separate tanks
which are connected through a valve. Process 1 takes place in the 1st tank and
Process 2 takes in the 2nd tank. Control level of these tanks in PLC using Ladder
Diagram programming language.

Problem Diagram

Problem Solution
1. Mount two level switches in the first tank and two
switches in the second tanks. Both switches of tanks
detect High and Low level of the tanks.
2. Install inlet valve to control inlet process flow and outlet
valve to control outlet process flow.
3. Install one more connecting valve to control draining of
process material from Process 1 Tank to Process 2 Tank.

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 4.Provide interlocking to prevent from malfunctioning or
overflowing.
PLC Program
Here is PLC program to Control Level of Two Tanks, along with program
explanation and run time test cases.
List of inputs or Outputs
I:1/0= Level High Switch-Tank 1, LHS1 (Input)
I:1/1 = Level Low Switch-Tank 1, LLS1 (Input)
I:1/3 = Level Low Switch-Tank 2, LLS2 (Input)
O:2/0 = Inlet Valve (Output)
O:2/1 = Tank Connecting Valve (Output)
O:2/2 = Outlet Valve (Output)
I:1/14 = Start (Input)
I:1/15 = Stop (Input)
B3:0/0 = Master Coil Bit (Bit)

Ladder Diagram to control level of two

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 Program Description
1. RUNG000 is a master start/stop rung to Start and Stop the
entire process.
2. RUNG001 is for controlling Connecting Valve output O:2/1. It
is opened when LHS1 I:1/0, Pro1 Done I:1/5 and LLS2 I:1/3 are
detected. And it is closed when LLS1 I:1/1 is detected, or in
other words, when Process 1 Tank is empty.
3. Important thing to note here is that if Tanks’ size/shape were not
same and any one XIC contact from O:2/1, I:1/0 or I:1/5 was
not connected, there would have been a chance of
malfunctioning/overflowing.
4. RUNG002 is for controlling Inlet valve O:2/0. It is allows the
inlet flow by opening Inlet Valve whenever Low Level switch of
Process1 Tank LLS1 with address I:1/0 is detected.
5. RUNG003 is for controlling Outlet Valve with address
O:2/2. It allows the process material to flow out when Pro1
Done I: 1/6 is detected.
6. Consider any set point of Process1 and Process2 as I:1/5 and

Runtime Test
Inputs Outputs Physical Elements
I:1/0 = 1, I:1/1 = 0 O:2/2 = 1 Open Outlet Valve
I:1/0 = 0, I:1/1 = 1 O:2/0 = 1 Open Inlet Valve
I:1/0 = 1, I:1/5 = 1, I:1/3 = 1 O:2/1 = 1 Open Connecting Valve
I:1/0 = 0, I:1/1 = 0 O:2/0 = 1 Open Inlet Valve
I:1/0 = 1 O:2/0 = 0 Close Inlet Valve
I:1/1 = 1 O:2/1 = 0 Close Connecting Valve
I:1/3 = 1 O:2/2 = 0Close Outlet Valve

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 Problem Two:

Problem Description
Two tanks are connected in parallel with a stream line. Heat and Cool the
same material and control level of both tanks. Implement this in PLC using Ladder
Diagram programming language.

Problem Diagram

Problem Solution
1. Heater is used to heat the material and cooling water supply
is used to cool down material temperature.
2. Inlet valve feeds Material to both tanks.
3. One tank stores material for heating purpose and the other
stores material for cooling purpose.
4. Level switches are used to detect Low level and High level in
both the tanks.
5. Outlet valves are installed in the bottom of both the tanks to
drain products for further process.

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 6. Mount temperature sensors to measure temperature of both the
tanks.
7. Controlling of these tanks is independent of inlet flow assuming
inlet flow to be constant.

Here is PLC program to Control Level of Parallel Tanks, along with

program explanation and run time test cases.
List of Inputs and Outputs
I:1/0 = Start PB (Input)
I:1/1 = Stop PB (Input)
I:1/2 = LLST1 Low level of Tank 1 (Input)
I:1/3 = LHST1 High Level of tank 2 (Input)
I:1/4 = LLST2 Low level of Tank 2 (Input)
I:1/5 = LHST2 High level of Tank 2 (Input)
B3:0/0 = Latching bit (Bit)
O:2/0 = V2 To heating tank (Output)
O:2/1 = V4 outlet from heating tank (Output)
O:2/2 = V3 To cooling tank (Output)
O:2/3 = V5 outlet from cooling tank (Output)
N7:0 = Register to store temperature reading of heating tank (Register)
N7:1 = Register to store temperature reading of cooling tank (Register)

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 Ladder Diagram to solve this problem:

Program Description:
RUNG001 is to control V2 Valve. This is operated whenever Low
level of Tank1 is detected or if Low level or high level both are not
detected.
RUNG002 is to control V4 valve. This is operated whenever
Temperature data of tank 1 is greater than or equal to 70o C.
Latching of V4 is not provided because it is independent of Inlet
valves. Even if the tank is half empty but temperature is more than
70oC, outlet valve of the tanks open.
Similarly RUNG003 and RUNG004 work and V3 and V5 are
operated.

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 Runtime Test Case:
Input Output Physical Elements
I:1/2 = 1 O:2/0 = 1 Open V2 Valve
I:1/3 = 1 O:2/0 = 0 Close V2 Valve
N7:0 ≥ 70 O:2/1 = 1 Open V4 Valve
N7:0 < 70 O:2/1 = 0 Close V4 Valve
I:1/4 = 1 O:2/2 = 1 Open V3 Valve
I:1/5 = 1 O:2/2 = 0 Close V3 Valve
N7:1 ≤ 20 O:2/3 = 1 Open V5 Valve
N7:1 > 20 O:2/3 = 0 Close V5 Valve

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 Problem Three:

Problem Description
Two tanks are connected with each other through a pipeline in series. Level
of both tanks is to be controlled. Implement this operation in PLC using Ladder
Diagram programming language.
Problem Diagram:
Diagram showing tanks in series operation.

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 Problem Solution:
1. Assume that the storage tank has more capacity than the
feeder tank. To measure level of both tanks, level
switches are installed.
2. Outlet valve is operated by another process and it is
operated according to the requirement. So outlet flow
varies. Inlet valve is to be operated by PLC to control the
level.
3. Use interlocking to control the inlet valve.
4. Connect Level Switches to the input module of PLC.
Connect inlet valve with the output module of PLC.

Here is PLC program to Control Level of Series Tanks, along with program
explanation and run time test cases.
List of Inputs and Outputs:
I:1/14 & I:1/15 = Start & Stop (Input)
I:1/0 = LHST1 high level switch of storage tank (Input)
I:1/1 = LLST1 low level switch of storage tank (Input)
I:1/2 = LHST2 high level switch of feeder tank (Input)
I:1/3 = LLST2 low level switch of feeder tank (Input)
O:2/0 = Inlet valve (Output)

Ladder diagram to control series tanks:

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 Program Description:
1. RUNG000 is used for latching the bit B3:0/0 through which
Master Start and Stop can be performed. Memory Bit is used here
to save an output terminal.
2. RUNG001 performs controlling of Inlet Valve which is
connected to O: 2/0 of output module.
3. O:2/0 energizes when I:1/1 or I:1/3 goes high which is set by
Low level switch of storage tank or by low level switch of
feeder tank respectively.
4. Similarly it is closed when high level of storage and feeder
tank detected.

Runtime Test Cases:

Inputs Outputs Physical Elements
I: 1/1 = 1 or I: 1/3 = 1 O: 2/0 = 1 Open Inlet Valve
I: 1/1 = 1 and I: 1/2 = 1 O: 2/0 = 0 Close Inlet Valve

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 Problem Four:

Problem Description
A motor is connected to PLC. Run this motor in the Forward and Reverse
direction using Ladder Diagram programming language.

Problem Solution:
1. For any three-phase AC motor, reversing can be accomplished by
reversing any two leads. For single-phase motor, reversing start lead
with respect to the main leads. And for DC motor, reversing the field
leads with respect to the armature leads.
2. There are certain ways to reverse the motor. One is to use DPDT
(Double Poles, Double Throw) switch and another one is by using
Reversing Contactors.
3. DPDT switch is best suitable for reversing a small DC motors while
Reversing Contactor is used to reverse Three-Phase AC motors.
4. Single-phase motors are not widely used for reversing operation. In fact,
these are not even available widely with reversing capability.
5. As here we have a three-phase AC motor, reversing any two leads will
drive the motor in reverse direction.
6. Contactor is an electrical switch used for switching an electrical
power circuit.
7. Two magnetic contactors are used, one for forward connections and the
other for reverse connections.
8. Only Push Button switches are used to control the direction of this
three-phase AC motor.
9. We have the input commands to these Push Button switches which are
then internally processed by PLC and then there is the output terminal
which activates the corresponding relay to energize the relevant
magnetic contactors.
10. Configure forward and reverse wiring of the motor with contactors such
that forward contactor is connected directly in the normal direct phasing
of the motor terminal and reverse contactor is connected with two of the
motor terminals in the opposite phase.
11. When it is switched to reverse direction, forward rotation does not stop
instantaneously hence we have to determine what time it takes to

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 completely stop one particular direction. Then provide time delay of a
second or two and activate the other contactor.

PLC Program;
Here is PLC program to Drive Motor in Forward and Reverse Direction,
along with program explanation and run time test cases.
List of Inputs and Outputs
I:1/0 = Forward Start (Input)
I:1/1 = Reverse Start (Input)
I:1/2 = Stop (Input)
O:2/14 = Latched coil 1 for forward direction (Output)
O:2/0 & O:2/1 = Forward Contactor (Output)
T4:1 = Delay before forward direction (Timer)
O:2/15 = Latched coil 2 for reverse direction (Output)
O:2/2 & O:2/3 = Reverse Contactor (Output)
T4:0 = Delay before reverse direction (Timer)

Ladder Diagram to solve this problem:

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Program Description:
Important thing to note here that basically programmers do not
provide time delay for such applications where motor has to be run in
forward and reverse directions.
But when motor supply is cut down, it has an actual breaking during
which its speed reduces and then comes to rest.
So assuming that the motor takes approximately 10secs to come down
to its rest state.
Suppose the motor is currently running in the forward direction.
While it is running in the forward direction, O:2/15 coil2 remains de-
energized and reverse action is not activated. TOF is used here so
input to T4:0 is true hence timer is not activated.
When I:1/1 is pressed, O:2/14 coil1 energizes making coil2 O:2/15 de-
energized.
When O:2/15 is de-energized, input to timer T4:1 goes true from false
and input to T4:0 goes false from true.
Since TOF is used, when input goes true to false, T4:0 is activated.
XIO of T4:0/DN is given to Reverse Coils (O:2/2 and O:2/3) are not
energized until timer count is completed. Completion of time delay
sets Done bit to low energizing Reversing Coils (O:2/2 and O:2/3).
Similar operation happens when motor is running in the reverse
direction and forward direction input is given.

Runtime Test Cases:

Simulation of this problem was successfully performed in software
LogixPro of Allen Bradley and verified using I/O Simulator.
Instead of actual contactors or motor outputs, simple LED outputs
were used to perform this in I/O Simulator.

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 Problem Five:

Problem Description
When a Car enters the hall, a certain sequence is to be followed
automatically. Steps are, 1) Soaping, 2) Washing, 3) Rinsing and 4) Drying.
Implement this process sequence in PLC using Ladder Diagram programming
language.
Problem Solution:
1. To detect the car automatically, load cells can be used, or any
other sensor such as Infrared Sensor can also beused.
2. Soaping, Washing, Rinsing and Drying are performed for a
particular time, hence to generate time delay for these outputs
become mandatory.
3. To operate this process, for soaping, washing, and drying, four
different timers are used.
IR sensor detects everything whatever restricts the signal but in load
cell, particular Low Level and High Level can be set to detect heavily
weighted cars only. Load Cell can be here more effective here than IR
sensors.

o PLC Program
Here is PLC program to Implement an Automatic Car-Wash Process, along
with program explanation and run time test cases.
List of Inputs and Outputs
I:1/0 = Master Start (Input)
I:1/1 = Car Detection (Input)
I:1/2 = Limit Switch, Conveyor (Input)
I:1/3 = Master Stop (Input)
O:2/0 = Master Coil (Output)
O:2/1 = Soap Sprinkler (Output)
O:2/2 = Washer (Output)
O:2/3 = Conveyor (Output)
O:2/4 = Dryer (Output)
T4:0 = Soaping Time (Timer)
T4:1 = Washing Time (Timer)
T4:2 = Drying Time (Timer)

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Ladder Diagram for Automatic Car Wash Process:

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 Program Description:
RUNG000: This rung is used to create a Master Coil, in other
words, Master Start and Stop which controls the entire
system. To activate this system, this Master Start has to be
pressed.
RUNG001 is used to activate Soaping process which is
operated by a switch input I: 1/1, when car is detected, Soap
sprinklers are activated. And RUNG002 is used to generate a
time delay which terminates the Soaping process by using
XIO of T4:0/DN bit after a definite time.
As soon as Soaping is done, RUNG003 has Washing outputs
which washes the car by water sprinklers and RUNG004 is
used to generate a time delay which terminates the washing
process by using XIO of T4:1/DN bit after a definite time.
RUNG005 is activated as soon as the washing process is
done. It has motor coil’s output to run the conveyer on
which car moves to the last step of car washing, drying of
car. At the end of the conveyor, a limit switch is mounted
which stops the conveyor and till then Drying is done
through RUNG006 and RUNG007 similar to previous
operations.

Runtime Test Cases:

You can simulate this process on LogixPro and check all the
Test Cases.
Choose I/O Simulation and simulate this program. Worst
cases are checked.

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 VArIAble frequency drIVe

A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives an

electric motor by varying the frequency and voltage supplied to the electric
motor. Other names for a VFD are variable speed drive, adjustable speed
drive, adjustable frequency drive, AC drive, Microdrive, and inverter.

Frequency (or hertz) is directly related to the motor’s speed (RPMs). In

other words, the faster the frequency, the faster the RPMs go. If an application
does not require an electric motor to run at full speed, the VFD can be used to
ramp down the frequency and voltage to meet the requirements of the electric
motor’s load. As the application’s motor speed requirements change, the VFD can
simply turn up or down the motor speed to meet the speed requirement.

Variable Frequency Drive work:

The first stage of a Variable Frequency AC Drive, or VFD, is the Converter.

The converter is comprised of six diodes, which are similar to check valves used in
plumbing systems. They allow current to flow in only one direction; the direction
shown by the arrow in the diode symbol. For example, whenever A-phase voltage
(voltage is similar to pressure in plumbing systems) is more positive than B or C
phase voltages, then that diode will open and allow current to flow. When B-phase
becomes more positive than A-phase, then the B-phase diode will open and the A-
phase diode will close. The same is true for the 3 diodes on the negative side of the
bus. Thus, we get six current “pulses” as each diode opens and closes. This is
called a “six-pulse VFD”, which is the standard configuration for current
Variable Frequency Drives.

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 Let us assume that the drive is operating on a 480V power system. The 480V
rating is “rms” or root-mean-squared. The peaks on a 480V system are 679V. As
you can see, the VFD dc bus has a dc voltage with an AC ripple. The voltage runs
between approximately 580V and 680V.

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 We can get rid of the AC ripple on the DC bus by adding a capacitor. A
capacitor operates in a similar fashion to a reservoir or accumulator in a
plumbing system. This capacitor absorbs the ac ripple and delivers a smooth dc
voltage. The AC ripple on the DC bus is typically less than 3 Volts. Thus, the
voltage on the DC bus becomes “approximately” 650VDC. The actual voltage will
depend on the voltage level of the AC line feeding the drive, the level of voltage
unbalance on the power system, the motor load, the impedance of the power
system, and any reactors or harmonic filters on the drive.

The diode bridge converter that converts AC-to-DC, is sometimes just

referred to as a converter. The converter that converts the dc back to ac is also a
converter, but to distinguish it from the diode converter, it is usually referred to as
an “inverter”. It has become common in the industry to refer to any DC-to-AC
converter as an inverter.

Note that in a real VFD, the switches shown would actually be transistors.

When we close one of the top switches in the inverter, that phase of the
motor is connected to the positive dc bus and the voltage on that phase becomes
positive. When we close one of the bottom switches in the converter, that phase is
connected to the negative dc bus and becomes negative. Thus, we can make any
phase on the motor become positive or negative at will and can thus generate any
frequency that we want. So, we can make any phase be positive, negative, or zero.

34 | P a g e
 The blue sine-wave is shown for comparison purposes only. The drive does
not generate this sine wave.

Notice that the output from the VFD is a “rectangular” wave form. VFD’s
do not produce a sinusoidal output. This rectangular waveform would not be a
good choice for a general purpose distribution system, but is perfectly adequate for
a motor.

If we want to reduce the motor frequency to 30 Hz, then we simply switch the
inverter output transistors more slowly. But, if we reduce the frequency to 30Hz,
then we must also reduce the voltage to 240V in order to maintain the V/Hz ratio
(see the VFD Motor Theory presentation for more on this). How are we going to
reduce the voltage if the only voltage we have is 650VDC?

This is called Pulse Width Modulation or PWM. Imagine that we could

control the pressure in a water line by turning the valve on and off at a high rate of
speed. While this would not be practical for plumbing systems, it works very well
for VFD’s. Notice that during the first half cycle, the voltage is ON half the time
and OFF half the time. Thus, the average voltage is half of 480V or 240V. By
pulsing the output, we can achieve any average voltage on the output of the VFD.

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See the Pictures below to understand what the different parts of a
drive look like.

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Advantages of VFD:
Dynamic braking: Dynamic braking stops the system more quickly than
coasting
Highly efficient
Low power consumption
Small space consumption
Low cost
Easy to use
Highly specific

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 scAdA
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a system of software
and hardware elements that allows industrial organizations to:

Control industrial processes locally or at remotelocations

Monitor, gather, and process real-time data
Directly interact with devices such as sensors, valves, pumps, motors, and
more through human-machine interface (HMI) software
Record events into a log file

SCADA systems are crucial for industrial organizations since they help to
maintain efficiency, process data for smarter decisions, and communicate system
issues to help mitigate downtime.

The basic SCADA architecture begins with programmable logic controllers

(PLCs) or remote terminal units (RTUs). PLCs and RTUs are microcomputers that
communicate with an array of objects such as factory machines, HMIs, sensors,
and end devices, and then route the information from those objects to computers
with SCADA software. The SCADA software processes, distributes, and displays
the data, helping operators and other employees analyze the data and make
important decisions.

For example, the SCADA system quickly notifies an operator that a batch of
product is showing a high incidence of errors. The operator pauses the operation
and views the SCADA system data via an HMI to determine the cause of the issue.
The operator reviews the data and discovers that Machine 4 was malfunctioning.
The SCADA system’s ability to notify the operator of an issue helps him to resolve
it and prevent further loss of product.

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Basic SCADA Architecture:

Who Uses SCADA?

SCADA systems are used by industrial organizations and companies in the
public and private sectors to control and maintain efficiency, distribute data for
smarter decisions, and communicate system issues to help mitigate downtime.
SCADA systems work well in many different types of enterprises because they can
range from simple configurations to large, complex installations. SCADA systems
are the backbone of many modern industries, including:

Energy
Food and beverage
Manufacturing
Oil and gas
Power
Recycling
Transportation
Water and waste water
And many more

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 HumAn-mAcHIne InterfAce

HMI Defined:
A Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is a user interface or dashboard that
connects a person to a machine, system, or device. While the term can technically
be applied to any screen that allows a user to interact with a device, HMI is most
commonly used in the context of an industrial process.

Although HMI is the most common term for this technology, it is sometimes
referred to as Man-Machine Interface (MMI), Operator Interface Terminal (OIT),
Local Operator Interface (LOI), or Operator Terminal (OT). HMI and Graphical
User Interface (GUI) are similar but not synonymous: GUIs are often leveraged
within HMIs for visualization capabilities.

In industrial settings, HMIs can be used to:

Visually display data

Track production time, trends, and tags
Oversee KPIs
Monitor machine inputs and outputs
And more

Similar to how you would interact with your air-conditioning system to check
and control the temperature in your house, a plant-floor operator might use an

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HMI to check and control the temperature of an industrial water tank, or to see if a
certain pump in the facility is currently running.

HMIs come in a variety of forms, from built-in screens on machines, to

computer monitors, to tablets, but regardless of their format or which term you use
to refer to them, their purpose is to provide insight into mechanical performance
and progress.

HMI for Applied Tech Systems (ATS) that displays and monitors work
orders for an airplane-production floor at a university facility.This screen shows
work orders (top half of the screen), KPIs (bottom left), and OEE (bottom right).

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 This HMI screen built for Mountain Regional Water District shows an
overview of the district's system.

This HMI from Sugarcreek’s food-engineering plant shows their wastewater

treatment plant system and allows them to run control operations.

HMI display from Pioneer Natural Resources. This screen visualizes gas
information for a meter, and monitors data like tank levels, oil volumes, etc.

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Who Uses HMI?
HMI technology is used by almost all industrial organizations, as well asa
wide range of other companies, to interact with their machines and optimize their
industrial processes.

Industries using HMI include:

Energy
Food and beverage
Manufacturing
Oil and gas
Power
Recycling
Transportation
Water and wastewater
And many more

The most common roles that interact with HMIs are operators, system
integrators, and engineers, particularly control system engineers. HMIs are
essential resources for these professionals, who use them to review and monitor
processes, diagnose problems, and visualize data.

Common Uses of HMI:

HMIs communicate with Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and
input/output sensors to get and display information for users to view. HMI screens can
be used for a single function, like monitoring and tracking, or for performing more
sophisticated operations, like switching machines off or increasing production speed,
depending on how they are implemented. HMIs are used to optimize an industrial
process by digitizing and centralizing data for a viewer. By leveraging HMI, operators
can see important information displayed in graphs, charts, or digital dashboards, view
and manage alarms, and connect with SCADA and MES systems, all through one
console. Previously, operators would need to walk the floor constantly to review
mechanical progress and record it on a piece of paper or a whiteboard. By allowing
PLCs to communicate real-time information straight to an HMI display, HMI
technology eliminates the need for this outdated practice and thereby reduces many
costly problems caused by lack of information or human error.

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 conclusIon

With the speed of changing technology today, it is easy to lose sight or

knowledge of the basic theory or operation of the programmable logic. Most
people simply use the hardware to produce the results they desire. Hopefully, this
report has given the reader a deeper insight into the inner workings of
programmable logic and it’s role in mechanical operations. The idea of
programmable logic is very simple to understand, but it is the complex programs
that run in the ladder diagrams that make them difficult for the common users to
fully understand. Hopefully, this has alleviated some of the confusion.

SCADA is used for the constructive working, using a SCADA system for
control ensures a common framework not only for the development of the specific
applications but also for operationg the detectors. Operators experience the same
“look and feel” whatever part of the experiment they control. However, this aspect
also depends to a significant extent on proper enginnering.

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