FPE E-Note 30072018 112351AM

2151903 Fluid Power Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Sr. No. Chapter Page No.
1 Hydro Power Plant 1.1 – 1.9
2 Impact of Jet 2.1 – 2.28
3 Hydraulic Turbines 3.1 – 3.41
4 Centrifugal Pumps 4.1 – 4.25
5 Reciprocating Pumps 5.1 – 5.15
6 Reciprocating Compressors 6.1 – 6.27
7 Rotary Compressors 7.1 – 7.14
8 Centrifugal Compressors 8.1 – 8.33
9 Axial Flow Compressors 9.1 – 9.22
10 Hydraulic Machines 10.1 – 10.21

1HYDRO POWER PLANT
Course Contents
1.1 Advantages, disadvantages and
application of hydro power plant
1.2 General layout and essential
component of hydro-electric
power plant
1.3 Site selection of hydro-electric
power plant
1.4 Classification of hydro-electric
power plant

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 1.1
Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 1. Hydro Power Plant
1.1. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

Advantages:
 The operating cost of thermal power plant is less compare to thermal and other power
plant.
 The cost of power generation of hydro electrical power plant is not affected by the load
factor.
 There is no requirement of fuel while in case of thermal power plant fuel required,
hence hydro-electric plant is not dependent on transport facilities. In case of hydro-
electric power plant no need of fuel handling mechanism and no smoke, exhaust gases,
ash, soot and no health hazards due to air pollution.
 Here speed of turbine is 300 to 400 rpm while turbine used in thermal power plant run
at a speed of 3000 to 4000 rpm. Hence in hydro-electric power plant there is less
mechanical problem and no required any special materials for construction of plant.
 The life of hydro-electric power plant is 100-125 years which is 20-25 years of thermal
power plant.
 Hydro power plant efficiency if higher than other power plant and does not changes
with age of plant.
 Hydro-electric power plant is simple in design, and easy maintenance while in the
thermal power plant number of operation is required and hence complex mechanical
system required.
 Hydro-electric power plant having quick response to the change of load compare to
thermal power plant.
Disadvantages:
 The investment cost of hydro-electric power plant much more than thermal power
plant.
 Power generation by hydro-electric plant depends on the water availability which
depends on natural phenomenon of rain.
 The site of hydro-electric plant is selected where water availability at economical head.
These sites are mostly far away from the load center. Therefore long transmission line
required and so more power losses.
 Time required for construction of plant is much more than thermal power plant.

Major applications of hydro power plant
 Normally hydro projects are developed for the following purpose:

1.To control the flood in the river
2.To produce electricity
3.To store the water for irrigation
4.To store and supply drinking water
 Hydro power plant is also used in interconnected system. In an interconnected system
(steam and hydro power stations) the base load is supplied by hydro power and peak
load supplied by steam power plant. This system is not only increased load factor but
also reduces the wastages of energy (wastage of water) and saving cost of electricity.
 Small hydro power plant (up to 10 MW) is used for serving a small community or
industrial plant.
 Micro hydro power plant (up to 10 kw) is used to provide power to an isolated home or
small community or are sometimes connected to electric power networks.
 Pico hydro power plant (up to 5 kw) is used to provide power to small remote
communities that required only small amount of electricity.
1.2. SELECTION OF SITE FOR A HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

 While selecting a suitable site, if a good system of natural storage lakes at high altitudes
and with large catchment areas can be located, the plant will be comparatively
economical.
 The following factors should be given careful consideration while selecting a site for a
hydro-electric power plant:
1. Availability of Water
 The availability of water at the site is the most important aspect of hydro power plant
because all other designs are based on it.
 In hydro power plants, potential energy of water fall or kinetic energy of flowing water
stream is utilize for generation of electric power, therefore such station should be built
where there is adequate water available at good head and huge quantity of water is
flowing across a given point.
 Estimate should be made about the average quantity of water available throughout the
year and also maximum and minimum quantity of water available during the year.
 These details are necessary to decide the capacity of plant to decide peak load plant
such as steam, diesel or gas turbine plant, and to provide adequate spillway or gate
relief during the flood period.

1. Hydro Power Plant Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
2. Water-Storage.
 The output of a hydropower plant is not uniform due to wide variations of rain fall. To
have a uniform power output, water storage is needed so that excess flow at certain
times may be stored to make it available at the times of low flow.
 To select the site of the dam; careful study should be made of the geology and
topography of the catchment area to see if the natural foundations could be found and
put to the best use.
3. Head of Water.
 In order to produce a requisite quantity of power it is necessary that a large quantity of
water at a sufficient head should be available.
 An increase in effective head reduces the quantity of water to be stored and handled by
penstocks, turbine etc. and therefore capital cost of plant is reduced.
 The level of water in the reservoir for a proposed plant should always be within limits
throughout the year.
4. Catchment area
 The reservoir must have a large catchment area so that level of water in reservoir may
not fall below the minimum limit required in dry season.
5. Availability of land type of land
 The land to be selected for the site should be cheap and rocky in order to withstand the
weight of dam large building and heavy machinery.
 The rock should be strong enough to withstand the stresses transmitted from the dam
structure as well as the of the water when reservoir is full of water.
6. Distance from Load Center.
 The site where hydro-electric power plant is to be constructed should be nearer to the
load center so that cost of power transmission is minimized.
 Most of the time the electric power generated in a hydro-electric power plant has to be
used some considerable distance from the site of plant.
 For this reason, to be economical on transmission of electric power, the routes and the
distances should be carefully considered since the cost of erection of transmission lines
and their maintenance will depend upon the route selected.
7. Accessibility of Site
 It is always a desirable factor to have a good access to the site of the plant. This factor is
very important if the electric power generated is to be utilized at or near the plant site.
The transport facilities must also be given due consideration.

Page 1.4 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
1.3 GENERAL LAYOUT & ELEMENTS OF A HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER

PLANT
Essential elements of hydro-electric power plant are:
1. Catchment area:
 The whole area behind the dam draining into a river across which the dam has been
built at a suitable place is called catchment area.
 Water collected from catchment area is stored in a reservoir, behind a dam.
2. Reservoir:
 The water reservoir is the primary
requirement of hydro-electric
power plant.
 A reservoir is employed to store the
water. There are two types of
reservoir: (A) Natural; i.e. lake in
high mountains and (B) Artificial; i.e.
erecting a dam across a river.
3. Dam:
 It provides high head, which is
necessary to produce higher power.
 Dams are built of concrete or stone
masonry, earth or rock fill, etc.
4. Spillways:
 It is a safeguarding structure for the
dam.
 Whenever water flows over certain
limit (during floods). It flows
through the spillways.
5. Conduits:
 It carries water from head race to
tail race. Fig. 1.1 General Layout of Hydro Power
 A head race is a channel which leads Plant
water to a turbine and a tail race is a
channel which conducts water from the wheels.
 The conduits may be open or closed:
A. Open Conduits: Canals & Flumes
B. Closed Conduits: Pipelines, Tunnels and Penstocks.

6. Surge tank:
 There are additional storage spaces near the power plant.
 It is used to reduce the effect of water hammer and improve performance of machines
by providing better speed regulation.
7. Prime movers:
 Impulse or reaction turbines having different types of vanes fitted to the wheels.
8. Draft tube:
 Used to discharge water to the tail race.
9. Power house:
 A power house is a building in which turbines, alternators and auxiliary plant are
housed.
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO-PLANT

 The hydro power plant are classify according to availability of head , quantity of water
and nature of load as follows.
A. According to the availability of head
I. High head plants
II. Low head plants
III. Medium head plants.
I. High Head Plants

 When available head is usually greater than 300m, plant is called high head plant.
 The surge tank provide with system to reduce water hammer effects on the penstock.
 The Francis turbine (up to 300 m) and Pelton wheel are common prime movers are used
in this power plant. Fig. shows the elevation of a high head plant.
Fig. 1.2 Schematic of high head power plant

II. Low Head Power Plants

 When the head of water available is less than 50 m, the power plant is called low head
plant.
 In this plant, dam is constructed across the river to create necessary head of water.
 The power house is located near the dam, no surge tank is required.
 In this power plant generally Francis, propeller or Kaplan turbine used as a prime mover.
Fig. 1.3 Schematic of low head power plant

III. Medium Head Plants
 When available head usually lies between 50m to 300m, the plant is called medium
head plant.
 This type of power plant consists of surge tank, forebay, penstocks, trash rack, and
reservoir.
 In this plant water is carried in open channel from main reservoir to the forebay and
then to the power house as shown in fig.
 In this power plant Francis, Propeller or Kaplan turbine used as a prime mover.
Fig. 1.4 Schematic of medium head power plant

B. According to the quantity of water available

I. Run-off river plant
II. Run-off river plant with reservoir
III. Storage type plants
IV. Pump storage plants
V. Mini and micro hydro plants
I. Run-off river plant

 When a river flowing through a hilly region, the flowing water is directly fed to
turbines, water is not being stored, the power plant is known as run-off river plant.
 In this plant output from the turbine is limited both the extent of flow available in the
river at given instant and capacity of plant. The utility of such power plant is very
limited.
II. Run-off river plant with reservoir

 The utility of run-off power plant is increased by providing reservoir in the plant.
 The reservoir allow to store water during the off peak hour and use during peak hours
of the same day.
III. Storage type plants

 In this type of plant water is stored during rainy season and supply same during the dry
season.
 The size of reservoir is large enough to store water during wet season and supply water
during remaining season.
IV. Pump storage plants

 This type of power plant is used where less amount of water is available.
 In this plant, water after passing through turbine is pumped back from the tail race to
head race(reservoir) during off peak period of other power plant.
 This type of power plant generates power for peak load but during off peak period,
water is pumped from tail race to head race reservoir for future use.
V. Mini and micro hydro plants

 When power develops from low head as 5m to 20 m, plant is known as mini hydro
plant.
 When power develops from head less than 5m, plant is known as micro-hydro power
plant.
 The bulb turbine is utilized in such type of small hydro power plant.

C. According to the nature of land

I. Base load plant
II. Peak load plant
I. Base load plant
 This type of power plant generates power output continuously.
 They run without stop and meet the average demand of electricity.
II. Peak load plant
 This type of plant, generates power during the peak load hours.
 This plant do not runs continuously and generates power to meet the demand of
electricity during the specific hours only, normally when demand is more than average
load (base load).

2
IMPACT OF JET
Course Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Force Exerted by the Jet of

Water on a Stationary Plate

Water on a Moving Plate

Water on a Series of Flat
Vanes

Water on a Series of Radial
Curved Vanes
2.6 Jet Propulsion

2. Impact of Jet Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
2.1 Introduction
 Analysis and design of turbo machines is essentially based on the knowledge of
forces exerted on or by the moving fluids.
 Liquid comes out in the form of a jet from the outlet of a nozzle with high velocity,
which is fitted to a pipe through which the liquid is flowing under pressure.
 If some plate, which may be fixed or moving, is placed in the path of the jet, a force
is exerted by the jet on the plate.
 This force is obtained from Newton’s 2nd law of motion or from Impulse –
Momentum equation.
Impact of Jet: It means the force exerted by the jet on a plate which may be
stationary or moving.
Impulse – Momentum Principle:

 Newton’s 2nd law of motion states that “The rate of change of momentum is equal to
the force applied and takes place in the direction of force.”
 If mass of the fluid is m which flows with a velocity v, the momentum = mv
Let the change in velocity in dt time interval is dv
Then,
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 𝑚 × 𝑑𝑣
And
𝑑𝑣
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚 ×
𝑑𝑡
According to Newton’s 2nd law of motion,
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑣
∴𝐹 =𝑚×
𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝑑𝑣
Where F.dt is the impulse of the force and m.dv is the change in momentum. Hence
it is known as Impulse – Momentum principle.
2.2 Force Exerted by the Jet on a Stationary Plate

 Impact of jet on a stationary plate is discussed here for the following cases:
A. Plate is vertical to the jet

Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 2. Impact of Jet
B. Plate is inclined to the jet

C. Plate is curved
I. Jet impacts at the center of the curved plate
II. Jet strikes at one end of the curved plate, when plate is symmetrical
III. Jet strikes at one end of the curved plate, when plate is unsymmetrical
D. Hinged plate
Following assumptions are made in general for the discussion of the above cases:
 The plate is smooth and there is no loss of energy due to fluid friction with the
plate
 No loss of energy due to impact of jet
 Velocity is uniform throughout
A. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary vertical flat plate

 Consider a jet of water coming out from the nozzle, strikes a flat vertical plate as
shown in Fig. 2.1.
Fig. 2.1 Jet striking a fixed vertical plate

 The plate is stationary and does not deflect even after the jet strikes on it.
 The plate deflects the jet by 90° and then jet leaves the plate tangentially. Hence the
component of the velocity of jet V, in the direction of the jet, after striking will be
zero.
 Let,

V = velocity of jet
d = diameter of jet
𝜋
a = area of c/s of the jet = 4 𝑑 2
ρ = density of fluid
Q = volume flow rate of fluid
𝑚̇ = mass flow rate of fluid = 𝜌𝑄 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉
 The force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of jet,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
= × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
= 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 × [𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 −
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 ]
= 𝑚̇ × ∆𝑉
= 𝜌𝑎𝑉[𝑉 − 0]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 − − − − − − − −(2.1)
[Note: If the force exerted on the jet is to be calculated then (Final – Initial) velocity
should be taken]
B. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary inclined flat plate

 Consider a jet of water coming out from the nozzle, strikes an inclined flat plate as
shown in Fig. 2.2.
Fig. 2.2 Jet striking a fixed inclined plate

 Let,
V = velocity of jet in the direction of x
θ = angle between the jet and plate
then,
Mass of water striking the plate per sec,
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑎𝑉
 The plate is very smooth and there is no loss of energy due to impact of jet then, jet
will move over the plate after striking, with a velocity equals to initial velocity, i.e. V.
 Force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction normal to the plate,
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 sec×
[𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 −
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛]
∴ 𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉[𝑉 sin 𝜃 − 0]
∴ 𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 sin 𝜃 − − − − − − − −(2.2)
 This force can be resolved into two components,
i. In the direction of the jet (Fx) and,
ii. Perpendicular to the direction of flow (Fy)
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 cos(90 − 𝜃)
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 sin 𝜃
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 sin2 𝜃 − − − − − − − −(2.3)
And
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
∴ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 sin(90 − 𝜃)
∴ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 cos 𝜃
∴ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − − − − − − − −(2.4)
C. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary curved plate

I. Jet strikes the curved plate at the center
 Let a jet of water strikes a fixed curved plate at the center as shown in Fig. 2.3.

 The jet after striking the plate, comes out with the same velocity in the tangential
direction of the curved plate if the plate is smooth, and there is no loss of energy due
to impact of jet.
Fig. 2.3 Jet striking a fixed curved plate at the center

 Now the velocity at the outlet of the plate can be resolved into two components:
i. In the direction of the jet and
ii. Perpendicular to the direction of the jet.
 The component of velocity in the direction of jet = −𝑉 cos 𝜃
(−ve sign is taken as the velocity at outlet is in the opposite direction of the jet of
water coming out at the nozzle)
 The component of velocity perpendicular to the direction of the jet = 𝑉 sin 𝜃
 The forces exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of X and Y are,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑥 = × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑋 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚̇[𝑉 − (−𝑉 cos 𝜃)]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉[𝑉 + 𝑉 cos 𝜃]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 [1 + cos 𝜃] − − − − − − − −(2.5)
Similarly,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑦 = × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑌 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚̇[0 − 𝑉 sin 𝜃]
𝐹𝑦 = −𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 sin 𝜃 − − − − − − − −(2.6)
(−ve sign means 𝐹𝑦 is acting downwards)

II. Jet strikes the curved plate at one end tangentially when the plate is
symmetrical
 Let the jet strikes the curved fixed plate at one end tangentially as shown in Fig. 2.4.
Fig. 2.4 Jet striking curved fixed plate at one end

 Let the curved plate is symmetrical about X-axis, then the angle made by the
tangents at the two ends of the plate will be same.
 Let,
𝑉 =Velocity of jet of water
𝜃 = Angle made by jet with X-axis at inlet tip of the curved plate.
 If the plate is smooth and loss of energy due to impact of jet is zero, then the velocity
of water at the outlet tip of the curved plate will be equals to V.
 The forces exerted by the jet of water on the plate in the direction of X and Y are,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚̇[𝑉 cos 𝜃 − (−𝑉 cos 𝜃)]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉[𝑉 cos 𝜃 + 𝑉 cos 𝜃]
𝐹𝑥 = 2𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 cos 𝜃 − − − − − − − −(2.5)
Similarly,
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚̇[𝑉 sin 𝜃 − 𝑉 sin 𝜃]
𝐹𝑦 = 0 − − − − − − − −(2.6)

III. Jet strikes the curved plate at one end tangentially when the plate is
unsymmetrical
 When the curved plate is unsymmetrical about X-axis, then the angles made by the
tangents drawn at the inlet and outlet tips of the plate with X-axis will be different.
 Let,
𝜃 = Angle made by tangent at inlet tip with X-axis
𝜑 = Angle made by tangent at outlet tip with X-axis.
(Refer Fig. 2.4 with different angles 𝜃 and 𝜑)
 The forces exerted by the jet of water on the plate in the direction of X and Y are,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚̇[𝑉 cos 𝜃 − (−𝑉 cos 𝜑)]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 [cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜑] − − − − − − − −(2.7)
Similarly,
 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚̇[𝑉 sin 𝜃 − 𝑉 sin 𝜑]
𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 [sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜑] − − − − − − − −(2.8)
D. Force exerted by a jet of water on a hinged plate

 Consider a jet of water striking a vertical plate at a center which is hinged at point O.
 Due to the force exerted by the jet on the plate, the plate will swing through some
angle about the hinge as shown in Fig. 2.5.
Fig. 2.5 Force on a hinged plate

 Let,
𝑥 = Distance of the center of jet from hinge O
𝜃 = Angle of swing about hinge
𝑊 = Weight of plate acting at C.G. of the plate
 The dotted line shows the position of the plate, before the jet strikes the plate.
 The point A on the plate will be at Al after the jet strikes the plate.
∴ OA = OAl = x
 Let, the weight of the plate is acting at pointAl .
 Now, when the plate is in equilibrium after the jet strikes the plate, the moment of
all the forces about the hinge must be zero.
 Two forces are acting on the plate:
1. Force due to jet of water, normal to the plate,
𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 sin 𝜃 𝑙
𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 sin(90 − 𝜃)
𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 cos 𝜃
Where, 𝜃 𝑙 = Angle between jet and plate = (90 − 𝜃)
2. Weight of the plate, W
 Under equilibrium moment of normal force about hinge must be equals to moment
by weight at the same point.
∴ 𝐹𝑛 × 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑊 × 𝑂𝐴𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑥
𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 cos 𝜃 × = 𝑊 × 𝑥 sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃
𝜌𝑎𝑉 2
sin 𝜃 = − − − − − − − −(2.9)
𝑊
2.3 Force Exerted by the Jet on a Moving Plate
 Impact of jet on a moving plate is discussed here for the following cases:
A. Moving plate is vertical to the jet
B. Moving plate is inclined to the jet
C. Moving plate is curved

I. Jet impacts at the center of the moving curved plate

II. Jet strikes at one end of the moving curved plate, when plate is
unsymmetrical
A. Force exerted by a jet of water on flat vertical plate moving in the

direction of jet
 Fig. 2.6 shows a jet of water striking a flat vertical plate moving with a uniform
velocity away from the jet.
Fig. 2.6 Jet striking a flat vertical moving plate

 Let,
𝑉 = Velocity of the jet (absolute)
𝑢 = Velocity of the flat plate
 In this case jet does not strike the plate with velocity V, but it strikes with a relative
velocity (because plate is not stationary).
 Relative velocity of the jet with respect to plate = (𝑉 − 𝑢)
 Mass of water striking the plate per sec,
𝑚̇ = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢) − − − − − − − −(2.10)
 Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate in the direction of the jet,
𝐹𝑥 = ṁ× [𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢) × [(𝑉 − 𝑢) − 0]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 − − − − − − − −(2.11)
 In this case the work will be done by the jet on the plate, as plate is moving. (for the
stationary plate, the work done is zero)
 Work done per second by the jet on the plate,

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × ( )
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
∴ 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 × 𝑢
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 − − − − − − − −(2.12)
(Here SI unit of W is Watt because it is work done per sec, i.e. Power)
B. Force exerted by a jet of water on the inclined plate moving in the

direction of the jet
 Let a jet of water strikes an inclined plate, which is moving with a uniform velocity in
the direction of the jet as shown in Fig. 2.7.
Fig. 2.7 Jet striking an inclined moving plate

 Let,
𝑉 = Absolute velocity of the jet of water
𝑢 = Velocity of the flat plate
𝑎 = Cross section area of jet
𝜃 = Angle between jet and plate
 Relative velocity of jet of water = (𝑉 − 𝑢)
 Mass of water striking the plate per second,
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)
 If the plate is smooth and loss of energy due to impact of jet is assumed zero, the jet
of water will leave the inclined plate with a velocity equals to (V – u).
 Force exerted by the jet of water on the plate in the direction normal to the plate,

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑛 = × [𝐼. 𝑉. 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 − 𝐹. 𝑉. ]
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢) × [(𝑉 − 𝑢) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 0]
𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 sin 𝜃 − − − − − − − −(2.13)
 This normal force 𝐹𝑛 can be resolved into two components namely 𝐹𝑥 and 𝐹𝑦 in the
direction of the jet and perpendicular to the direction of the jet respectively.
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 sin 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 sin2 𝜃 − − − − − − − −(2.14)
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 cos 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − − − − − − − −(2.15)

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑋 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 sin2 𝜃 × 𝑢
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 sin2 𝜃 − − − − − − − −(2.16)
C. Force exerted by a jet of water on the moving curved plate

I. Jet strikes the moving curved plate at the center
 Let a jet of water strikes a curved plate at the center of the plate which is moving
with a uniform velocity in the direction of the jet as shown in Fig. 2.8.
Fig. 2.8 Jet striking a moving curved plate at the center

 Let,
𝑢 = Velocity of the flat plate in the direction of jet
𝑎 = Cross section area of jet

 Relative velocity of the jet of water or the velocity with which jet strikes the curved
plate = (𝑉 − 𝑢)
 If the plate is smooth and loss of energy due to impact of jet is assumed zero, then
the velocity with which the jet will be leaving the curved vane equals to (V – u).
 Component of velocity in the direction of jet at outlet = −(𝑉 − 𝑢) cos 𝜃.
(−ve sign is taken as the velocity at outlet is in the opposite direction of the jet of
water coming out at the nozzle)
 Mass of water striking the plate per second,
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)
 Force exerted by the jet of water on the moving curved plate in the direction of the
jet,
𝐹𝑥 = ṁ× [𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢) × [(𝑉 − 𝑢) − (−(𝑉 − 𝑢) cos 𝜃)]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢) × [(𝑉 − 𝑢) + (𝑉 − 𝑢) cos 𝜃]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 × [1 + cos 𝜃] − − − − − − − −(2.17)
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑋 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 [1 + cos 𝜃] × 𝑢
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 [1 + cos 𝜃] − − − − − − − −(2.18)
II. Force exerted by a jet of water on an unsymmetrical moving curved

plate when jet strikes tangentially at one of the tips
 Fig. 2.9 shows a jet of water striking a moving curved plate/vane/blade tangentially
at one of its tips.
 As the jet strikes tangentially, the loss of energy due to impact of the jet will be zero.
 In this case as plate is moving, the velocity with which jet of water strikes is equals to
the relative velocity of the jet with respect to the plate.
 As the direction of jet velocity and vane velocity is not same, the relative velocity at
inlet will be vector difference of the jet velocity and plate velocity at inlet.

Fig. 2.9 Jet striking unsymmetrical moving curved plate at one end
 Let,
𝑉1 = Absolute velocity of the jet at inlet
𝑉2 = Absolute velocity of the jet at outlet
𝑉𝑟1 = Relative velocity of the jet and plate at inlet
𝑉𝑟2 = Relative velocity of the jet and plate at outlet
𝑢1 = Velocity of the vane at inlet
𝑢2 = Velocity of the vane at outlet
𝛼 = Angle between the direction of the jet and direction of motion of the plate at
inlet
= Guide blade angle
𝜃 = Angle made by the relative velocity 𝑉𝑟1, with the direction of motion of the vane
at inlet
= Vane/blade angle at inlet
𝑉𝑤1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑓1 = The components of the velocity of the jet 𝑉1, in the direction of
motion and perpendicular to the direction of motion of the vane respectively.

𝑉𝑤1 = Velocity of whirl at inlet

𝑉𝑓1 = Velocity of flow at inlet
𝛽 = Angle made by the velocity 𝑉2 with the direction of motion of the vane at outlet
𝜑 = Angle made by the relative velocity 𝑉𝑟2, with the direction of motion of the vane
at outlet
= Vane/blade angle at outlet
𝑉𝑤2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑓2 = The components of the velocity 𝑉2, in the direction of motion of vane
and perpendicular to the direction of motion of the vane at outlet respectively.
𝑉𝑤2 = Velocity of whirl at outlet
𝑉𝑓2 = Velocity of flow at outlet
 The triangles ABD and B’C’D’ are called the velocity triangles at inlet and outlet
respectively.
 If the vane is smooth and having velocity in the direction of motion at inlet and
outlet equal then we have,
𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = 𝑢 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
And
𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉𝑟2
 Mass of water striking the vane per second,
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1
 Force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion,
Fx= mass of water striking per sec X [Initial velocity with which jet strikes in the
direction of motion – Final velocity of jet in the direction of motion]
But,
Initial velocity with which jet strikes the vane = 𝑉𝑟1 and,
The component of this velocity in the direction of motion = 𝑉𝑟1 cos 𝜃 = (𝑉𝑤1 − 𝑢1 )
Similarly,
The component of the relative velocity at outlet in the direction of motion =
−𝑉𝑟2 cos 𝜑
= −[𝑢2 + 𝑉𝑤2 ]
So,
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚̇ × [𝑉𝑟1 cos 𝜃 − (−𝑉𝑟2 cos 𝜑)]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 × [(𝑉𝑤1 − 𝑢1 ) + (𝑢2 + 𝑉𝑤2 )]

As we know 𝑢1 = 𝑢2
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 × [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ] − − − − − − − −(2.19)
Equaion 2.19 is true only when angle 𝛽 shown in Fig. 2.9 is acute angle (< 90°).
 If 𝛽 = 90° then 𝑉𝑤2 = 0 and equation 2.19 becomes,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 𝑉𝑤1 − − − − − − − −(2.20)
 If 𝛽 is an obtuse angle (> 90°), the expression for 𝐹𝑥 will become,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 × [𝑉𝑤1 − 𝑉𝑤2 ] − − − − − − − −(2.21)
 In general,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 × [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ] − − − − − − − −(2.22)
 Work done per second on the vane by the jet,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 sec 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎𝑢𝑉𝑟1 × [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ] − − − − − − − −(2.23)
 Work done per second per unit weight of fluid striking per second ,
𝜌𝑎𝑢𝑉𝑟1 × [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ]

=
(𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 ) × 𝑔
1 𝑁. 𝑚
= [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢 − − − − − − − −(2.24)
𝑔 𝑁
 Work done per second per unit mass of fluid striking per second ,
𝜌𝑎𝑢𝑉𝑟1 × [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ]

=
(𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 )
𝑁. 𝑚
= 𝑢 × [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ] − − − − − − − −(2.25)
𝐾𝑔
2.4 Force exerted by a jet of water on a series of flat vanes

 The force exerted by a jet of water on a single moving plate is not practically
feasible. Its only a theoretical one.
 In actual practice, a large number of plates/blades are mounted on the
circumference of a wheel at a fixed distance apart as shown in Fig. 2.10.

Fig. 2.10 Jet striking a series of flat vanes mounted on a wheel

 The jet strikes a plate and due to the force exerted by the jet on the plate, the wheel
starts moving and the 2nd plate mounted on the wheel appears before the jet, which
again exerts the force on the 2nd plate.
 Thus each plate appears successively before the jet and jet exerts force on each
plate and the wheel starts moving at a constant speed.
 Let,
𝑉 = Velocity of jet
𝑑 = Diameter of jet
𝑢 = Velocity of vane
 In this case the mass of water coming out from the nozzle per second is always in
contact with the plates, when all the plates are considered.
 Hence, mass of water per sec striking the series of plates = 𝜌𝑎𝑉
Also,
The jet strikes a plate with velocity = (𝑉 − 𝑢)
 After striking, the jet moves tangential to the plate and hence the velocity
component in the direction of motion of plate is equals to zero.
 Force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion of plate,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉[(𝑉 − 𝑢) − 0]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉(𝑉 − 𝑢) − − − − − − − −(2.26)
 Work done by the jet on the series of plates per second,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 sec 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉(𝑉 − 𝑢) × 𝑢
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢) − − − − − − − −(2.27)
 Kinetic energy of the jet per second,
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚̇𝑉 2
2
1
𝐾𝐸 = (𝜌𝑎𝑉)𝑉 2
2
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 3
2
 Efficiency of the wheel,
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝜂=
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)
𝜂= 1
𝜌𝑎𝑉 3
2
2𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)
𝜂= − − − − − − − −(2.28)
𝑉2
Condition for maximum efficiency
 For a given jet velocity V, the efficiency will be maximum when,
𝑑𝜂
=0
𝑑𝑢
𝑑 2𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)
∴ [ ]=0
𝑑𝑢 𝑉2
𝑑 2𝑢𝑉 − 2𝑢2
∴ [ ]=0
𝑑𝑢 𝑉2
2𝑉 − 4𝑢
∴ =0
𝑉2
∴ 2𝑉 = 4𝑢
𝑽
∴𝒖= − − − − − − − −(𝟐. 𝟐𝟗)
𝟐
Maximum efficiency,
2𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑉2
2𝑢(2𝑢 − 𝑢)
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(2𝑢)2
1
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 50% − − − − − − − −(2.30)
2
2.5 Force Exerted by the Jet of Water on a Series of Radial Curved

Vanes
 For a radial curved vane, the radius of the vane at inlet and outlet is different and
hence the tangential velocities of the radial vane at inlet and outlet will not be equal.
 Consider a series of radial curved vanes mounted on a wheel as shown in Fig. 2.11.
The jet of water strikes the vanes and the wheel starts rotating at constant angular
speed.
Fig. 2.11 Series of radial curved vanes mounted on a wheel

 Let,
𝑅1 = Radius of wheel at inlet of the vane
𝑅2 = Radius of wheel at outlet of the vane
𝜔 = Angular speed of the wheel
Then,
𝑢1 = 𝜔𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢2 = 𝜔𝑅2
 The mass of water striking per second for a series of vanes = The mass of water
coming out from nozzle per sec = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1
Where,
𝑎 = Area of jet, and
𝑉1 = Velocity of jet

 Momentum of water striking the vanes in the tangential direction per sec at inlet =
mass of water striking per sec X component of V1 in the tangential direction
∴ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤1 (∵ 𝑉𝑤1 = 𝑉1 cos 𝛼)
 Similarly,
Momentum of water at outlet per sec = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 X component of V2 in the tangential
direction
∴ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × (−𝑉2 cos 𝛽)
∴ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = −𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤2 (∵ 𝑉𝑤2 = 𝑉2 cos 𝛽)
 Now angular momentum,
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 sec 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 × 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
= 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤1 × 𝑅1
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 sec 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 × 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
= −𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤2 × 𝑅2
 Torque exerted by the water on the wheel,
𝑇 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑇 = [𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐]
∴ 𝑇 = [𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤1 𝑅1 − (−𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤2 𝑅2 )]
∴ 𝑇 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑅1 + 𝑉𝑤2 𝑅2 ] − − − − − − − −(2.31)
 Work done per sec on the wheel,
𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 × 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
∴ 𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑇 × 𝜔
∴ 𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑅1 + 𝑉𝑤2 𝑅2 ] × 𝜔
∴ 𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑅1 𝜔 + 𝑉𝑤2 𝑅2 𝜔]
∴ 𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 + 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] − − − − − − − −(2.32)
 Equation 2.32 is valid only when, 𝛽 < 90. If the angle 𝛽 is an obtuse angle (𝛽 > 90)
then,
𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 − 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] − − − − − − − −(2.33)
 In general,
𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] − − − − − − − −(2.34)
 If the discharge is radial at the outlet then, 𝛽 = 90° and hence 𝑉𝑤2 = 0,
∴ 𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ] − − − − − − − −(2.35)

 Efficiency of the radial curved vanes,

𝜂=
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ]
∴𝜂= 1
(𝑚̇)𝑉12
2
𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ]

∴𝜂= 1
(𝜌𝑎𝑉1 )𝑉12
2
2[𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ]
∴𝜂= − − − − − − − −(2.36)
𝑉12
2.6 Jet Propulsion

 Jet propulsion means the propulsion or movement of the bodies such as ships,
aircrafts, rockets etc. with the help of jet.
 The reaction of the jet coming out from the orifice provided in the bodies is used to
move the bodies.
 A jet of fluid coming out from an orifice or nozzle, when strikes a plate, exerts a force
on the plate. The magnitude of the force exerted on the plate can be determined
depending upon whether plate is flat, inclined, curved, moving or stationary. This
force exerted by the jet on the plate is called “action of jet”.
 According to Newton’s third law of motion, every action is accompanied by an equal
and opposite reaction.
 Hence the jet while coming out of the orifice or nozzle exerts a force on the orifice or
nozzle in the opposite direction in which jet is coming out.
 The magnitude of the force exerted is equals to the ‘action of the jet’.
 This force which is acting on the orifice or nozzle in the opposite direction is called
“reaction of the jet”.
 If the body in which orifice or nozzle is fitted, is free to move, the body will start
moving in the direction opposite to the jet.
 The following cases are important where this principle is used:
A. Jet propulsion of a tank to which orifice is fitted, and
B. Jet propulsion of ships.
A. Jet propulsion of a tank with an orifice

 Consider a large tank fitted with an orifice in one of its sides as shown in Fig. 2.12.

 Let,
𝐻 = Constant head of water in tank
from the center of orifice
𝑎 = Area of orifice
𝑉 = Velocity of the jet of water
𝐶𝑣 = Co-efficient of the velocity of
orifice
Then, Fig. 2.12 Jet propulsion of a
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2gH tank with an orifice
And
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉
 Force acting on the water is equal to the rate of change of momentum,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 × [𝐹inal velocity – Initial velocity]
∴ 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉[𝑉 − 0]
∴ 𝐹 = ρaV 2 − − − − − − − −(2.37)
Note:- Here change of velocity is to be taken as final minus Initial as we are finding
force on water and not force exerted by the water.
 Thus F is the force exerted on the jet of water.
 This jet of water will exert a force on the tank (at point A) which is equals to F but
opposite in direction as shown in Fig. 2.12.
 If the tank is free to move or the tank is fitted with frictionless wheels, it will starts
moving with velocity say ‘u’ in the direction opposite to the direction of jet.
 When the tank starts moving, the velocity of the jet with which it comes out of the
orifice will not be equal to V but it will be equal to relative velocity of the jet w.r.t.
tank.
If,
𝑉 = Absolute velocity of jet
𝑢 = Velocity of tank
𝑉𝑟 = Relative velocity of jet or velocity of jet w.r.t tank = 𝑉 + 𝑢
Hence,
Mass of water coming out from the orifice per sec = ρa(V + u)
∴ Force exerted on the tank,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 × [𝐹. 𝑉. −𝐼. 𝑉. ]

∴ 𝐹𝑥 = ρa(V + u)[(V + u) − u]
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎V(V + 𝑢) − − − − − − − −(2.38)
 Work done on the moving tank by jet per sec,
𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢
𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎V(V + 𝑢) × 𝑢 − − − − − − − −(2.39)
 Efficiency of propulsion is,
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜂=
K. E. of the issuing jet per sec
𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑢 (𝑉 + 𝑢)
∴𝜂=1
(𝜌𝑎(V + 𝑢)) × (𝑉 + 𝑢)2
2
2𝑉𝑢
∴𝜂= − − − − − − − −(2.40)
(𝑉 + 𝑢)2
Condition for Maximum Efficiency

 The efficiency will be maximum when,
𝑑𝜂
=0
𝑑𝑢
𝑑 2𝑉𝑢
∴ [ ]=0
𝑑𝑢 (𝑉 + 𝑢)2
𝑑
∴ [2uV(V + u)−2 ] = 0
𝑑𝑢
∴ 2𝑢𝑉(−2) (V + u)−3 + 2𝑉(V + u)−2 = 0
−4Vu 2V
∴ 3
+ =0
(V + u) (V + u)2
∴ −4𝑉𝑢 + 2𝑉(𝑉 + 𝑢) = 0
∴ −2𝑢 + 𝑉 + 𝑢 = 0
∴𝑉−𝑢 =0
∴ 𝑽 = 𝒖 − − − − − − − −(𝟐. 𝟒𝟏)
 Maximum efficiency,
2𝑢2 1
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
= = 50% − − − − − − − −(2.42)
(2𝑢) 2
Note: Jet propulsion of ships is not discussed here as it can be derived by using the same
approach with ship. For detail study of jet propulsion of ships, kindly refer “Fluid Mechanics
and Hydraulic Machines by R. K. Bansal”.

Question Bank
1. Differentiate between the force exerted by a jet of water on a fixed vertical plate and
moving vertical plate and also derive an expression for force exerted by a jet of water
in both the cases.
2. Derive an expression for the angle of swing of a vertical hinged plate.
3. Prove that the work done per second on a series of moving curved vanes by a jet of
water striking at one of the tips of the vane is given by,
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒/ sec = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢
4. Show that when a jet of water impinges on a series of curved vanes, maximum
efficiency is obtained when the vane is semi-circular and the velocity of jet is double
the velocity of vane.
5. Show that the efficiency of a free jet striking normally on a series of flat plates
mounted on the periphery of a wheel can never exceed 50%.
6. Show that for a curved radial vane, the work done per second is given by,
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒/ sec = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ]
7. Explain the term jet propulsion. Also derive an expression for the propelling force and
the work done per sec on a tank which is provided with an orifice through which jet of
water is coming out and tank is free to move.
8. Explain the term jet propulsion. Also explain jet propulsion of ships. (both the cases)

3
HYDRAULIC TURBINE
Course Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Classification of Hydraulic
Turbines
3.3 Efficiencies & Head of
Hydraulic Turbines
3.4 Impulse Turbine (Pelton Wheel)
3.5 Reaction Turbine
3.6 Inward and Outward Flow
Reaction Turbine
3.7 Francis turbine
3.8 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine
3.9 Draft Tube Theory
3.10 Specific Speed
3.11 Unit Quantities
3.12 Performance Curves of
Hydraulic Turbines
3.13 Governing of Hydraulic
Turbines

3. Hydraulic Turbines Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
3.1 Introduction
Hydraulic Machines
“It is defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy (i.e. turbines) or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy (i.e.
pumps).”
Turbines
“It is defined as the hydraulic machines which converts hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy.”
 This mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator which is directly

coupled to the shaft of the turbine. Thus the mechanical energy is converted into
electric energy.
 The electric power, which is obtained from the hydraulic energy is known as Hydro-
electric power.
3.2 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
A. According to the type of energy at inlet or the action of the water on

the blade
I. Impulse turbine
 In an Impulse turbine, all the available energy of the water is converted into
kinetic energy or velocity head by passing it through a convergent nozzle
provided at the end of penstock.
 So at the inlet of the turbine, only kinetic energy is available.
 Here the pressure of water flowing over the turbine blades remains constant.
(i.e. atmospheric pressure)
 Examples: Pelton wheel, Turgo-impulse turbine, Girard turbine, Banki
turbine, Jonval turbine, etc.

Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 3. Hydraulic Turbines
II. Reaction turbine
 In a reaction turbine, at the entrance to the runner, only a part of the

available energy of water is converted into kinetic energy and a substantial
part remains in the form of pressure energy.
 So at the inlet of the turbine, water possesses kinetic energy as well as
pressure energy.
 As the water flows through the turbine blades, the change from pressure
energy to kinetic energy takes place gradually.
 For this gradual change of pressure, the runner must be completely enclosed
in an air-tight casing and the passage should be full of water.
 The difference of pressure between the inlet and outlet of the runner is
called reaction pressure, and hence these turbines are known as reaction
turbine.
 Examples: Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine, Thomson
turbine, Fourneyron turbine, etc.
B. According to the direction of flow through runner
I. Tangential flow turbine
 In tangential flow, the water strikes the runner in the direction of tangent to
the path of rotation of runner. OR The water strikes the vane/bucket along
the tangent of the runner.
 Example: Pelton wheel
II. Radial flow turbine
 In radial flow, water flows through the turbine along the direction normal to
the axis of rotation (i.e. radial direction).
 A radial flow turbine is further classified as inward or outward flow
depending upon whether the flow is inward from the periphery to the center
or outward from center to periphery.
 Example: Old Francis turbine

III. Axial flow turbine
 In an axial flow, water flows along the direction parallel to the axis of rotation
of the runner.
 Here water flows parallel to the turbine shaft.
 Examples: Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine
IV. Mixed flow turbine
 In mixed flow, water enters the runner in the radial direction and leaves in
the direction parallel to the axis of rotation (i.e. axial direction).
 Example: Modern Francis turbine.
C. According to the head at the inlet of the turbine
I. High head turbine
 High head turbines which operates under high head (above 250m) and
requires relatively less quantity of water.
 Example: Pelton wheel turbine
II. Medium head turbine
 Medium head turbines which operate under medium head (60m to 250m)
and require medium flow rate.
 Example: Modern Francis turbine
III. Low head turbine
 Low head turbines which operate under head up to 30m and require very
large quantity of water.
 Example: Kaplan and Propeller turbine
D. According to the specific speed of the turbine
The specific speed of a turbine is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine that
would develop 1KW power when working under a head of 1m.

All geometrically similar turbines (irrespective of the sizes) will have the same
specific speeds when operating under the same head.
𝑁√𝑃
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑁𝑠 =
𝐻 5⁄4
Where,
𝑁 = Normal working speed
𝑃 = Power output of the turbine, and
𝐻 = Net or effective head in meter
Turbines with low specific speeds work under high head and low discharge
conditions, while high specific speed turbines work under low head and high
discharge conditions.
I. Low specific speed turbine
 For Pelton wheel turbine with single jet, 𝑁𝑠 = 8.5 𝑡𝑜 30
 For Pelton wheel turbine with double jet, 𝑁𝑠 = 40
II. Medium specific speed turbine
 For Francis turbine, 𝑁𝑠 = 50 𝑡𝑜 340
III. High specific speed turbine
 Kaplan and other Propeller turbine, 𝑁𝑠 = 255 𝑡𝑜 860
3.3 Efficiencies & Head of Hydraulic Turbines

1. Gross Head (𝑯𝒈 )
 It is the difference between headrace level and tail race level when no water is
flowing.
 It is also known as total head of the turbine.

Fig. 3.1 Layout of hydroelectric power plant using an impulse turbine

2. Effective Head or Net Head (𝑯)
 Net head or effective head is the actual head available at the inlet of the turbine.
 When water is flowing from head race to the turbine, a loss of head due to friction
between water and penstock occurs.
 Though there are other losses also such as loss due to bend, pipe fittings, loss at
entrance of the penstock, etc. These all having small magnitude as compared to
head loss due to friction.
So,
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔 − ℎ𝑓 − − − − − − − −(3.1)
Where,
𝐻 = Net head or Effective head
𝐻𝑔 = Gross head
ℎ𝑓 = Head loss due to friction between penstock and water and is given by,
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 = − − − − − − − −(3.2)
2𝑔𝐷
𝑓 = Coefficient of friction of penstock depending on the type of material of penstock
𝐿 = Total length of penstock
𝑉 = Mean velocity of water through the penstock
𝐷 = Diameter of penstock and
𝑔 = Acceleration due to gravity
3. Hydraulic Efficiency (𝜼𝒉 )

 It is the ratio of the power developed by the runner of a turbine to the power
supplied by the water at the inlet of a turbine.
 Since the power supplied is hydraulic, and the probable loss is between the striking
jet and vane it is rightly called hydraulic efficiency.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟
𝜂ℎ =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅. 𝑃.
𝜂ℎ = = − − − − − − − −(3.3)
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑊. 𝑃.
Runner Power
 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝑅. 𝑃. = 𝑚̇[𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢, Watt
 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑅. 𝑃. = 𝑚̇[𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ], Watt
Water Power
𝑊×𝐻
𝑊. 𝑃. = , 𝐾𝑊
1000
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
𝑊. 𝑃. = , 𝐾𝑊
1000
Where,
𝑊 = Weight of water striking the vanes per second = 𝑚̇𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄
𝐻 = Net available head on the turbine
4. Mechanical Efficiency (𝜼𝒎 )

 The power delivered by water to the runner of a turbine is transmitted to the shaft
of the turbine.
 It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft of the turbine to the power
developed by the runner of a turbine.
 This depends on the slips and other mechanical problems that will create a loss of
energy i.e. friction.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝜂𝑚 =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆. 𝑃.
𝜂𝑚 = = − − − − − − − −(3.4)
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅. 𝑃.
5. Overall Efficiency (𝜼𝒐 )

 It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power supplied by the water
at the inlet of a turbine.
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂𝑜 =
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑆. 𝑃. 𝑅. 𝑃.
𝜂𝑜 = ×
𝑊. 𝑃. 𝑅. 𝑃.
𝑆. 𝑃. 𝑅. 𝑃.
𝜂𝑜 = ×
𝑅. 𝑃. 𝑊. 𝑃.
𝜂𝑜 = 𝜂𝑚 × 𝜂ℎ − − − − − − − −(3.5)
6. Volumetric Efficiency (𝜼𝒗 )

 The volume of the water striking the runner of a turbine is slightly less than the
volume of the water supplied to the turbine.
 Some of the volume of the water is discharged to the tail race without striking the
runner of the turbine.
 Thus the ratio of the volume of the water actually striking the runner to the volume
of water supplied to the turbine is defined as volumetric efficiency.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟

𝜂𝑣 = − − − − − − − −(3.6)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
3.4 Pelton Wheel

 A Pelton wheel turbine is:
 Tangential Flow Turbine:
Water strikes the bucket/vane tangentially to the direction of the rotation.
 Impulse Turbine:
At the inlet of the turbine, only kinetic energy is available. (Pressure will
remain constant at the inlet and outlet, i.e. Atmospheric pressure)
 Pelton wheel is generally used at a very high head and low discharge.
 Pelton wheel is named after an American engineer L. A. Pelton.
Components of Pelton Wheel
 The main components of Pelton wheel are:
1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement (Spear)
2. Runner and Buckets
3. Casing and
4. Breaking Jet
Fig. 3.2 Components of a Pelton wheel

1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement (Spear)
 Depending on load fluctuations, the speed of the turbine is to be kept constant by
controlling the quantity of water flowing through the nozzle.
Fig. 3.3 Flow regulating Arrangement

 The amount of water striking the buckets of the runner is controlled by providing a
spear in the nozzle as shown in Fig. 3.3.
 The spear is a conical needle which is operated either by a hand wheel or
automatically by governor in an axial direction depending upon the size of the unit.
 Spear reciprocates in nozzle and hence changes the annular area through which
water can pass.

 When the spear is pushed forward into the nozzle, the amount of water striking the
runner is reduced. On the other hand, if the spear is pushed back, the amount of
water striking the runner increases.
2. Runner and Buckets
 It consists of a circular disc, on the periphery of which a number of buckets evenly

spaced are fixed.
Fig. 3.4 Bucket of Pelton Wheel
 The shape of the buckets is of a double hemispherical cup or bowl. Each bucket is
divided into two symmetrical parts by a dividing wall which is known as splitter.
 The jet of water strikes on the splitter. The splitter divides the jet into two equal
parts and the jet comes out at the outer edge of the bucket.
 The buckets are shaped in such a way that the jet gets deflected through 160° or
170°. Maximum work is obtained if the jet is deflected through 180° i.e. the bucket is
semicircular.
 If semicircular bucket is used, an outgoing jet may strikes to the next incoming
bucket and hence opposes the motion of the rotor. Hence the angle of jet deflection
is generally kept 160° to 170°.
 Material of buckets: Cast iron, Cast steel, Bronze or S.S., depending upon the head
at inlet.
 The inner surface of the bucket is highly polished to minimize the frictional losses.

Page 3.10 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Rajkot
 As the splitter has to bear total impact of jet, it must be made very strong. Therefore
it is not practical to have a sharp edge with a zero inlet angle at the center of the
bucket.
 Usually this angle is made 3 to 6 degrees even though, for practical purpose the inlet
vane angle is assumed to be zero.
3. Casing
 The function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge
water to the tailrace.
 It also acts as a safe-guard against accidents.
 Material: Cast iron or fabricated steel plates.
 The casing of the Pelton wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.
4. Breaking Jet
 When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the forward direction,
the amount of water striking the runner reduces to zero.
 But the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a long time.
 To stop the runner in a shorter time, a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet
of water on the back of the vanes as shown in Fig. 3.2. This jet of water is called
breaking jet.
Working of Pelton Wheel
 Pelton wheel works on Impulse-Momentum principle. (i.e. 𝐹. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚. 𝑑𝑉)

 The water from the reservoir (or head race) is conveyed to turbine house through a
penstock, at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted.
 When water flows through a penstock and comes out of nozzle, all pressure energy
and potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
 Hence at the outlet of the nozzle, the water out in the form of jet (at atmospheric
pressure) and strikes the buckets/vanes of the runner.
 The impact of water on the bucket makes runner to rotate.

 Runner is mounted on the shaft and hence mechanical energy is available at the
shaft which is coupled with generator, which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy and produce electricity.
 After performing work on the buckets water is discharged into the tail race.
Velocity Triangles, Work done and Efficiency of Pelton Wheel
 The jet of water from the nozzle strikes the bucket at the splitter, which splits up the
jet into two parts.
 These parts of the jet, glides over the inner surfaces and comes out at the outer edge
of the bucket.
 The splitter is the inlet tip and outer edge of the bucket is the outlet tip of the
bucket.
Fig. 3.5 Velocity diagram of Pelton wheel

Let,
𝑉1 = Absolute velocity of water at the inlet, and is given by,
𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻
Where,
𝐻 = Net head acting on the Pelton wheel = 𝐻𝑔 − ℎ𝑓
𝐻𝑔 = Gross head
ℎ𝑓 = Head loss due to friction and is given by,

Rajkot
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝐷∗
𝐷∗ = Diameter of penstock
𝑉 = Velocity of water in the penstock
𝑓 = Co-efficient of friction of penstock depending on the type of material of
penstock
𝐿 = Total length of penstock
𝑉2 = Absolute velocity of water at the outlet
𝑉𝑟1 = Relative velocity of jet and vane at inlet
𝑉𝑟2 = Relative velocity of jet and vane at outlet
𝑢 = Peripheral velocity of a runner which has same value at inlet and outlet of the
runner at mean pitch (𝑢 = 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 )
𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑢=
60
𝐷 = Diameter of runner
𝑁 = Speed of the runner in RPM
𝑉𝑤1 = Velocity of whirl at inlet
𝑉𝑤2 = Velocity of whirl at outlet
𝛼 = Guide blade angle (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝛼 = 0)
𝜃 = Vane angle at the inlet (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝜃 = 0)
𝜑 = Vane angle at the outlet
 From inlet velocity triangle,
𝛼 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 0 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦)
So,
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑤1 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉1 − 𝑢1
 From outlet velocity triangle,
𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉𝑟2 (𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ)
𝑉𝑤2 = 𝑉𝑟2 cos 𝜑 − 𝑢2
 Force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion is given by,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ]
(𝑉1 is taken instead of 𝑉𝑟1 because of series of vanes)

Also for Pelton wheel 𝛽 is an acute angle i.e. 𝛽 < 90° ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒 sign should be
taken.
 Work done by the jet on runner per sec,
= 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢
𝑁𝑚
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢, − − − − − − − −(3.7)
𝑠𝑒𝑐
 Hydraulic efficiency,
𝜂ℎ =
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢

𝜂ℎ = 1
(𝜌𝑎𝑉1 )𝑉12
2
2𝑢[𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ]
𝜂ℎ =
𝑉12
Now substituting values of 𝑉𝑤1 & 𝑉𝑤2 in above equation, we get,
2𝑢[𝑉1 + {𝑉𝑟1 cos 𝜑 − 𝑢2 }]

𝜂ℎ =
𝑉12
But,
𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉𝑟2 = 𝑉1 − 𝑢 (∵ 𝑢 = 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 )
So,
2𝑢[𝑉1 + (𝑉1 − 𝑢) cos 𝜑 − 𝑢]
𝜂ℎ =
𝑉12
2𝑢 (𝑉1 − 𝑢)[1 + cos 𝜑]

𝜂ℎ =
𝑉12
Condition for Maximum efficiency,
𝑑(𝜂ℎ )
=0
𝑑𝑢
𝑑 2𝑢 (𝑉1 − 𝑢)[1 + cos 𝜑]

[ ]=0
𝑑𝑢 𝑉12
[1 + cos 𝜑] 𝑑
[ (2𝑢𝑉1 − 2𝑢2 )] = 0
𝑉12 𝑑𝑢

Rajkot
2𝑉1 − 4𝑢 = 0
2𝑉1 = 4𝑢
𝑽𝟏
𝒖= − − − − − − − −(3.8)
𝟐
 Hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton wheel will be maximum when the velocity of wheel is
half the velocity of the jet of water at inlet.
 Maximum efficiency,
𝑉1 𝑉
2× × (𝑉1 − 21 ) [1 + cos 𝜑]
2
𝜂ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑉12
[1 + cos 𝜑]
𝜂ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − − − − − − − −(3.9)
2
Design Aspects of Pelton Wheel

For design aspect following points should be considered:
1. The velocity of jet (𝑽𝟏 ) at inlet of the turbine,
𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻 − − − − − − − −(3.10)
Where, 𝐶𝑣 = 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ≅ 0.98 𝑡𝑜 0.99
2. The velocity of wheel (𝒖),
𝑢 = 𝜑√2𝑔𝐻 − − − − − − − −(3.11)
Where, 𝜑 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 ≅ 0.43 𝑡𝑜 0.48
3. The angle of deflection of the jet through bucket is taken at 165° (average of 160° to
170°), if no angle of deflection is given.
4. The mean diameter or pitch diameter (𝑫) of the Pelton wheel is given by,
𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑢=
60
60 × 𝑢
∴𝐷=
𝜋𝑁
5. Jet ratio (𝒎): It is the ratio of pitch diameter (D) to diameter of jet (d).
𝐷
𝑚= (≅ 12 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠) − − − − − − − −(3.12)
𝑑
6. No. of buckets (𝒁) on a runner is given by,

𝐷
𝑍 = 15 +
2𝑑
∴ 𝑍 = 15 + 0.5𝑚 − − − − − − − −(3.13)
7. No. of jets: It is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow through the turbine (𝑄) by
the rate of flow of water through a single jet (𝑞).
𝑄
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡𝑠 = − − − − − − − −(3.14)
𝑞
Fig. 3.6 A close-up
8. Working proportions for buckets:
view of a Pelton
1. Width of the bucket = 3𝑑 𝑡𝑜 5𝑑 ≅ 5𝑑 wheel showing the
detailed design of
2. Depth of the bucket = 0.8𝑑 𝑡𝑜 1.2𝑑 ≅ 1.2𝑑
the buckets; the
 Size of bucket means width and depth of the buckets. electrical generator
is on the right.
Fig. 3.7 A view from

the bottom of an
operating Pelton
wheel illustrating
the splitting and
turning of the
water jet in the
bucket.
Design of Pelton Wheel means……….

To determine,
a. Diameter of jet (𝑑)

b. Diameter of wheel (𝐷)
c. Size of the bucket (Width and Depth)
d. No. of buckets on the wheel (𝑍)

Rajkot
Fig. 3.8 The runner

of a Modern Francis
turbine. There are
17 runner blades of
outer diameter 20.3
ft. The turbine
rotates at 100 rpm
and produces 194
MW of power at a
volume flow rate of
375 m3/s from a
net head of 54.9 m.
3.5 Reaction Turbine

 In reaction turbine, water at the inlet of the turbine possesses kinetic energy as well
as pressure energy.
 As water flows through runner, a part of pressure energy goes on changing into
kinetic energy.
 Thus the water through runner is under pressure and the runner is completely
enclosed in an air-tight casing.
 Casing and the runner is always full of water.
 Different types of reaction turbine are:
A. Inward radial flow reaction turbine (Water flows from outward to inward)
B. Outward radial flow reaction turbine (Water flows from inward to outward)
C. Mixed flow or Francis turbine (Water enters radially but leaves axially)
D. Axial flow turbine (Water enters and leaves axially)
I. Kaplan turbine:- Runner blades are adjustable
II. Propeller turbine:- Runner blades are fixed
Main Components of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine

 There are many components used in radial flow reaction turbine but the main
components of radial flow reaction turbine are:
1. Casing
2. Guide Mechanism
3. Runner and
4. Draft tube
Fig. 3.9 Main components of radial flow reaction turbine
 Main parts of radial flow reaction turbine are shown in Fig. 3.10 and are discussed
below:
1. Casing
 In case of reaction turbine, casing and runner are always full of water.
 The cross-section area of this casing decreases uniformly along the circumference to
keep the fluid velocity constant in magnitude along its path towards the guide vane.
 This is so because the rate of flow along the fluid path in the volute decreases due to
continuous entry of the fluid to the runner through the openings of the guide vanes.
 Material: Concrete, Cast steel or Plate steel
2. Guide Mechanism or Guide Blades

Rajkot
 It is a stationary circular wheel. Guide vanes are fixed on guide mechanism between
two rings in form of wheel.
 The guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without
shock at inlet.
 Material: Cast iron
 The quantity of water passing through the guide blades depends on the position of
the guide vanes.
3. Runner
 It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed.

 Surface of the vanes are made very smooth.
 The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters and leaves the runner
without shock.
 Material: Cast steel, Cast iron or Stainless steel.
 Runner is keyed to the shaft.
4. Draft Tube
 The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than
atmospheric pressure.
 Hence water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race.
 A tube or pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit
of the turbine to the tail race. This tube of increasing area is called draft tube.
3.6 Inward and Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine
Inward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine
Water enters at the outer periphery, flows Water enters at the inner periphery, flows
inward and towards the center of the turbine outward and discharges at the outer
and discharges at the inner periphery. periphery.
The outer diameter of the runner is inlet and The inner diameter of the runner is inlet
the inner diameter is the outlet. and the outer diameter is the outlet.

∴ 𝐷1 > 𝐷2 ∴ 𝐷1 < 𝐷2
And hence, And hence,
𝑢1 > 𝑢2 𝑢1 < 𝑢2

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(Work done and hydraulic efficiency are same for both inward and outward flow reaction
turbines)
Work done per sec,
𝑊𝐷⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] − − − − − − − −(3.15)
Work done per unit weight,
1
𝑊𝐷⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = [𝑉 𝑢 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] − − − − − − − −(3.16)
𝑔 𝑤1 1
Hydraulic efficiency,
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂ℎ =
𝑚̇ (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ) 𝜌𝑄 (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 )
𝜂ℎ = =
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
(𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 )
𝜂ℎ = − − − − − − − −(3.17)
𝑔𝐻
3.7 Francis turbine

 A Francis turbine is:

a. Mixed Flow Turbine:
Water enters radially and leaves axially to the direction of rotation of shaft.
b. Reaction Turbine:
At the inlet of the turbine both kinetic as well as pressure energy is available.
 It is generally operated under medium head and medium flow rate.
 It is designed by an American engineer J. B. Francis in 1849.
Components of Francis Turbine
 Different components of Francis turbine are:

A. Penstock D. Governing Mechanism
B. Spiral Casing E. Runner
C. Guide Blades F. Draft Tube
A. Penstock
 Penstock is a large diameter conduit, which carries water from a dam or a reservoir
to the turbine house.
 Since Francis turbine requires large volume of water than Pelton wheel, size of the
penstock is bigger in the case of Francis turbine.
 Material: Generally steel is used.
B. Spiral Casing
 Water from the penstock enters into the spiral casing which completely surrounds
the runner.
 This casing is also known as scroll casing or volute.
 The cross-section area of this casing decreases uniformly along the circumference to
keep the fluid velocity constant in magnitude along its path towards the guide vane.
 This is so because the rate of flow along the fluid path in the volute decreases due to
continuous entry of the fluid to the runner through the openings of the guide vanes.

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 Material:
 For low head: Concrete casing with steel plate lining
 For medium head: Welded rolled steel plate casing
 For high head: Cast
steel
C. Guide Blades
 A series of airfoil shaped vanes

called the guide vanes or
wicket gates, are mounted on
the casing.
 Guide vanes are fixed between
the two rings in form of a
wheel; however they can
swing about their own axis.
 The basic purpose of the guide
vanes is to convert a part of
pressure energy at its entrance
in to the kinetic energy and to
Fig. 3.11 Components of Francis turbine
direct the water or fluid on to
the runner blades at an angle
appropriate to the design.
 The quantity of water passing
through the guide vanes depends on the position of the guide vanes, which can be
controlled either by means of a hand wheel or automatically by a governor.
 Material: Cast steel
D. Governing Mechanism
 Turbine must rotate at constant speed irrespective of the load variation on

generator.
 Governing mechanism keeps the speed of the turbine constant by controlling the
quantity of water to the turbine.
 Guide blades can move on its pivot centers and hence can change the area of flow.
 Depending on load fluctuations, governing mechanism changes the position of guide
blades and hence the area of flow so that the turbine rotates with constant speed.
E. Runner
 It is the most important component of the Francis turbine.

 The runner of a Francis turbine consists of a series of curved vanes evenly arranged
around the circumference in the annular space between two plates.
 The runner vanes are so shaped that water enters the runner radially at the outer
periphery and leaves it axially at the inner periphery.
 Most of the portion of pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy as water
flows through the runner.
 The driving force on the runner is both due to impulse (deviation in the direction of
flow) and reaction (change in kinetic and pressure energy) effects.
 The number of runner blades are usually varies between 16 to 24.
 The runner is keyed to the shaft which is usually of forged steel.
 Material:
 Cast iron or Cast steel
 Sometimes Stainless steel or Bronze is used to avoid corrosion.
F. Draft Tube
 It is a pipe or passage of gradually increasing cross-sectional area towards its outlet
end. It connects the runner exit to the tail race.
 As the pressure of reaction turbine decreases continuously as water passes through
the guide vanes and the runner, it does below atmospheric pressure at the outlet of
the runner.
 Draft tube is used to discharge the water to the tail race by increasing pressure
above atmospheric.
 Draft tube must be submerged below the level of water in the tail race.
 Material: Steel plate
Working of a Francis Turbine

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 Water through the penstock under pressure enters the spiral casing which
completely surrounds the runner.
 From casing water passes through a series of guide vanes, which directs the water to
the runner at a proper angle.
 The pressure energy of water reduces continuously as it passes over the guide vanes
and moving vanes.
 The difference in pressure at stationary guide vanes and moving runner is
responsible for the motion of the runner vanes.
 Finally water is discharged to the tail race through a draft tube.

Velocity Triangles, Work done and Efficiency of Francis Turbine
Fig. 3.12 Velocity Triangles for Francis turbine

 The velocity triangles at inlet and outlet of the Francis turbine are drawn as shown in
Fig. 3.12(a).
 General expression for work done by runner will be derived in the same manner as
in the case of series of radial curved vanes (illustrated earlier in chapter-2 Impact of
Jets, Fig. 2.11, Page No. 2.19)
𝑊𝐷⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑚̇(𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 )
𝑊𝐷⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ) − − − − − − − −(3.18)
𝑖𝑓 𝛽 < 90° → +𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑖𝑓 𝛽 > 90° → −𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
 For maximum output, runner of the Francis turbine is so designed that there occurs
a radial discharge at the outlet tip of the blades.
 For radial discharge at the outlet, 𝛽 = 90° and 𝑉𝑤2 = 0, as shown in Fig. 3.14 (b).
∴ 𝑾𝑫⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄 = 𝒎̇ (𝑽𝒘𝟏 𝒖𝟏 ), 𝑵𝒎⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄 − − − − − − − −(3.19)

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Hydraulic Efficiency
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂ℎ =
𝑚̇ (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ) 𝜌𝑄 (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 )
𝜂ℎ = =
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
(𝑽𝒘𝟏 𝒖𝟏 )
𝜼𝒉 = − − − − − − − −(3.20)
𝒈𝑯
Working Proportions for Francis Turbine
1. Flow Ratio (𝑲𝒇 )
 Ratio of flow velocity at the inlet (𝑉𝑓1 ) to theoretical velocity (√2𝑔𝐻) is called flow
ratio. Its value lies between 0.15 to 0.30.
𝑉𝑓1
𝐾𝑓 = − − − − − − − −(3.21)
√2𝑔𝐻
2. Speed Ratio (𝑲𝒖 )
 Ratio of the peripheral velocity at the inlet (𝑢1 ) to theoretical velocity (√2𝑔𝐻) is
called speed ratio. Its value lies between 0.6 to 0.9.
𝑢1
𝐾𝑢 = − − − − − − − −(3.22)
√2𝑔𝐻
3. Breadth Ratio (𝒏)
 Ratio of width of the runner (𝐵) to outside diameter of the runner (𝐷) is called
breadth ratio. Its value ranges from 0.1 to 0.4.
𝐵
𝑛= − − − − − − − −(3.23)
𝐷
Total Discharge through Francis Turbine
Let,
𝐷1 = Diameter of runner at inlet
𝐷2 = Diameter of runner at outlet
𝐵1 = Width of runner at inlet

𝐵2 = Width of runner at outlet

𝑉𝑓2 = Velocity of flow at outlet
𝑛 = Number of vanes on runner
𝑡 = Thickness of each vane
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, total discharge through the Francis turbine is given by,
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
∴ 𝑄 = 𝜋𝐷1 𝐵1 × 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝜋𝐷2 𝐵2 × 𝑉𝑓2 − − − − − − − −(3.24)
 If the thickness of the vanes are taken into consideration, then the area through
which flow takes place is given by, (𝜋𝐷1 − 𝑛𝑡)𝐵1
Hence,
𝑄 = (𝜋𝐷1 − 𝑛𝑡)𝐵1 × 𝑉𝑓1 = (𝜋𝐷2 − 𝑛𝑡)𝐵2 × 𝑉𝑓2 − − − − − − − −(3.25)
Key Point for Reaction Turbine

 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅.
 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆:
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 − 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝟏 𝑽𝟐
[𝑽𝒘𝟏 𝒖𝟏 ± 𝑽𝒘𝟐 𝒖𝟐 ] = 𝑯 − 𝟐 − − − − − − − −(3.26)
𝒈 𝟐𝒈
3.8 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine
 In an axial flow reaction turbine, the water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation
of the shaft.
 It is used under low head and high discharge conditions.
 For the axial flow reaction turbine the shaft of the turbine is vertical.
 The lower end of the shaft is made larger which is known as “Hub” or “Boss”.

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 The vanes are fixed on the hub and hence hub acts as a runner for axial flow reaction
turbine.
Types of Axial Flow Reaction Turbine
1. Kaplan Turbine and

2. Propeller Turbine
 When the vanes are fixed to the hub and they are not adjustable, the turbine is
known as Propeller turbine.
 If the vanes on the hub are adjustable the turbine is known as a Kaplan turbine.
 The runner blades are adjusted automatically by servo-mechanism so that at all
loads the flow enters them without shock. This gives better part load efficiency for
Kaplan turbine.
 Components of Kaplan turbine and Propeller turbine are similar to that of the
Francis turbine, only the runner is different.
 Main parts of the Kaplan & Propeller turbine are:
A. Scroll casing
B. Guide vane mechanism
C. Hub with vanes or runner and
D. Draft tube

Fig. 3.13 Components of Kaplan turbine

 The water from penstock enters the casing and then moves to the guide vanes. From
the guide vanes, the water turns through 90° and flows axially through the runner as
shown in Fig. 3.13.
Work done, Efficiency and Power Developed
 Expressions for work done, efficiency and power developed by Kaplan & Propeller
turbine are similar to that of Francis turbine.
Discharge through Runner of Kaplan & Propeller Turbine
 The discharge through the runner is obtained by,

𝜋 2
𝑄= (𝐷 − 𝐷𝑏2 ) × 𝑉𝑓1 − − − − − − − −(3.27)
4 𝑜
Where,
𝐷𝑜 = Outer diameter of the runner
𝐷𝑏 = Diameter of the hub
Working Proportions of Kaplan and Propeller Turbine

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1. The peripheral velocity at inlet and outlet are equal,

𝜋𝐷0 𝑁
∴ 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = − − − − − − − −(3.28)
60
2. Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet are equal,
∴ 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉𝑓2 = 𝐾𝑓 √2𝑔𝐻 − − − − − − − −(3.29)
3. Area of flow at inlet and outlet are equal,
𝜋 2
∴ 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = (𝐷 − 𝐷𝑏2 )
4 𝑜
3.9 Draft Tube Theory
 Draft tube is an integral part of reaction turbine. It is an air tight diverging conduit
with cross-sectional area increasing along its length. One end of this diverging tube is
connected to runner exit and the other is located below the level of tail race.
 The function of the draft tube are:
 When water flows through the turbine it’s kinetic and pressure energy is
utilized to generate shaft power. Even though when water leaves the turbine
it possesses high kinetic energy and negative pressure head. If water is
discharged through a draft tube having gradually increasing cross sectional
area, the velocity is largely reduced at the outlet of the draft tube, and thus
resulting in a gain in kinetic head and also increases the negative pressure
head at the turbine exit so that net working head on the turbine increases. So
output of turbine and efficiency also increases.
 By providing a draft tube, a turbine can be installed above the tail race
without loss of any head. This helps to make inspection and maintenance of a
turbine easy.
 Different types of draft tubes used in reaction turbine are:

a) Straight divergent tube or Conical draft tube
b) Simple elbow tube
c) Moody spreading tube
d) Elbow tube with circular cross-section at inlet and rectangular at outlet
 Fig. 3.14 shows different types of draft tubes.

Fig. 3.14 Types of draft tubes

 Let,
𝐻𝑠 = Vertical height of draft tube above the tail race
𝑦 = distance of bottom of draft tube from tail race
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the inlet (section 2-2) and outlet (section 3-3) of the
draft tube as shown in Fig. 3.15.
 Assuming section 3-3 as a datum line, we get, Fig. 3.15 Draft tube theory
𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑃3 𝑉32
+ + (𝐻𝑠 + 𝑦) = + + 0 + ℎ𝑓 − − − − − − − −(3.30)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Where,
ℎ𝑓 = Loss of energy between section 2-2 and 3-3.
But,
𝑃3
= 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝑦
𝜌𝑔
𝑃3 𝑃𝑎
∴ = +𝑦
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
𝑆𝑜,

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𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑃𝑎 𝑉32
∴ + + (𝐻𝑠 + 𝑦) = +𝑦+ + ℎ𝑓
𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑃𝑎 𝑉32
∴ + + 𝐻𝑠 = + + ℎ𝑓
𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝒂 𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟑
∴ = − 𝑯𝒔 − ( − − 𝒉𝒇 ) − − − − − − − −(3.31)
𝝆𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
𝑃
 In Equation 3.31, 𝜌𝑔2 is less than atmospheric pressure.
Efficiency of Draft Tube (𝜼𝒅 )
 It is defined as the ratio of actual conversion of kinetic head into pressure head in
the draft tube to the kinetic head at the inlet of the draft tube.
𝑉2
2 𝑉2
3
(2𝑔 − 2𝑔 ) − ℎ𝑓
𝜂𝑑 = 𝑉22
− − − − − − − −(3.32)
2𝑔
3.10 Specific Speed (𝑵𝒔 )

 It is defined as the speed of a turbine which is identical in shape, geometrical
dimensions, blade angles, gate openings, etc. with the actual turbine but of such a
size that it will develop unit power when working under a unit head.
 The specific speed is used in comparing the different types of turbines as every type
of turbine has different specific speed.
In MKS system, In SI system,
Unit power → 1 Horse power Unit power → 1 KW
Unit head → 1 meter Unit head → 1 meter
Derivation of Specific Speed for Hydraulic Turbine

 The overall efficiency of any turbine is given by,

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃
𝜂𝑜 = = 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
1000
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
∴ 𝑃 = 𝜂𝑜 ×
1000
∴ 𝑃 ∝ 𝑄𝐻 (𝑎𝑠 𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂𝑜 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) − − − − − − − −(3.33)
 Let,
𝐷 = Diameter of actual turbine runner
𝐵 = Width of the actual turbine blade
𝑁 = Speed of actual turbine
𝑢 = Tangential velocity of the turbine wheel
𝑁𝑠 = Specific speed of the turbine
𝑢 ∝ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 ∝ √𝐻
∴ 𝑢 ∝ √𝐻 − − − − − − − −(3.34)
But,
𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑢=
60
∴ 𝑢 ∝ 𝐷𝑁 − − − − − − − −(3.35)
From Equation 3.34 and 3.35 we have,

√𝐻 ∝ 𝐷𝑁
√𝐻
∴𝐷∝ − − − − − − − −(3.36)
𝑁
 The discharge through the turbine is given by,

𝑄 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
But,
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∝ 𝐵𝐷 ∝ 𝐷2 (∵ 𝐵 ∝ 𝐷)
And
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ √𝐻
∴ 𝑄 ∝ 𝐷2 √𝐻

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2
√𝐻
∴ 𝑄 ∝ ( ) × √𝐻 (𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3.36)
𝑁
𝐻
∴𝑄∝ × √𝐻
𝑁2
𝐻 3⁄2
∴𝑄∝ − − − − − − − −(3.37)
𝑁2
 Substituting the value of Q in Equation 3.33 we get,
𝐻 3⁄2
𝑃∝ ×𝐻
𝑁2
𝐻 5⁄2
∴𝑃∝ 2
𝑁
𝐻 5⁄2
∴𝑃=𝐾× − − − − − − − −(3.38)
𝑁2
Where, 𝐾 = Constant of proportionality
 If,
𝑃 = 1𝐾𝑊 and 𝐻 = 1𝑚, Then, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑠
 Substituting these values in Equation (3.38) we get,

15⁄2
1=𝐾×
𝑁𝑠2
∴ 𝐾 = 𝑁𝑠2
 So,
𝐻 5⁄2
𝑃 = 𝑁𝑠2 ×
𝑁2
𝑃𝑁 2
∴ 𝑁𝑠2 =
𝐻 5⁄2
𝑃𝑁 2
∴ 𝑁𝑠 = √ 5⁄2
𝐻
𝑵√𝑷
∴ 𝑵𝒔 = − − − − − − − −(3.39)
𝑯𝟓⁄𝟒
Significance of Specific Speed

 Specific speed plays an important role for selecting the type of the turbine. Also the
performance of a turbine can be predicted by knowing the specific speed of the
turbine.
 The type of turbine for different specific speed are given in following table:
Specific Speed, 𝑵𝒔
Sr. No. Type of Turbine
In MKS unit In SI unit
1 10 to 60 10 to 50 Pelton Wheel
2 60 to 300 51 to 225 Francis Turbine
3 300 to 1000 255 to 860 Kaplan turbine
3.11 Unit Quantities and Model Relationship

 A turbine operates most efficiently at its design point, i.e., at a particular
combination of head, discharge, speed and power output. But in actual practice
hardly any turbine operates at its designed parameters.
 In order to predict the behavior of turbine operating at varying conditions of head,

discharge, speed and power output, the results expressed in terms of quantities
which may be obtained when the head on the turbine is reduced to unity (1m).
 The conditions of the turbine under unit head are such that the overall efficiency of
the turbine remains constant.
 Turbine can be compared with the help of the following common characteristics:
A. Unit Speed (𝑵𝒖 )
It is defined as the speed of a turbine working under a unit head (1 m).
𝑢 ∝ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 ∝ √𝐻
∴ 𝑢 ∝ √𝐻
But,
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𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑢=
60
∴ 𝑢 ∝ 𝐷𝑁
For a given turbine, the diameter (𝐷) is constant.
∴𝑁∝𝑢
∴ 𝑁 ∝ √𝐻
∴ 𝑁 = 𝐾1 √𝐻
From definition of unit speed, if 𝐻 = 1𝑚, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑢
∴ 𝑁𝑢 = 𝐾1
Hence,
𝑵
𝑵𝒖 =
√𝑯
B. Unit Discharge (𝑸𝒖 )
It is defined as a discharge passing through a turbine, which is working under a unit
head (1m).
Total discharge, Q = Area of flow x Velocity of flow
But for a given turbine, area of flow is constant and,
𝑄 ∝ 𝑉𝑓 ∝ √𝐻
∴ 𝑄 = 𝐾2 √𝐻
From definition of unit discharge, if 𝐻 = 1𝑚, 𝑄 = 𝑄𝑢
∴ 𝑄𝑢 = 𝐾2
Hence,
𝑸
𝑸𝒖 =
√𝑯
C. Unit Power (𝑷𝒖 )
It is defined as the power developed by a turbine, which is working under a unit head
(1m).
The overall efficiency,

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃
𝜂𝑜 = = 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
1000

𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
∴ 𝑃 = 𝜂𝑜 ×
1000
∴ 𝑃 ∝ 𝑄𝐻 (𝑎𝑠 𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂𝑜 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
But,
𝑄 ∝ 𝑉𝑓 ∝ √𝐻
∴ 𝑃 ∝ √𝐻 × 𝐻
∴ 𝑃 ∝ 𝐻 3⁄2
∴ 𝑃 = 𝐾3 𝐻 3⁄2
From definition of unit power, if 𝐻 = 1𝑚, 𝑄 = 𝑄𝑢
∴ 𝑃𝑢 = 𝐾3
Hence,
𝑷
𝑷𝒖 =
𝑯𝟑⁄𝟐
 Use of Unit Quantities (𝑵𝒖 , 𝑸𝒖 , 𝑷𝒖 )
 If a turbine is working under different heads, the behavior of the turbine can be
easily known from the values of the unit quantities.
 Let,
𝐻1 , 𝐻2 = Different heads under which a turbine works,
𝑁1 , 𝑁2 = Corresponding speeds,
𝑄1 , 𝑄2 = Corresponding discharge, and
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 = Corresponding power developed by the turbine
From the definition of unit quantities, we get
𝑁1 𝑁2
𝑁𝑢 = =
√𝐻1 √𝐻2
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝑄𝑢 = =
√𝐻1 √𝐻2
𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑃𝑢 = ⁄2
= ⁄2
𝐻13 𝐻23

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 Hence, if the speed, discharge and power developed by a turbine under a head are
known, then by using above relations the speed, discharge and power developed by
the same turbine under a different head can be obtained easily.
3.12 Performance (Characteristic) Curves of Hydraulic Turbines
 The turbines are generally designed to work at particular designed conditions. But
often the turbines are required to work at different conditions. Therefore it is
essential to determine the exact behavior of the turbines under the varying
conditions.
 “Characteristic curves of a hydraulic turbine are the curves, with the help of which
the exact behavior and performance of the turbine under different working
conditions can be known.”
 These curves are plotted from the results of the test performed on the actual turbine
or its model under different working conditions.
 The important parameters which are varied during a test on a turbine are:
(1) Speed (N), (2) Head (H), (3) Discharge (Q), (4) Power (P), (5) overall efficiency (ηo)
and (6) Gate opening (i.e. the percentage of the inlet passages provided for water to
enter the turbine)
 Out of these six parameters speed, head and discharge are independent parameters.
Different characteristic curves are obtained by keeping one independent parameter
constant and variation of any parameter with respect to remaining two independent
parameters.
 The following are the important characteristic curves for a hydraulic turbine:
1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves

2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves
3. Muschel Curves or Constant Efficiency Curves
1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves
 Main characteristic curves are obtained by maintaining a constant head and a

constant gate opening on the turbine.
 The speed of the turbine is varied by admitting different rates of flow by adjusting
the percentage of gate opening. The power (P) developed is measured mechanically.
From each test the unit power Pu, the unit speed Nu, the unit discharge Qu and the
overall efficiency ηo are determined. The characteristic curves drawn are:
a) Unit discharge vs unit speed
b) Unit power vs unit speed
c) Overall efficiency vs unit speed
Fig. 3.16 (a) Main Characteristic curves for a Pelton wheel
 For Pelton wheel since Qu depends only on the gate opening and independent of Nu,
Qu vs Nu plots are horizontal straight lines.
 However for low specific speed Francis turbines Qu vs Nu are drooping curves,
thereby indicating that as the speed increases the discharge through the turbine
decreases. This is so because in these turbines a centrifugal head is developed which
retards the flow. On the other hand for high specific speed Francis turbine as well as
Kaplan turbine, since the flow is axial there is no such centrifugal head developed
which may cause the retardation of flow.

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Fig. 3.16 (b) Main Characteristic curves for a Reaction turbine
2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves
 Operating characteristic curves are plotted when the speed on the turbine is
constant. In case of turbines the head is generally constant. Hence the variation of
power and efficiency w.r.t. discharge Q is plotted.
 The power curve for turbines shall not pass through the origin because certain
amount of discharge is needed to produce power to overcome initial friction. Fig.
3.17 shows the variation of power and efficiency with respect to discharge.
Fig. 3.17 Operating characteristic curves

3. Muschel Curves or Constant Efficiency Curves
 These curves are obtained from the speed vs. efficiency and speed vs. discharge
curves (main characteristic curves) for different gate openings.
 For a given efficiency there are two values of speeds and two values of discharge for
a given gate opening, these can be plotted as shown in Fig. 3.18.
 The procedure is repeated for different gate openings and the curves Q vs. N are
plotted. The curves having the same efficiencies are joined. The curves having same
efficiency are called iso-efficiency curves. These curves are helpful in determining the
zone of constant efficiency and for predicting the performance of the turbine at
various efficiencies.
Fig. 3.18 Constant efficiency curve
3.13 Governing of Hydraulic Turbines

 “The governing of a turbine is defined as the operation by which the speed of the
turbine is kept constant under all working conditions (irrespective of the load
variations).”

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 Governing of a turbine is necessary as, a turbine is directly coupled to an electric

generator, which is required to run at constant speed under all fluctuating loads
conditions.
 It is done automatically by means of a governor, which regulates the rate of flow

through the turbines according to the changing load conditions on the turbine.
 The governor used in hydraulic turbines should be very strong as it has to deal with
the water coming at very large force and huge quantity.
 All type of turbines use oil pressure governor, which consists of the following parts:
 Oil sump
 Oil pump (Gear pump), which is driven by the power obtained from the
turbine. It supplies oil at high pressure.
 The servo motor, also known as a relay cylinder, which consists of a cylinder
in which piston reciprocates under the action of oil pressure. It is connected
at both the ends with the distributor valve through the pipe lines.
 The distributor valve or control valve or relay valve, which slides whenever
load changes and thereby allows the oil to go to either side of the
servomotor.
 The centrifugal governor or actuator, which is connected the turbine main

shaft through belt or gears.
Governing of Pelton Wheel

 In Pelton wheel turbine, the quantity of water supplied by the nozzle can be
regulated by any one of the following methods:
a) Spear Regulation
b) Deflector Regulation
c) Double Regulation
All these methods are operated by oil pressure governor.
a) Spear Regulation
 It consists of a nozzle in which spear moves to and fro by the action of the
servomotor piston and controls the quantity of water at changing demands.
 This movement is useful when the fluctuations in load are small. But when the load
changes suddenly, sudden change in the nozzle area causes water hammer in the
penstock. Therefore simple regulation system is not used in modern turbines where
fluctuations in the load are sudden.
b) Deflector Regulation
 It is a plate, pivoted outside the nozzle and is connected to oil pressure governor
through levers.
 When the load drops it deflects a part of the jet and thus controls the quantity of
water striking the buckets.
 In this system large amount of water goes into waste but there are no chances of
water hammer in penstock.
 This system is also not widely used due to wastage of large amount of water.
c) Double Regulation
 This method is widely used by all modern Pelton wheels because it has the
advantages of both spear as well as deflector regulation system.
 If load on the turbine drops suddenly, then deflector comes into action immediately
and obstructs a part of water reaching to the buckets. In the mean time, spear
gradually comes forward to its new position and thus the risk of water hammer is
avoided.
 As this type of governing controls the speed of turbine and pressure (i.e. water
hammer) in the penstock by the combination of spear and jet deflector, this system
is known as “Double Regulation”.
Working:
 When the load on the generator decreases, the speed of the generator increases.
Hence speed of the turbine also increases beyond the normal speed.
 The centrifugal governor which is connected to the turbine main shaft will be
rotating at an increased speed and hence centrifugal force on the fly ball increases
and it moves upward. Sleeve of the governor will also moves upward.

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 As the sleeve moves upward, a horizontal lever turns about the fulcrum and the
piston rod of the control valve moves downward. This closes the valve V 1 and opens
the valve V2 as shown in Fig. 3.19.
Fig. 3.19 Governing of Pelton wheel (Spear regulation)

 The oil pumped from the oil pump to the control valve under pressure will flow
through the valve V2 to the servomotor and will exert force on the face A of the
piston of the relay cylinder.
 Piston along with piston rod and spear will move towards right. This will decrease
the area of flow of water at the outlet of the nozzle and it will reduce the rate of flow
to the turbine which consequently reduces the speed of the turbine.
 Mean while bell crank lever moves downward, the jet deflector will operate and
divert whole or part of the jet away from the buckets.
 As soon as speed becomes normal, the fly balls, sleeves, lever and piston rod come
to its normal position. (Refer Figure 4.45 in R.N. Patel for double regulation)

Governing of Francis Turbine
 The guide blades of the Francis turbine are pivoted and connected by levers and links
to the regulating ring. The regulating ring is attached with two regulating rods
connected to the regulating lever. Thus regulating lever in turn is connected with
regulating shaft, which is operated by the piston of servomotor.
Fig. 3.20 Governing of Francis turbine
 When load on the turbine decreases, speed tends to increase, which moves fly balls
upwards and thus raises sleeves. Main lever on the other side of the fulcrum pushes
down the control valve rod and opens port V1. Oil under pressure enters the
servomotor from left and pushes the piston to moves towards right.
 When the piston of the servomotor moves towards right, regulating ring is rotated to
decrease the passage between the guide vanes by changing guide vane angles. Thus
quantity of water reaching the runner blades reduces and speed decreases to the
normal speed.
 Sudden reduction in passage between the guide blades may cause water hammer
which can be prevented by providing a relief valve near the turbine which diverts the
water directly to the tail race. Thus it functions similar to that of jet deflector as in
Pelton wheel. Thus double regulation is also well performed in Francis turbine.

Rajkot
4
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Course Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Components and Working of a
Centrifugal Pump
4.3 Velocity Diagram and Work
Done of a Centrifugal Pump
4.4 Definitions of Heads &
Efficiencies of Pumps
4.5 Specific Speed
4.6 Minimum Starting Speed
4.7 Maximum Suction Lift
4.8 Net Positive Suction Head
4.9 Priming of Centrifugal Pump
4.10 Multi-stage Centrifugal Pump
4.11 Characteristic Curves of
Hydraulic Pumps
4.12 Cavitation of Pump & Turbine
4.13 Solved Numerical
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Ketan C. Agola

4. Hydraulic Pumps Fluid Power Engineering (151903)
4.1 Introduction
 “The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy
are called pumps.”
 It increases pressure energy or kinetic energy or both by using mechanical energy.
The energy level of the fluid can be increased by either rotodynamic action or by
positive displacement of the fluid.
 “If the mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy or kinetic energy by
means of centrifugal force acting on the fluid, the hydraulic machine is called
Centrifugal pump.”
 They work on the same principle of a reaction turbine. The basic difference between
pump and a turbine is that in a turbine, flow takes place from the high pressure side
to low pressure side while in a pump flow takes place from low pressure side to high
pressure side.
Classification of Pumps on the Basis of Transfer of Mechanical Energy:
Centrifugal
Rotodynamic Propeller
Turbine
Piston
Pumps
Reciprocating Plunger
Diaphram
Positive
Displacement Gear
Vane
Rotory
Lobe
Screw
Applications of Hydraulic Pumps:

 Agriculture and irrigation work
 Municipal water works and drainage system
 Condensate, boiler feed, sump drain and such other services in a steam
power plant
 Hydraulic control system
Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fluid Power Engineering (151903) 4. Hydraulic Pumps
 Oil pumping
 Transfer of material in industry.
4.2 Components and Working of a Centrifugal Pump
Components:
 Main parts of a centrifugal pump (refer Fig. 4.1) are:
1. Impeller
2. Casing
3. Suction pipe
4. Delivery pipe
Fig. 4.1 Main parts of a centrifugal pump
1. Impeller
 It is a wheel or rotor which is provided with a series of backward curves vanes or
blades. It is mounted on a shaft which is coupled to an external source of energy
(electric motor), which imparts required energy to the impeller.
 It gets mechanical energy and converts it to kinetic and pressure energy of the fluid.
 Liquid enters the impeller through an eye of the impeller, high energy liquid than
enters the pump casing.
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada

2. Casing
 It is an air tight passage surrounding the impeller, designed in such a way that kinetic
energy of the water discharged at the outlet of the impeller is converted into
pressure energy before the water leaves the casing and enters the delivery pipe.
 Material of the casing is generally cast iron or cast steel.
 The efficiency of the pump depends on the type of casing used. The following three
types of casings are commonly used:
A. Volute Casing
B. Vortex Casing and
C. Casing with Guide Blades
A. Volute Casing
 It is of spiral type in which area of flow increases gradually. [ ( ) ( )
( )]
 It is observed that in case of volute casing, large amount of kinetic energy is lost
due to eddy formation and hence lower overall efficiency.
 These pumps hence give comparatively low head.
B. Vortex Casing
 In this type of casing, a circular chamber is provided in between the casing and
the impeller, which is known as vortex or whirlpool chamber (refer Fig. 4.2 (a)).
 By introducing the circular chamber, the loss of energy due to the formation of
eddies is reduced to a considerable extent.
 Thus the efficiency of the pump is more than the efficiency when only volute
casing is provided.
Fig. 4.2 Types of casing

C. Casing with Guide Blades

 Most efficient casing.
 In this impeller is surrounded by a series of guide blades mounted on a ring
which is known as diffuser (refer Fig. 4.2 (b)).
 The guide vanes are designed in such a way that the water from the impeller
enters the guide vanes without shock which avoids hydraulic losses.
 Also the area of guide vanes increases, thus reducing velocity of flow and
consequently increases the pressure of water.
 Used for developing high heads and hence mostly used as vertical pumps and
very suitable for installations in deep wells, mines, etc.
 Casing is in most of the cases concentric with the impeller.
3. Suction Pipe
 It carries liquid from the sump to the pump.
 Its lower end is dipped into the sump and upper end is connected with the eye of the
pump (i.e. inlet of the pump).
 A strainer and foot-valve are connected with the lower end.
 Strainer keeps the debris away from entering into suction pipe and hence only clear
water enters the impeller.
 Foot-valve is a kind of non-return valve which does not allow the liquid to go back
into sump.
 Cavitation may be caused due to negative pressure at the suction of the pump and
hence losses in the inlet pipe must be minimized.
 To keep low velocity in suction pipe, normally diameter of the suction pipe is kept
more than that of the delivery pipe.
4. Delivery Pipe
 A pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and other end delivers
the water at a required height is known as delivery pipe.
 The velocity of liquid in delivery pipe is kept slightly higher than that in suction pipe.
 A valve is provided just near the pump outlet to regulate the flow of liquid in the
delivery pipe.
Working:
 “A centrifugal pump works on a principle that when the liquid is rotated by an
external prime mover, it is thrown away from the axis of rotation and a centrifugal
head is imparted which makes it possible to raise to the higher elevation.”

 Before starting a centrifugal pump, liquid is filled in the suction pipe, impeller, casing
and a delivery pipe up to a delivery valve. This is known as priming. During priming
delivery valve is kept close.
 After priming, prime mover (electric motor) is started; delivery valve is still kept
closed.
 Energy given to the impeller by external source (i.e. prime mover) is transferred to
working fluid which increases the kinetic energy and pressure energy of the fluid.
 The rotation of the impeller causes strong suction at the eye of the pump.
 After the impeller attains its normal speed, the delivery valve is opened and liquid is
allowed to flow through the impeller vanes and it attains higher velocity at the outer
periphery.
 Liquid enters into casing, due to special design of casing the velocity of liquid
decreases and pressure energy hence increases.
 With high pressure energy and negligible kinetic energy liquid enters into delivery
pipe and is lifted to the required height.
 At that instant partial vacuum is created at the eye of pump due to centrifugal action
of impeller on liquid.
 This helps liquid to rush through the suction pipe towards the impeller eye, to take
place of liquid which has left the impeller vanes.
 When the pump is to be stopped the delivery valve should be first closed to stop the
back flow of liquid.
4.3 Velocity Diagram and Work Done of a Centrifugal Pump

 In case of the centrifugal pump,
work is done by the impeller on the
water. The expression for the work
done by the impeller on the liquid is
obtained by drawing velocity
triangles at the inlet and outlet of
the impeller in the same way as for
a turbine.
 Fig. 4.3 shows the vane of impeller
and velocity triangles at the inlet
and outlet of the impeller.
Fig. 4.3 Velocity triangles of
centrifugal Pump

 The water enters the impeller radially at inlet for the best efficiency of the pump,
which means the absolute velocity of water at inlet makes an angle of 90° with the
direction of motion of the impeller at inlet. Hence .
Assumptions:
 No energy losses due to friction and eddy formation
 No loss due to shock at entry
 Liquid enters the impeller eye in radial direction
 Uniform velocity distribution in the passage between two adjacent vanes.
 Let,
Speed of the impeller in rpm.
Diameter of impeller at the inlet
Diameter of impeller at the outlet
Tangential velocity of impeller at the inlet
Tangential velocity of impeller at the outlet
Absolute velocity of water at the inlet
Relative velocity of water at the inlet
Angle made by absolute velocity at inlet with the direction of motion of vane
Angle made by relative velocity at inlet with the direction of motion of vane and
are corresponding values at outlet.
 A centrifugal pump is the reverse of a radially inward flow reaction turbine. But in
case of a radially inward flow reaction turbine, the work done by the water on the
runner per sec per unit weight is given by,
( )
 Therefore, work done by the impeller on the water per sec per unit weight,
[ ]
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
 Work done by the impeller on water per sec,

̇( )
( ) ( )
 Discharge,

( )
Where,
are the width of the impeller at the inlet and outlet respectively.
 Equation (4.1) gives the head imparted to the water by the impeller or energy given
by impeller to water per sec per unit weight.
4.4 Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump
Heads:
1. Suction Head or Suction Lift ( )
 It is the vertical height of the center line of the pump shaft above the liquid surface
in the sump from which the liquid is being lifted. (refer Fig. 4.1)
2. Delivery Head ( )
 The vertical distance between the center line of the pump shaft and the liquid
surface in the tank to which liquid is delivered. (refer Fig. 4.1)
3. Static Head or Static Lift ( )
 As shown in Fig. 4.1 the static head is the vertical distance between the liquid
surface in the sump and the tank to which the liquid is delivered by the pump.
 Thus the static head may be expressed as,
( )
 Thus static head is the net total vertical height through which the liquid is lifted by
the pump.
4. Manometric Head ( )
 It is defined as the head against which a centrifugal pump has to work.
Or
It is the total head that must be produced by the pump to satisfy the external
requirements.
 It is given by the following expressions:
a) If there are no losses in the impeller and casing of the pump, then the
manometric head will be equals to the energy given to the liquid by the
impeller.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

b) Manometric head is the difference of total head at the outlet and total head
at the inlet of the pump.
( ) ( ) ( )
c) Whole of the manometric head is not used to lift the liquid against the static
lift; a part of it is used to overcome the losses in the pipes and fittings and to
provide the kinetic energy at delivery outlet.
Manometric head = static head + head losses in suction and delivery pipes +
velocity head in delivery pipe
( ) ( ) ( )
Efficiencies:
 In case of a centrifugal pump, the power is transmitted from the shaft of the electric
motor to the shaft of the pump and then to the impeller. From the impeller, the
power is given to the water.
 The followings are the important efficiencies of a centrifugal pump:
1. Manometric Efficiency
2. Mechanical Efficiency and
3. Overall Efficiency
1. Manometric Efficiency ( )
 It is defined as the ratio of the manometric head developed by the pump to the head
imparted by the impeller to the liquid.
( )
( )
 The power at the impeller of the pump is more than that the power given to the
liquid at outlet of the pump.
( )

2. Mechanical Efficiency ( )
 It is defined as the ratio of the power actually delivered by the impeller to the power
at the shaft of the centrifugal pump.
̇( )⁄
( )
3. Overall Efficiency ( )
 It is defined as the ratio of power output of the pump to the power input to the
pump.
( )
( )
4.5 Specific Speed

 “The specific speed of a centrifugal pump is defined as the speed of a geometrically
similar pump which delivers unit quantity against a unit head.”
 It is used to compare the performance of different pumps.
 For a centrifugal pump,
( )
Where,
Diameter of the impeller of the pump
Width of the impeller
We know that,
( )
 Tangential velocity is given by,
( )

 Now tangential velocity ( ) and velocity of flow ( ) are related to the manometric
head ( ) as,
√ ( )
 Substituting value of in equation (4.13), we get,
 Substituting value of D in equation (4.12), we get,
( )
Where, K = Constant of proportionality.

 By definition, if and ⁄ , becomes
Substituting these values in equation (4.15), we get,
 Substituting value of in equation (4.15), we get,
√
( )
4.6 Minimum Starting Speed

 When a pump is started, water will not flow until the pressure developed by the
impeller is sufficient to overcome the manometric head.
 The water will start flowing only if the centrifugal head or pressure head raised by
the impeller be at least equals to or more than manometric head.

Centrifugal head or head raised by the impeller,
Where,
Tangential velocity of impeller at inlet
Tangential velocity of impeller at outlet
 The flow of water commence only if,
 For minimum speed,
( )
But,
Substitute these values of in equation (4.17), we get,
But,
( ) ( )
By dividing with , we get,
[ ]
( )
[ ]
 Equation (4.18) gives minimum starting speed of a centrifugal pump.

4.7 Maximum Suction Lift or Suction Height

 Fig. 4.4 shows a centrifugal pump that lifts a liquid from a sump. The free surface of
the liquid is at a depth of below the pump axis. The liquid is flowing with a
velocity of in the suction pipe.
Section - I
Fig. 4.4 Suction lift

 Let, is the suction height or suction lift.
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation at the free surface of liquid in the sump and section - I
in the suction pipe just at the inlet of the pump.
 Take free surface of liquid as datum line, we get,
Where,
Atmospheric pressure on the free surface of liquid
Velocity of liquid at the free surface
Height of free surface from datum line
Absolute pressure at the inlet of the pump
Velocity of liquid through suction pipe
Height of inlet of pump from datum line
Loss of head in foot valve, strainer and suction pipe
( ) ( )

 For finding the maximum suction lift the pressure at the inlet of the pump should not
be less than vapor pressure of the liquid.
 Hence taking minimum pressure at the inlet of the pump equal to vapor pressure of
the liquid.
 We get,
Where,
Vapor pressure of the liquid in absolute unit.
( )
 Now taking,
Atmospheric pressure head
Vapor pressure head
( )
 Equation 4.20 gives value of maximum suction lift (or suction height) for a centrifugal
pump.
 Hence if the suction height of the pump is more, then vaporization of liquid at the
inlet of pump will take place and there will be a possibility of Cavitation.
4.8 Net Positive Suction Head

 “It is defined as the total head developed at the pump inlet above the vapor
pressure of the liquid.”
 It is also defined as the absolute pressure head at the inlet to the pump minus the
vapor pressure head plus the velocity head. Thus,
 Introducing the value of from equation 4.19 in the above expression, we get,
( )
( ) ( )

 In other words, NPSH may also be defined as the total head required to make the
liquid to flow through the suction pipe to the impeller.
 For any pump installation a distinction is made between the required NPSH and the
available NPSH.
Required NPSH
 The value of required NPSH is given by the pump manufacturer.
 The value of required NPSH varies with the pump design, the speed of the pump,
and the capacity of the pump.
 The value of required NPSH can be calculated experimentally. For determining its
value, the pump is tested with different suction lifts and minimum value of is
obtained at which the pump gives maximum efficiency without any objectional noise
(i.e. Cavitation free).
Available NPSH
 When the pump is installed the available NPSH can be determined from the equation
4.21.
 In order to have Cavitation free operation of centrifugal pump, the available NPSH
should be greater than the required NPSH.
[Note: NPSH is a measure of how much spare pull you have before the bubbles form]
4.9 Priming of Centrifugal Pump

 Before starting a centrifugal pump, the suction pipe, casing and portion of the
delivery pipe up to delivery valve is completely filled with water by external source
of water to remove the air from the suction pipe and casing. This is known as priming
of a pump.
 The work done by the impeller per unit weight of liquid per sec is known as the head
developed by an impeller.
 Head developed by the impeller is given by meter. Since this equation is

independent of the density of the liquid, the head developed will be in terms of
meters of air when pump is running in the air.
 If the pump is primed with water, the head generated is same meter of water. But as
the density of air is very low, the generated head of air is negligible compared to
meter of water head. Hence the water may not be sucked from the pump. To avoid
this difficulty, priming is necessary.

4.10 Multi-stage Centrifugal Pump

 If a centrifugal pump consists of two or more impellers, the pump is called a multi-
stage centrifugal pump.
 The impellers may be mounted on the same shaft or different shaft.
 A multi-stage pump is having the two important functions:
I. To produce a high head and
II. To discharge a large quantity of water.
 For high head, impellers are connected in series (on same shaft) as shown in Fig.4.5.
Fig. 4.5 Pump in series

 For high discharge, the impellers are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 4.6.
Fig. 4.6 Pumps in parallel

4.11 Characteristic Curves of Hydraulic Pumps

 Characteristic curves of centrifugal pumps are defined those curves which are
plotted from the results of a number of tests on the centrifugal pump. These curves
are necessary to predict the behavior and performance of the pump when the pump
is working under different flow rate, head and speed. The followings are the
important characteristic curves for pumps:
1. Main Characteristic Curves,
2. Operating Characteristic Curves and
3. Constant Efficiency or Muschel Curves.
1. Main Characteristic Curves
 The main characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump consists of variation of head
( ), power and discharge with respect to speed.
 For plotting curves of manometric head versus speed, discharge is kept constant. For
plotting curves of discharge versus speed, manometric head is kept constant and for
plotting curves of power versus speed, the manometric head and discharge are kept
constant.
 Fig. 4.7 shows main characteristic curves of a pump.
Fig. 4.7 Main characteristic curves of a pump

2. Operating Characteristic Curves
 If the speed is kept constant, the variation of manometric head, power and efficiency
with respect to discharge gives the operating characteristics of the pump. Fig. 4.8
shows the operating characteristic curves of a pump.

Fig. 4.8 Operating characteristic curves of a pump

 The input power curve for pumps shall not pass through the origin. It will be slightly
away from the origin on the y-axis, as even at zero discharge some power is needed
to overcome mechanical losses.
 The head curve will have maximum value of head when discharge is zero.
 The output power curve will start from origin as at , output power ( )
will be zero.
 The efficiency curve will start from origin as at .
3. Constant Efficiency or Muschel Curves
 For obtaining constant efficiency curves (iso-efficiency curves) for a pump, the head
versus discharge curves and efficiency versus discharge curves for different speeds
are used.
 Fig. 4.9(a) shows the head versus discharge curves for different speeds. The
efficiency versus discharge curves for the different speeds are as shown in Fig. 4.9(b).
 By combining these curves ( ), constant efficiency
curves are obtained as shown in Fig. 4.9(a).
 For obtaining constant efficiency curves, horizontal lines representing constant
efficiencies are drawn on the curves.
 The points at which these lines cut the efficiency curves at various speeds, are
transferred to the corresponding curves.
 The points having the same efficiency are then joined by smooth curves. These
smooth curves represents the iso-efficiency or constant efficiency curves.

Fig. 4.9 Constant efficiency curves of a pump
4.12 Cavitation of Pump & Turbine

 Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapor bubbles of a flowing
liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapor pressure and
the sudden collapsing of these vapor bubbles in a region of higher pressure.
 When the vapor bubble collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic
surfaces, above which these vapor bubbles collapse, is subjected to these high
pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the
metallic surface and also considerable noise and vibrations are produced.
 Cavitation includes formation of vapor bubbles of the flowing liquid and collapsing of
the vapor bubbles.
Precaution against Cavitation: The following precautions should be taken against
Cavitation:
1) The pressure of the flowing liquid in any part of the hydraulic system should
not be allowed to fall below its vapor pressure.
2) The special materials or coatings such as aluminum-bronze and stainless
steel, which are cavitation resistant materials, should be used.
Effects of Cavitation: The following are the effects of cavitation:
1) The metallic surfaces are damaged and cavities are formed on the surfaces.

2) Due to sudden collapse of vapor bubble, considerable noise and vibrations

are produced.
3) The efficiency of a turbine decreases due to cavitation. Due to pitting action,
the surface of the turbine blades becomes rough and the force exerted by
water on the turbine blade decreases. Hence the work done by water or
output horse power becomes less and thus efficiency decreases.
Cavitation in Turbines:
 In turbines, only reaction turbines are subjected to cavitation.
 In reaction turbines, the cavitation may occur at the outlet of the runner or at the
inlet of the draft tube, where the pressure is considerably reduced (i.e. , which may
be below the vapor pressure of the liquid flowing through the turbine).
 Due to cavitation, the metal of the runner vanes and draft tube is gradually eaten
away, which results in lowering the efficiency of the turbine.
 Hence the cavitation in a reaction turbine can be noted by a sudden drop in
efficiency.
 In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of a reaction
turbine, the critical value of Thoma’s cavitation factor ( ) is calculated (Equation
4.22).
( )
( )
Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps:

 In centrifugal pumps the cavitation may occur at the inlet of the impeller of the
pump, or at the suction side of the pumps, where the pressure is considerably
reduced.
 Hence if the pressure at the suction side of the pump drops below the vapor
pressure of the liquid then the cavitation may occur.
 The cavitation in a pump can be noted bay a sudden drop in efficiency and head.
 In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of the suction side
of the pump, the critical value of Thoma’s cavitation factor ( ) is calculated
(Equation 4.23).
( )
( )
 If the value of Thoma’s cavitation factor ( ) is greater than critical cavitation factor
( ), the cavitation will not occur in that turbine or pump. The critical cavitation
factor ( ) may be obtained from tables or empirical relationships.


Example 4.1 A centrifugal pump has the following dimensions: inlet radius = 80 mm, outer
radius = 160 mm, width of impeller at the outlet = 50 mm, β1 = 0.45 radians, β2 = 0.25
radians, width of the impeller at the outlet = 50 mm. Assuming shockless entry determine
(1) the discharge, (2) the head developed by the pump when the impeller rotates at 90
radians/second.
Solution:
Data given: Find:
R1 = 80 mm = 0.8 m Q
R2 = 160 mm = 0.16 m Hm
B1 = 50 mm =0.05 m
B2 = 50 mm = 0.05 m
Vane angle at inlet,  = 1  0.45 radians
Vane angle at outlet,  = 2  0.25 radians, = 90 rad/sec
tangential velocity of impeller at the inlet and outlet are,

D N
u1  1   R1  90  0.08  7.2 m/s
60
u2   R2  90  0.16  14.4 m/s
V
From inlet velocity triangle, tan = f1
u1
Vf1  u1 tan  7.2  tan  0.45 radians   3.478 m/s
(1) Dishcharge  Q 
Q  D1B1Vf1   2R1   B1  Vf1
  2  0.08  0.05  3.478 =0.0874 m3 / s
(2) Head developed Hm
For the shochless entry, the losses of the pump will be zero.Hence,
the head developed will be given by,
V u
Hm  w2 2
g
Example 4.2 A centrifugal pump with 1.2 m outlet diameter and 0.6 m inner diameter runs
at 200 rpm and pumps 1880 Liters/s, the average lift being 6 m. the angle which the vanes
make at exit with the tangent to the impeller is 26ᵒ and the radial velocity of flow is 2.5 m/s.
determine the (i) manometric efficiency and (ii) the least speed to start pumping against
head of 6 m.

Solution:
Given data: Find:
D2  1.2 m man
N  200 rpm Nmin
Q  1880 ltr / sec  1.88 m3 / s
Hm  0.6 m
  260
Vf2  2.5 m / s
D1  0.6 m
Manometric efficiency
gHm
man 
Vw2u2
D N  1.2  200
But u2  2   12.56 m / s
60 60
Vf2 V 2.5
tan   or u2  Vw2  f2   5.13 m/s
u2  Vw2 tan  tan260
Vw2  7.43 m/s

Thus,
9.81  6
man   63%
7.43  12.56
Least speed to start the pump
u22 u12
  Hm
2g 2g
But u2   r2 and u2   r1
Thus,
  r2    r1 
2 2
  Hm  6
2g 2g
  0.6    0.3 
2 2
 6
2g 2g
2N
  20.88 m 
60
N  200 rpm
Example 4.3 The axis of centrifugal pump is 2.5 m above the water level in the sump and the
static lift from the pump centre is 32.5 m. The friction losses in the suction and delivery
pipes are 1 m and 8 m respectively; suction and delivery pipes are each 12 cm diameter at
outlet, the diameter and width of the impeller are 30 cm and 1.8 cm respectively and the

vanes are set back at an angle of 30ᵒ with tangent to the wheel. For a speed of 1800 rpm,
mechanical efficiency 75% and manometric efficiency 80%. Make calculation for the
discharge and the power required to drive the pump. Assume radial entry.
Solution:
Data given: Find:
hs  2.5 m Q
hd  32.5 m P
hfs  1 m,hfd  8 m
dS  dD  12 cm
D  30 cm,B  1.8 cm
2  300
N  1800 rpm
m  75%, man  80%
Tangential velocity of impeller at outlet,
D N  0.3  1800
u2  2   2827 m / s
60 60
Neglecting the velocity head at outlet, the net head against which the pump has to work,
H  hs  hfs   hd  hfd   2.5  1   32.5  8   44 m
Manometric efficiency is given by,
gHm 9.81  44
man  ; 0.8 
Vw2u2 Vw2  28.77
Vw2  19.08 m / s
From the outlet velocity triangle,
Vw2  u2  Vf2 cot 2
19.08  28.27  Vf2 cot30
Vf2  5.30 m / s
Dishcharge is given by,
Q  D2B2 Vf2   0.30  0.018  5.30  0.0899m3 / sPower required
Hydraulic power  gQH  1000  9.81  0.0899  44  38800 W  38.8 kW
Neglecting volumetric loss and hydraulic loss in the impeller flow passage,
the hydraulic power equal to impeller power. Now,
Impeller power
Mechanical efficiency 
shaft power
38.8
0.75 
Shaft power
Shaft power  51.74 kW

Example 4.4 The following requirements are to be satisfied by a centrifugal pump whose
impeller has internal and external diameters are 20 cm and 40 cm respectively. Suction
and delivery heads = 5 m and 20 m, diameter of suction and delivery pipes = 12 cm and 8
cm, discharge = 0.035 m3/s while running at 950 rpm. If the vane outlet angle is 45ᵒ, the
flow velocity is constant and equal to 1.8 m/s and power required to drive the pump is
15 kW, make calculations for (i) the vane angle of impeller at inlet, (ii) the overall and
manometric efficiency of the pump.
Solution:
Given data: Find:
D1  20 cm  0.2 m,D2  40 cm  0.4 m 1
hS  5 m,hD  25 m o and man
dS  12 cm,dD  8 cm
Q  0.035 m3 / s,N  950 rpm
2  450 ,Vf 1  Vf2  1.8 m / s,P  15 kW
Tangential velocity of impeller at inlet and outlet are,
D N  0.2  950
u1  1   9.94 m/s
60 60
D N  0.4  950
u2  2   19.88 m / s
60 60
Vf1  Vf2  1.8 m/s
V 1.8
From the inlet velocity triangle, tan1  f1   0.1811
u1 9.94
Vane angle at inlet,1  10.260
Flow veleocities in the suction and dishcharge pipelines are,
0.035
Vs   3.096 m/s

 0.12 2
4
0.035
Vd   6.966 m/s

 0.08 2
4
Manometric head,
p V2  p V2 
Hm   d  d  h    s  s 
 g 2g   g 2g 
 pd Vd2   ps Vs2 
Hm      
 g 2g   g 2g 
 6.9662   3.0962 
  25  
  5  
 2  9.81   2  9.81 
 26.984 m

The overall efficiency 0 is given by,

gQH 9810  0.035  26.984
0    0.6176  61.76%
S.P 15  103
From the outlet velocity triangle,
Vw2  u2  Vf2 cot 2  19.88  1.8cot450  18.08 m/s
Manometric efficiency is given by,
gHm 9.81  26.984
man    0.7365  73.65%
Vw2u2 18.08  19.88

5
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Course Contents
5.1 Construction and Working of a

Reciprocating Pump
5.2 Discharge, Work Done & Power
of Reciprocating Pump
5.3 Slip of Reciprocating Pump
5.4 Indicator Diagram
5.5 Air Vessels
5.6 Comparison of Centrifugal and
Reciprocating Pumps
5.7 Miscellaneous Pumps

5. Reciprocating Pumps Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
5.1 Construction and Working of a Reciprocating Pump

Reciprocating Pump:
 “If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy, by sucking the liquid
into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating, which exerts the thrust on the liquid
and increases its hydraulic energy, the pump is known as reciprocating pump.”
Components:
 The following are the main parts of a reciprocating pump:
1) A cylinder with a piston or plunger:
A piston or plunger reciprocates in a closely fitted cylinder.
2) Crank and connecting rod:
Crank and connecting rod mechanism is operated by a power source, which gives
rotary motion to the crank. That rotary motion is to be converted into the
reciprocating motion of the piston with the help of connecting rod.
3) Suction pipe:
One end of suction pipe remains dip in the liquid and other end attached to the
inlet of the cylinder.
4) Delivery pipe:
One end of the delivery pipe is attached with the outlet of the cylinder and other
end at discharge point.
5) Suction and delivery valves:
Suction and delivery valves are provided at the suction end and the delivery end
of the cylinder respectively. These valves are non-return valves.
Working of a single acting reciprocating pump:

 Fig. 5.1 shows a single acting reciprocating pump, which consists of a piston which
reciprocates in a close fitting cylinder.
 The movement of the piston is obtained by connecting the piston rod to crank by
means of a connecting rod.
 The crank is rotated by means of an electric motor.
 Suction and delivery pipes with suction valve and delivery valve are connected to the
cylinder.
 The suction and delivery valves are one way valves or non-return valves, which allow
the water to flow in one direction only.
Prepared By: Ketan C. Agola Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 5. Reciprocating Pumps
Fig. 5.1 Schematic view of single acting reciprocating pump

 When crank shaft rotating, piston moves to and fro in the cylinder. When crank is at
A; the piston is at the extreme left position in the cylinder.
 As the crank is rotating from A to C ( ), the piston is moving
towards right in the cylinder.
 The movement of the piston towards right creates a partial vacuum in the cylinder.
But atmospheric pressure is acting on the liquid in the sump, which is more than the
pressure inside the cylinder.
 Thus the liquid is forced in the suction pipe from the sump due to this pressure
difference. This liquid opens the suction valve and enters the cylinder.
 When crank is rotating from C to A ( ), the piston moves from
its extreme right position towards left in the cylinder.
 The movement of the piston towards left increases the pressure of the liquid inside
the cylinder.
 Hence delivery valve opens and the liquid is forced into the delivery pipe and is
raised to a required height.
Double acting reciprocating pump:

 In case of double acting pump, the water is acting on both sides of the piston as
shown in Fig. 5.2.
 Thus two suction pipes and two delivery pipes are required for double acting pump.

Fig. 5.2 Double acting reciprocating pump

 When there is a suction stroke on one side of the piston, there is a delivery stroke on
the other side of the piston at the same time.
 Thus for one complete revolution of the crank shaft there are two delivery strokes.
5.2 Discharge, Work Done & Power of Reciprocating Pump

 Discharge of a single acting reciprocating pump,
( ) ( )
 Weight of water lifted per second,
 Work Done by a single acting reciprocating pump,
( )
̇ ( )
( )
( ) ( )
 Power required to drive the pump (in kW) for a single acting reciprocating pump,
( )

( )
( )
Where,
Cross-sectional area of the piston or cylinder
Diameter of the cylinder
Radius of crank
Crank revolutions per minute
Stroke length
Suction head or Height of the axis of cylinder from water surface in the sump
Delivery head or Height of delivery outlet above the cylinder axis
 Discharge of a double acting reciprocating pump,
In double acting reciprocating pump for one complete revolution of the crank shaft
there are two delivery strokes.
( )
 Power required to drive the double acting pump,

( )
( )
5.3 Slip of Reciprocating Pump

 “Slip of a pump is defined as the difference between theoretical discharge and actual
discharge of the pump”.
 The actual discharge of a pump is less than the theoretical discharge due to leakage.
And,
( )
( )
Where,
Co-efficient of discharge
Negative slip of the reciprocating pump:

 If actual discharge is more than theoretical discharge, the slip of the pump will
become negative. In that case, the slip of the pump is known as negative slip.
 Negative slip occurs when delivery pipe is short, suction pipe is long and pump is
running at high speed.

5.4 Indicator Diagram

 “The indicator diagram for a reciprocating pump is defined as the graph between the
pressure head in the cylinder and the distance travelled by piston from inner dead
center for one complete revolution of the crank.”
 As the maximum distance travelled by the piston is equal to the stroke length and
hence the indicator diagram is a graph between pressure head and stroke length.
( )
5.5 Air Vessels

 An air vessel is a closed chamber containing compressed air in the top portion and
liquid at the bottom of the chamber.
 At the base of the chamber there is an opening through which the liquid may flow
into the vessel or out of the vessel.
 When the liquid enters the air vessel, the air gets compressed further and when the
liquid flows out the vessel, the air will expand in the chamber.
 An air vessel is fitted to the suction pipe and to the delivery pipe at a point close to
the cylinder of a single-acting reciprocating pump:
i. To obtain a continuous supply of liquid at a uniform rate,
ii. To save a considerable amount of work in overcoming the frictional resistance
in the suction and delivery pipes, and
iii. To run the pump at a high speed without separation.
 Fig. 5.3 shows the single-acting reciprocating pump to which air vessels are fitted to
the suction and delivery pipes. The air vessels act like an intermediate reservoir.
 During the first half of the suction stroke, the piston moves with acceleration, which
means the velocity of water in the suction pipe is more than the mean velocity and
hence the discharge of water entering the cylinder will be more than the mean
discharge. This excess quantity of water will be supplied from the air vessel to the
cylinder in such a way that the velocity in the suction pipe below the air vessel is
equal to mean velocity of flow.
 During the second half of the suction stroke, the piston moves with retardation and
hence velocity of flow in the suction pipe is less than the mean velocity of flow. Thus,
the discharge entering the cylinder will be less than the mean discharge. The velocity
of water in the suction pipe due to air vessel is equal to mean velocity of flow and
discharge required in cylinder is less than the mean discharge. Thus the excess water
flowing in the suction pipe will be stored into the air vessel, which will be supplied
during the first half of the next suction stroke.

Fig. 5.3 Single acting reciprocating pump with air vessels

 When the air vessel is fitted to the delivery pipe, during the first half of delivery
stroke, the piston moves with acceleration and forces the water into the delivery
pipe with a velocity more than the mean velocity. The quantity of water in excess of
the mean discharge will flow into the air vessel. This will compress the air inside the
vessel.
 During the second half of the delivery stroke, the piston moves with retardation and
the velocity of water in the delivery pipe will be less than the mean velocity. The
water already stored into the air vessel will start flowing into the delivery pipe and
the velocity of flow in the delivery pipe beyond the point to which air vessel is fitted
will become equal to the mean velocity. Hence the rate of flow of water in the
delivery pipe will be uniform.
5.6 Comparison of Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps

Sr. No. Centrifugal Pump Reciprocating Pump
The discharge is continuous and The discharge is fluctuating and
1
smooth. pulsating.
It can handle large quantity of It handles small quantity of liquid.
2
liquid.

It can be used for lifting highly It is used only for lifting pure water or
3
viscous liquids. less viscous fluids.
It is used for large discharge and It is used for small discharge and high
4
small head. head.
Cost is less as compared to Cost is high compared to centrifugal
5
reciprocating pump. pump.
It runs at high speed and can be It runs at low speed.
6
coupled to electric motor.
Less noise and low maintenance Much noise and high maintenance
7
cost. cost.
Smaller floor are and low Large floor area and high installation
8
installation cost. cost.
9 Efficiency is high. Efficiency is low.
5.7 Miscellaneous Pumps

1) Deep-well Pump
 It is also known as a turbine pump. It is generally used for pumping water from
depths more than 8m.
 It is normally a multi-stage pump in which
all impellers are connected in series.
Depending on the head to be pumped,
numbers of stages are selected.
 These pumps consist of the following main
parts:
 Bowl assembly and strainer
 Long column and
 A prime mover.
 As shown in Fig. 5.4 it consists of a large
diameter pipe from the bottom of the well
up to the top.
 A foot valve is located at the bottom of the
pipe. Bowl assembly, which consists the
suction case and all impellers, is connected
to the strainer with suction pipe.
Fig. 5.4 Deep-well Pump
 Generally all the impellers are submerged

in the water. Water enters the first impeller through foot valve and suction pipe and
subsequently passes through all the impellers and hence, gains head one after the
other.
 All these impellers are connected to a common shaft which is extended right up to
the top of the well, where it is connected to the electric motor or any type of prime
mover.
 Motor is generally placed on the ground level. Motor is directly coupled with the
long vertical shaft of impellers. Motor is protected against water.
 The main disadvantage of this type of pump is long vertical shaft. It is to be
supported by thrust bearings to take the load of all the impellers. The bearings are
lubricated by the water passing through the rising main.
2) Submersible Pump
 As the name indicates the pump and electric motor both are submerged in water in
this type of pump as shown in Fig. 5.5.
 In deep-well pump main difficulty lies in long shaft which connects the pump and
motor as the pump is submerged and motor rests on the ground. It is also required
to provide intermediate bearings in the discharge pipe while in case of submersible
pipe the motor and the pump are directly coupled without any intermediate long
shaft.
 The entire unit works below the water level
and hence the suction lift is zero.
 The main problem lies with the protection
of motor windings as it lies in the water. It is
protected by either of the two options given
below:
 By providing “Dry motor” type
system in which normal motor is
used but to prevent water contact, it
is placed in water tight shield.
 By providing special type of
protection with suitable insulation to
electric windings, so that even if
there is direct contact of water with
it, it will not fused off. This
arrangement is known as “Wet Fig.5.5 Submersible Pump
motor” type system.

 Submersible pump is a multi stage centrifugal pump. Generally radial or mixed flow
impellers are used.
 All the bearings used in this type of pump is water lubricated and specially designed
against sand erosion.
 Pump is fitted with a non return valve. The suction housing of the pump is provided
between a pump and electric motor with a strainer.
 Thrust bearings are provided to take axial thrust. Pump shaft and motor shaft is
connected by a muff coupling. Few low capacity pumps may have common shaft for
motor and a pump.
 Before installation of submersible pump, motor is always filled with non-acid water
free of sand for priming purpose.
 Discharge must always be checked for sand concentration as excessive sand
concentration is very harmful for a pump. It can cause fast erosion of the impellers.
 Submersible pumps are generally used to provide drinking water facility in multi
stored building. It is also used extensively for irrigation purposes.
Advantages:
 Running cost is less due to high overall efficiency.
 Priming of the pump is not required (after once it is installed) due to submerged
installation.
 Noise level is less
 Compare to deep-well pumps they are economical as they do not require long
shaft to couple motor and pump which also reduces the cost of bearings and
their subsequent lubrication.
 They can be installed easily.
 It does not require large floor area for installation.
3) Ejector Pump (Jet Pump)
 As we know that the reciprocating or centrifugal pump is installed at ground level
(except submersible pump), the maximum suction head permissible for the
reciprocating pump or centrifugal pump is less than 8 m of water.
 The jet pump helps to increase the suction lift beyond the normal limit of about 8 m
of water head. With the use of ejector assembly it is possible to increase the suction
lifts up to 60 m of water. Jet pump can be installed at the ground level even if the
water level is about 15 to 20 m below the ground.
 The jet pump consists of pipe having a convergent nozzle at its end. An other pipe of
smaller diameter has a nozzle at its end, this nozzle is put in the throat of convergent
portion of larger pipe as shown in Fig. 5.6.

Fig. 5.6 Jet pump (Ejector pump)

 Steam, compressed air or water forced through the smaller diameter pipe toward
nozzle, the high pressure flows through the nozzle where the pressure energy
converted into kinetic energy, which high velocity jet creates a vaccum in the throat.
 Therefore water gets sucked up to the large diameter pipe from sump or well. The
incoming moves along the jet through diffuser where the kinetic energy is converted
into pressure. Head and water forced into delivery pipe.
4) Mud Pump
 A mud pump is a reciprocating pumps designed for circulation of drilling fluid down
the drill string and back up the annulus.
 The normal mud pump consists of two sub assemblies, the fluid end and the power
end. The fluid end produces the pumping process with valves, pistons and liners. The
power end converts the rotation of the drive shaft to the reciprocating motion of the
pistons. In most cases a cross-head crank gear is used for this.
Applications of mud pumps:
1) Public utilities: For pumping muddy water, sewage, polluted liquids, solid and
in swimming pool.
2) Industries: For transferring dirty neutral, acid or alkali liquids containing sand,
mud or solid in suspension; clean or dirty low viscosity petroleum products or
solvents; caustic soda, washing, cooling circulation; smoke scrubbing.

3) For flood drainage, sewage pumping, firefighting, recovery of dangerous

liquids.
4) Agriculture: Surface irrigation, liquid manure oxygenation, transfer and
spraying liquid manure or fertilizers
5) Chemical Pump
 The chemical pumps are used for transferring different types of liquids. These liquids
may be inert or highly corrosive and reactive, liquids.
 These pumps can used to transport the liquid which may be highly volatile,
inflammable, explosive and poisonous.
 This pump also pumps liquids at very low and very high pressure and temperature.
 The positive displacement and rotodynamic both pumps can be used for these
purposes. But special types of pump materials are require to handles typical liquids.
 A large number of vertically split casing chemical pumps are used today for a wide
variety of routine chemical process applications.
 The materials used in construction of the major parts of these pumps include bronze,
iron, carbon or alloys steels, glass, plastic, graphite, hard rubber, stoneware,
stainless steel and a number of other corrosion and erosion resistant metals and
synthetics.
 The entire aim in the design of these pumps is to have complete corrosion/erosion
resistance when handling acids, alkalies and other liquids.

Example 5.1 The cylinder bore diameter of a single acting reciprocating pump is 150 mm
and its stroke is 300 mm. The pump runs at 50 rpm and lifts water through a height of 25 m.
The delivery pipe is 22 m long and 100 mm in diameter. Find the theoretical discharge and
theoretical power required to run the pump. If the actual discharge is 4.2 litres/sec. Find the
% slip and acceleration head at the beginning and middle of the delivery stroke.
Solution:
Data given Find:
D  150 mm  0.15 m Q

 0.15  0.01767 m2
2
A Pt
4
L  300 mm  0.3 m % slip
N  50 rpm had at begining and middle of delivery stroke
H  25 m
ld  22 m
dd  100 mm  0.1 m
Q act  4.2 litres / sec  0.0042 m3 / s
(1) Theoritical Dishcharge (Q th )
A  L  N 0.01767  0.3  50
Q th    0.0044 m3 / s
60 60
(2) Theoritical power (Pt )
 g  Q th  H 1000  9.81  0.0044  25
  1.0833 kW
1000 1000
(3) % Slip
 Q  Q act 
% Slip   th   100  4.92%
 Q th 
(4) Acceleration head at the beginning of delivery stroke
l A
had  d  2r  cos 
g ad

where,ad    0.1  0.007854 m2
2
4
2N 2 50
   5.236
60 60
L 0.3
Crank radius    0.15 m
2 2
22 0.01767
had    5.2362  0.15  cos   20.75cos 
9.81 0.007854
at the begining of delivery stroke,   00 and hence cos   1
had  20.75 m

(5) Acceleration head at the middle of delivery stroke

at the begining of delivery stroke,   900 and hence cos   0
had  20.75  0  0
Example 5.2 The length and diameter of a suction pipe of a single acting reciprocating pump
are 5 m and 10 cm respectively. The pump has a plunger of diameter a5 cm and a stroke
length of 35 cm. the Centre of the pump is 3 m above the water surface in the pump. The
atmospheric pressure head is running at 35 rpm. Determine: (1) Pressure head due to
acceleration at the beginning of the suction stroke, (2) Maximum pressure head due to
acceleration and (3) Pressure head in the cylinder at the beginning and at the end of the
stroke.
Solution
Given data: Find:
ls  5 m has
ds  10 cm  0.10 me has(max)

as  ds 2  0.007854 m2 Pressure head at the begining & end of suction stroke
4
D (Plunger)  15 cm  0.15 m

A (Plunger)  D2  0.01767 m2
4
L  35 cm  0.35 m
L 0.35
r   0.175 m
2 2
hs  3 m
Hatm  10.3 m of water
2N 2 35
N  35 rpm,     3.665 rad / s
60 60
The pressure head due to accereration in the suction pipe is,
l A
has  s   2rcos 
g as
at the beginning of the stroke,   0 and hence cos   1
5 0.01767
has    3.6652  0.175  2.695 m
9.81 0.007854
Maximum pressure head due to accereration in the suction pipe is,
has  2.695 m
Pressure head in cylinder at the beginning of the suction stroke
 hs  has  3  2.695  5.695
This pressure head in cylinder is below the atmoshpheric pressure head.
Absolute pressure head in cylinder at the beginning of the suction stroke
 Hm  5.695  10.3  5.695  4.605 m of water(Abs)

Similarly, pressure head in cylinder at the end of the suction stroke

 hs  has  3  2.695  0.305 m below atmoshpheric pressure head
 10.3 - 0.305  9.995 m of water(Abs)

6 6.1
6.2
6.3
Course Contents
Introduction
Classification of Compressors
Applications of Compressed air, Gases and
Vapours
RECIPROCATING 6.4 Working principle of Reciprocating
COMPRESSORS Compressor
6.5 Work Done for Single Stage Reciprocating
Compressor Neglecting Clearance Volume
6.6 Necessity of Clearance Volume and Work
Done Equation for Single Stage
Reciprocating Compressor Considering
Clearance Volume
6.7 Volumetric Efficiency
6.8 Need of Multi Stage Compression
6.9 Advantages of Multi Stage Compressors
6.10 Work Done in Two Stage Reciprocating
Compressor with Intercooler Neglecting
Clearance
6.11 Condition for Minimum work or maximum
efficiency for Two Stage Reciprocating
Compressor
6.12 Work Done in Two Stage Reciprocating
Compressor Considering Clearance volume
6.13 Optimum Intermediate Pressure required in
a Two Stage Compression with Incomplete
Intercooling
6.14 Terminology of Compressors

6. Reciprocating Compressors Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
6.1 Introduction
 A compressor is a power absorbing machine used to increase the pressure of fluid
(i.e air, gas or vapour) above that at which it is available.
 Compressor may be of the reciprocating piston-cylinder type or of the rotary type.
Since the process of compressing fluid requires work should be done on it, thus
compressor has to be driven by a prime mover, such as electric motor or engine.
 “A machine which takes in air during suction stroke at low pressure and compresses
it to high pressure in a piston cylinder arrangement and then delivers it to some
storage vessel (receiver) is known as Reciprocating air Compressor”.
 The high pressure air from the receiver may be supplied by a pipe line to wherever
it is required.
6.2 Classification of Compressors

 Compressors are classified on the basis of:
(1) According to design and principle of operation:
(i) Positive Displacement type compressors
(ii) Roto Dynamic type compressors
(i) Positive Displacement type:
 “In positive displacement type compressors, the pressure of air is increased by
decreasing its volume.”
 They further divided in two types as below:
a) In positive displacement Reciprocating compressors; the air is compressed due to
the action of reciprocating piston moving axially in the cylinder.
b) In positive displacement Rotary compressors; the air is trapped in between two
sets of engaging surfaces and the pressure rise is either by the back flow of air (i.e
Roots blower) or by both squeezing action and back flow of air (i.e. Vane blower).
(ii) Roto Dynamic compressors:
 In Roto dynamic compressors the air is not trapped in specified boundaries but it
flows continuously and steadily through the machine and the kinetic energy
imparted to the air by the rotor is changed into pressure energy partly in the rotor
and the rest in the diffuser”.
 The rise in pressure is carried by the dynamic action of air due to change in angular
momentum of air passing through the rotor.

Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 6. Reciprocating Compressors
 They further divided in two types as below:

a) In centrifugal compressors; the flow of air is more or less radial. The kinetic energy
imparted to the air is partly changed into pressure energy due to centrifugal action
in the rotor and due to diffusion action in the diffuser.
b) In axial flow compressors the flow of air is axial and there is no centrifugal action.
 Dynamic compressors are characterized by large volumetric capacity and relatively
low pressures.
(2) According to the delivery pressure limit:
a) Low pressure compressors: delivery pressure up to 10 bar
b) Medium pressure compressors: delivery pressure 10 to 80 bar
c) High pressure compressors: delivery pressure 80 to 100 bar
d) Super high pressure compressors: delivery pressure above 100 bar
(3) According to pressure limit:
a) Fan : pressure ratio 1 to 1.1
b) Blower : pressure ratio 1.1 to 2.5
c) Compressor: pressure ratio above 2.5
(4) According to the number of stages:
a) Single Stage : delivery pressure up to 10 bar
b) Multistage : delivery pressure above 10 bar
(5) According to the capacity:
a) Low capacity : volume of air delivered 9 m3/min or less
b) Medium capacity: volume of air delivered from 9 to 300 m3/min
c) High capacity : volume of air delivered above 300 m3/min
(6) According to the action of piston:

a) Single acting compressor
b) Double acting compressor
(7) According to the method of cooling:
a) Air cooled compressor
b) Water cooled compressor
(8) According to the method of drive:
a) Electric motor driven
b) I.C Engine driven
c) Turbine driven
(9) According to the arrangement of cylinders:
a) Vertical d) V type
b) Horizontal e) W type
c) Radial

6.3 Applications of Compressed Air, Gases and Vapours

 Some typical uses of compressed air, vapour and gases are discussed below.
a) In mining
 In mines due to danger of explosion-fire; neither electrical motor nor any fuels
are used to operate the machines.
 All the machinery such as air motors, drills, haulage, coal cutters, mine
locomotives and air lift pumps to pump water are driven by compressed air.
b) In I. C. Engines
 Compressed air is used for starting I.C engines, fuel injection in diesel engines,
supercharging and scavenging purposes.
c) In Automobiles
 ln automobile industries compressed air is used for spray painting, servicing cars,
car lifts, filling air in tyres, pneumatic brakes and pneumatic steering in heavy
vehicles.
d) In Civil engineering
 In constructional works compressed air is used for pneumatic drilling of hard
rocks for blasting, tunnelling, driving vibrators for even mixing of cement,
concrete and water.
e) Pneumatic appliances
 Compressed air is used for operating pneumatic appliances such as hammers,
hoists, drills, sand blasters and chuck pile drivers.
f) In workshops
 Compressed air is used to operate blast furnace, forged hammers, presses,
pneumatic riveting and cleaning purposes.
g) Acid and Chemical Industries

 Compressed air is used in manufacture of soda, in hydrogenation of coal with
pressure up to 300 bar, in manufacture of synthetic ammonia using pressure up
to 1000 bar and polymerization of ethylene with pressure 2500 bar.
h) Refrigeration and Air conditioning

 Compressed air and vapours are used in refrigeration plants, such as freezers,
cold storage and air conditioners.
i) Conveying purpose
 Compressed air is used for conveying solid and powder materials in pipe lines.
j) Operation of Gas turbines

 Compressed air is used for gas turbine system by rotary compressor.
k) Agriculture
 Compressed air is used in processing of food farm and for spraying of
insecticides.
l) Ammunition Depots
 Due to the safety; the compressed air operated ammunition hoists are used
which are spark free and quick acting.
6.4 Working Principle of Single Stage Single Acting

Reciprocating Compressor
 A single stage, single acting reciprocating air compressor is shown in Fig. 6.1.
 It consists of a piston cylinder assembly fitted with inlet and delivery valves.
 The piston reciprocates in a cylinder and derives its motion through a connecting
rod and crank mounted in a crank case.
a) Forward Stroke (or Suction Stroke)
 In this stroke; when the piston is moving from TDC towards BDC in downward
direction; the inlet valve will open due to difference of pressure and fresh air will
entering into the cylinder as shown in Fig. 6.1 (a).
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.1 Single stage single acting reciprocating compressor
 During suction stroke; the delivery valve remains closed because the receiver
pressure on the outside of this valve is much higher than the suction pressure.
 ln actual practice; Inlet valve and Delivery valve will never open suddenly.
Due to valve fluttering & valve inertia; it has required some time to open;
thus both the valves will open in advanced.

b) Reversed Stroke (or Compression & delivery stroke)

 This stroke will divide in two processes: compression & delivery process.
 During compression; when the piston is moving from BDC towards TDC in
upward direction; the air will begins to compressed & slight increase in pressure
will close the inlet valve.
 Since both the inlet and delivery valves are closed during compression and the
pressure of air will rise at the expense of its volume.
 Finally, when a pressure will be reach slightly more that compressed air pressure
on the outside of the delivery valve then the delivery valve will open as as shown
in Fig. 6.1 (b).
 The compressed air is now delivered from the cylinder to the receiver until the
piston reaches the end of its upward stroke.
 At the end of delivery stroke piston once again begin to move downwards, the
delivery valve closes, the inlet valve opens and the cycle is repeated.
6.5 Work done equation for Single Stage Reciprocating

Compressor Neglecting Clearance Volume
 Fig. 6.2 shows a theoretical P-V and T-S diagrams for a reciprocating air
compressor neglecting clearance volume.
 The sequences of operations as represented on the diagrams are as follows:
Suction Process 4-1:
 In suction process, the volume in the cylinder increases from zero at 4 to the
required volume V1 to fill the cylinder at 1 and air is inducted into the cylinder at
constant pressure P1, and temperature T1.
Compression Process 1-2:
 The air can be compressed by three ways: (Refer fig. 6.2)
a) Polytropic compression
b) Isentropic (or Reversible adiabatic) compression
c) Isothermal compression
 If the air is compressed according to the law of PVn = constant (polytropic
compression) from pressure P1 to pressure P2, volume decreases from V1 to V2
and temperature increases from T1 to T2; then this process represented by
process 1-2’ on P-V diagram.

 In the absence of heat transfer, if the air is compressed according to the law
of PVϒ = constant (Isentropic compression); then this process represented by
process 1-2” on P-V diagram.
 If the heat transfer during compression is controlled in such a way that

temperature during compression process remains constant and air is compressed
according to the law of PV = constant. This process represented by process 1-2
on P-V diagram.
 ln actual practice the compression process is neither isentropic nor

isothermal’; But it lies between isentropic and isothermal processes and
regarded as polytropic process with equation PVn = constant.”
Fig. 6.2 P-V and T-S diagrams for a reciprocating air compressor neglecting
clearance volume
Delivery Process 2-3:

 In delivery process, the compressed air at volume V2, pressure P2, and
temperature T2 is delivered from the cylinder to the receiver.
Case: (A) Work done equation for Polytropic Compression (PVn = Cons.)
 The net work done in the cycle is given by the area of the P-V diagram and is the
work done on the air as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Let, P1 = Pressure of the air at the beginning of the compression, N/m 2
V1 = Volume of the air at the beginning of the compression, m 3
T1 = Absolute temperature of the air at the beginning of the compression, K
P2, V2, T2 = Corresponding value at the end of the compression
Indicated work done on the air per cycle is given by,
W  Area 1-2-3-4-1
 Area 2-3-5-6-2 + Area 1-2-6-7-1 – Area 1-4-5-7-1

 Area under 2-3 + Area under 1-2 – Area under 1-4
2 2  PV
PV
 PV2 2 
1 1
 PV
n 1
1 1
2 2  PV
PV
  PV
2 2  PV1 1
1 1
n 1
 1 
  PV
2 2  PV1 1  1  
 n 1 
n
  PV
2 2  PV 1 1
n 1
n  PV 
 PV1 1
2 2
 1
n 1  PV
1 1 
Now for polytropic process 1-2,
1 1  PV
n n
PV 2 2
1/ n 1/ n
V P P 
 2  1   2 
V1  P2   P1 
V2
Substituting the value of in equation, we get
V1
n  P  P 1/ n 
W 1 1   2   1
2
PV
n 1  P1  P1  
 n 1

n   P  n

1 1    1 J/cycle
2
W = PV (6.1)
n 1   P1 
 
n 1
P  n T2
But for polytropic process,  2   1 1  mRT1 in above eq. (6.1),
and substitute PV
 P1  T1
n  T  
W mRT1  2   1
n 1  T1  
n
W mR T2  T1  J/cycle
n 1
Where ‘m’ is the mass of air inducted and delivered per cycle.
Work input per kg of air is given by,
 n 1

 
RT1    1 J/kg

n P2 n
W (6.2)
n 1  P1  
 

Case: (B) Work done equation for Isentropic Compression (PVϒ = Constant)
The work required per cycle when the air is compressed isentropically is obtained by
substituting ‘ϒ’ in place of ‘n’ in above equations.
 1
 
   
PV    1
 P
W 2
(6.3)
  1 1 1  P1  
 
 1
P   T2
Also, for isentropic process,  2   1 1  mRT1
and substitute PV
 P1  T1
 1
 
   
mRT1    1
 P
W 2
 1  P1  
 

W mR T2  T1  J/cycle
 1
CP
But the ratio of specific heats,   and CP  CV  R ; Substitute these values in
CV
above equation we get,
CP
CV
W m  CP  CV T2  T1 
CP
1
CV
W  mCP T2  T1  J/cycle (6.4)
Case: (C) Work done equation for Isothermal Compression (PV = Constant)
 The isothermal compression follows the law of PV = constant; and the
temperature remains constant.
 Thus by the law of conservation of energy the entire work of compression is
discharged to the cooling media, thus no energy is wasted in heating the air or
increasing the internal energy.
 Thus less work will be required to be done per kg of air to raise its pressure from
P1 to P2.
Work done on air per cycle,
W = area 1-2’-3-4-1
= area 2’-3-5-6’-2’ + area 1-2’-6’-7-1 – area 1-4-5-7-1
= area under 2-3 + area under 1-2 – area under 4-1
V1
 PV2 2  PV
2 2 ln  PV
1 1
V2

V1 P2
1 1  PV
But for isothermal process, by substituting PV 2 2 and  in above equation,
V2 P1
V1 V1 P2
W  PV
2 2 ln  PV
1 1 ln  PV
1 1 ln
V2 V2 P1
P2
W  mRT1 ln J/cycle
P1
Work input per kg of air is,
P2
W  RT1 ln J/kg (6.5)
P1
6.6 Necessity of Clearance Volume and Work Done Equation for

Single Stage Reciprocating Compressor Considering (with)
Clearance Volume
Necessity of clearance volume:
 In actual practice, some space must be provided between the cylinder head and
the piston to allow for thermal expansion, mechanical tolerance and for
preventing piston striking the cylinder head.
 It is desirable that clearance volume should be minimum as possible and as rule
clearance length = 0.005 L+ 0.5 mm.
Fig. 6.3 Theoretical P-V diagram of single stage reciprocating compressor

considering clearance volume
 Actual P-V diagram will be differ from theoretical because of inertial &
frictional effects result in valve flutter increase the area of diagram
slightly and also leads to increase total work of compression.

Work done (or Indicated work) equation with clearance volume:

Net work required per cycle is given by, (Refer fig. 6.3)
W = Area 1-2-3-4-1
W = Work required on air for compression without clearance
volume – Work done by clearance air in expanding from
volume V3 to V4
= Area 1-2-6-5-1 – Area 4-3-6-5-4
Assuming polytropic index ‘n’ to be same for both compression and expansion, then
 n 1
  n 1

n   P  n
 n   P  n

W 1 1 
PV 2
  1  4 4 
PV 3
  1
n 1   P1  n 1   P4 
   
But P4  P1 and P3  P2 from P-V diagram then,
 n 1

 P2  n
P1 V1  V4     1

n
W (6.6)
n 1  P1  
 
 n 1

  
 1 J/cycle
P n
n
W 1 as 
 P1 
2
PV
n 1 
 
Where, Vas  V1  V4 = actual or effective swept volume
Now substitute PV
1 as = ma RT1 in above equation,
 n 1

 
ma RT1    1
 P n
n
W 2
n 1  P1  
 
n 1
n T  P  n T2
W ma RT1  2  1 but  2  
n 1  T1   P1  T1
n
W ma R T2  T1  J/cycle
n 1
Work input per kg of air is;
n
W R T2  T1  J/kg (6.7)
n 1
 Work done equation is independent of clearance volume and does not

affect the theoretical work required to compress and deliver the air, this is
because work required to compress the mass of air held in clearance space
is returned when the same mass of air expands during the expansion 3-4.

6.7 Volumetric Efficiency

Case-(a) Volumetric Efficiency Referred to Suction Conditions
 “It is defined as the ratio of effective swept volume (or actual volume of air
sucked) to the swept volume of the cylinder.”
Effective swept volume
V 
Swept volume
V V
V  1 4 but V1  VC  VS
VS
V 
VC  VS   V4
VS
VC V4
V  1   (6.8)
VS VS
For polytropic expansion process 3-4 we can write,
3 3  PV
n n
PV 4 4
1/ n
P 
V4  V3  3 
 P4 
But substituting P4  P1 ; P3  P2 and V3  VC from P-V diagram then,
1/ n
P 
V4  VC  2 
 P1 
Substitute the value of V4 in the above equation (6.8),
1/ n
V V P 
V  1  C  C  2 
VS VS  P1 
 P 1/ n 
V  1  C  2   1 (6.9)
 P1  
V P
Where C  clearance ratio  C and r  2 = pressure ratio
VS P1
Case-(b) Volumetric Efficiency Referred to Ambient Conditions

 “Volumetric efficiency referred to ambient conditions is the ratio of effective
swept volume reduced to ambient condition to the swept volume.”
Effective swept volume reduced to ambient condition
V  amb  
Swept volume
Va
V  amb   (6.10)
VS

Let,
Pa = Pressure of ambient air
Ta = Temperature of ambient air
Va = Effective swept volume reduced to ambient condition
P1 = Intake pressure of air
T1 = Intake temperature of air
PV P V  V 
a a
 1 1 4
Ta T1
P1 Ta
Va    V1  V4 
Pa T1
Substitute the value of Va in equation (6.10)
P1 Ta V1  V4
V ( amb )   
Pa T1 VS
But from volumetric efficiency referred to suction condition is given by,
V1  V4   

1/ n
 P2 
 1  C    1
VS   P1 
 


Thus,
  P2 
1/ n

1  C    1

P T
V ( amb )  1 a  (6.11)
Pa T1   1 
 P



 In actual practice; suction pressure (P1) always less than ambient

pressure (Pa) and suction temperature greater than ambient temperature.
 Volumetric efficiency plays important role at higher altitude (i.e at 9 km
altitude; the ambient pressure becomes 0.35 bar.
Factor Affecting the Volumetric Efficiency

 Following are the factors affecting the volumetric efficiency:
(1) Increase in delivery pressure
V V  P  1/ n

 As volumetric efficiency is given by, V  1 4  1  C  2   1
VS  P1  
 In above equation; by increasing the delivery pressure (P2), the actual volume of
air inducted during the suction stroke is decreased whereas the swept volume
(VS) of the piston remains the same, thus the volumetric efficiency decreases.
(Refer Fig. 6.6, 6.7)
(2) Very high speed

 At very high speeds, the air does not get enough time to fill the cylinder fully
during suction stroke, thus the volumetric efficiency of a given compressor
decreases.
(3) Leakage past the piston
 During compression and delivery, some air leaks past the piston, thus decreasing
the amount of air delivered, thus the volumetric efficiency decreases. This
tendency increases with the increase of delivery pressure.
(4) Too large clearance volume
 P 1/ n 
 As volumetric efficiency is given by, V  1  C  2   1
 P1  
 In above equation; the volumetric efficiency of the compressor is decreased with

the increase in clearance volume. (Refer Eq. 6.4)
Fig. 6.4 Volumetric efficiency variation

(5) Over heating of the air
 When air enters in to the compressor during the suction stroke, it is heated and
expanded due to the temperature of the cylinder walls and thus the expanded
clearance air is higher than that of incoming air.
 Thus the volume of air taken in during the suction stroke is decreased
considerably and decreases the volumetric efficiency.
(6) Turbulence in air passage
 The pressure inside the cylinder during the suction stroke is decreased due to the
frictional effects in the air itself and turbulence in air passages.
 This decreases the actual quantity of air taken in during the induction and
decreases the volumetric efficiency.

6.8 Need of the Multi Stage Compression

 P 1/ n 
 The Volumetric efficiency is given by, V  1  C  2   1 .
 P1  
 Above equation shows that the volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating

compressor with fixed clearance volume is decreases with the increase in
pressure ratio as shown in Fig. 6.5.
 For compression ratio from P1 to P2, the cycle is 1-2-3-4-1 and the effective swept
volume per cycle is (V1 – V4).
 For compression ratio P1 to P2’ the cycle is 1 - 2' - 3' - 4'- 1 and the effective swept
volume is (V1 – V4') which is less than (V1 – V4).
 In the limit, if the compression ratio is increased from P 1 to P2’’’, the compression
Iine intersects the line of clearance volume at point 2’’’ and the re-expansion-
follows the same path as compression, the effective swept volume is zero and
there is no delivery of air.
Fig. 6.5 The effect on the volumetric efficiency of increasing the delivery pressure
 The attempt made to deliver the air at a higher pressure of P 2" would result in
compression and re-expansion of the same air again and again without any
delivery of high pressure air.
 Therefore, the maximum pressure ratio attainable with a single stage compressor
is limited by the clearance volume.

 Thus, an intercooler is used between two stages, so that the compressed air
from the first stage cools down before it enters second stage with low
temperature.
 Air cooling between stages provides the means of an appreciable reduction in

the compressor work and maintaining air temperature within safe operating
limits.
 By cooling the air between stages the compression is made to approach
isothermal.
6.9 Advantages and disadvantages of Multi Stage Compression

 Following are the advantages & disadvantages of multi stage compression:
Advantages
a) Less Power:
 Less power is required to run a multistage compressor as compared to a
single stage compression for the same delivery pressure and the same
quantity of free air due to intercooler.
 For a high pressure range the saving may be about 20%.
b) Better Mechanical Balance:
 When the air is being compressed in one cylinder, there is suction in the
other cylinder. Thus due to phasing of operation more uniform torque and
hence better mechanical balance for the machine is attained. This require
smaller flywheel due to uniform torque.
c) Increased Volumetric Efficiency:
 Volumetric efficiency increases due to the reduction of pressure and hence
the temperatures range in each cylinder.
d) Better Lubrication:
 Due to lower temperature encountered better lubrication is possible.
e) Less Leakage:
 Due to better lubrication and reduced pressure difference across the two
sides of the piston and valve, there is less leakage loss past the piston.
f) Size of cylinders:
 Size and strength of cylinders can be adjusted to suit volume and pressure of
air.
g) Lighter Cylinders-Lighter Construction:

 Due to lower pressure range in low pressure stages Iighter cylinders are used
where as in high pressure stages robust but less voluminous are used and
construction becomes lighter.
Disadvantages
a) A multistage compressor needs more than one cylinder, intercoolers with water
pipes and a continuous supply of water.
b) It is more complicated and expansive in initial cost.
6.10 Work Done in Two Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor with

Intercooler
 Fig. 6.6 shows the schematic diagram of a two stage reciprocating compressor
and Fig. 6.7 shows P-V and T-S diagrams of the compression cycle.
First Stage Compression (L.P. Stage)

 In the two stage compressor with intercooler, the air is first drawn into the low
pressure (L.P) cylinder at point 1 with pressure P1 and volume V1.
 The air is compressed polytropically to some intermediate pressure P 2, as shown
by process 1-2'.
 The compressed air at pressure P2 and temperature T2 is then cooled at constant
pressure P2, by passing the air through intercooler. This is represented by a
constant pressure process 2’-2.
Fig. 6.6 Schematic of two stage compressor with intercooler
Second Stage Compression (H.P. Stage)
 In 2nd stage compression; the air is enters in the high pressure (H.P) cylinder,
where it is further compressed polytropically along process 2 – 3 as shown in P-V

diagram and the pressure of air increases from P2 to P3, and finally the air is
discharged to the receiver at final required delivery pressure P3. (Refer fig. 6.7)
 Thus in each stage pressure of the air is successively increased and the initial
temperature is maintained at the end.
 During the whole process the compression is approximated isothermal process.
 If the compression had taken place in a single stage, the compression curve
would have followed the polytropic curve 1 – 3’.
Fig. 6.7 P-V and T-S diagram of two stage compressor with intercooler
 The saving in work input by the use of multi stage compression with intercooling
is shown by shaded area 2’ - 2 – 3’ - 3’’ – 2’.
 Both the L.P and H.P cylinders are mounted on the same crank shaft and are
driven by an electric motor or prime mover.
Assumptions:
1. The effect of clearance is neglected.
2. The index 'n' in the polytropic compression law PVn = C is same for each cylinder.
3. The intercooling in each stage is at constant pressure and there is no pressure
drop between two stages (i.e. delivery pressure of one stage equals the suction
pressure of the next stage.)
4. The mass of air handled by the L.P and H.P cylinders is the same.
5. Suction and delivery pressures remain constant during each stage.
 Consider a two stage reciprocating air compressor with intercooler. Then,

Let take;
P1 = pressure of air entering the L.P cylinder
V1 = volume of L.P cylinder = stroke volume of L.P cylinder
P2 = Pressure of air leaving the L.P cylinder or entering the H.P cylinder
V2 = Volume of the H.P cylinder = stroke volume of the H.P cylinder.
P3 = Pressure of air leaving the H.P cylinder
Case-I When the Intercooling is Imperfect (Incomplete):
Fig. 6.8 P-V and T-S diagram with incomplete intercooling of air
 If the temperature of air leaving the intercooler, T 2 is greater than the original
atmospheric air temperature T1 then the intercooling is called imperfect or
incomplete cooling.
 The work saved due to imperfect (incomplete) intercooling is shown by the
shaded area 2'-2-3’-3’’-2’.
 In this case point ‘2’ lies on the right side of isothermal curve as shown in Fig. 6.8.
Work done required per cycle in the L.P cylinder,
 n 1

  
 1
P n
n
WLP  1 1 
 P1 
2
PV
n 1 
 
Work done required per cycle in the H.P cylinder,
 n 1

  
 1
n P n
 2 2 
 P2 
3
WHP PV
n 1 
 
Total work done required per cycle in both the cylinders is,
W  WLP  WHP

 n 1
  n 1

      
 1
n P n
n P n
 1 1  1 
 P1   n  1 2 2  P2 
2 3
W2 stage PV PV (6.12)
n 1 
   
Case-II When the Intercooling is Perfect (Complete):

 If the temperature of air leaving the intercooler T2 is equal to the original
atmospheric air temperature T1, then the intercooling is called complete or
perfect and in this case point 2 lies on isothermal curves shown in Fig. 6.9.
 The work saved due to perfect (complete) intercooling is shown by the shaded
area 2'-2-3’-3’’-2’ in both the cases and the amount of work saved with
incomplete intercooling is less than that in case of complete intercooling.
Fig. 6.9 P-V and T-S diagram with complete intercooling of air
Total work done per cycle in both the cylinders is,
 n 1
  n 1

n   P2  n
 n   
P3 n 
W 1 1 
PV   1  2 2 
PV   1
n 1  n 1 
 1   2 
P P
 
1 1  PV
But for perfect intercooling, PV 2 2
1 1  PV
By substituting PV 2 2 in above equation,
 n 1 n 1

n   P  n  P  n

W 1 1 
PV 2
     2
3
(6.13)
n 1   P1   P2 
 

6.11 Condition for Minimum Work or Maximum Efficiency for a

Two Stage Reciprocating Compressor
Fig. 6.10 Two stage compressor with complete intercooling

The total work required per cycle in two stage reciprocating compressor with complete
intercooling is given by (Fig. 6.10),
 n 1 n 1

n   P  n  P  n

W 1 1 
PV 2
     2
3
n 1   P1   P2 
 
n
Let, y
n 1
 P  y  P  y 
W  Constant  2    3   2 
 P1   P2  
 1 
 Constant  P2 y  y  P3 y  P2  y  2 
 P1 
For minimum work,
dW  yP y 1 
 Constant  2 y  yP3 y  P2  y 1  0   0
dP2  P1 
yP2 y 1 yP3 y
  y 1
P1 y P2
P2 y 1  P2 y 1  P1 y P3 y
P2 2 y   PP
1 3
y
P2 P3
P2  P1 P3 or  (6.14)
P1 P2

Above equation shows that for minimum work required, the intercooler pressure is
geometric mean of the initial and final pressures or pressure ratio in each stage is the
same.
P P
Substitute the 2 for 3 in equation of work done,
P1 P2
Total minimum work required per cycle,
 n 1 n 1

    
    2
P n P n
n
W 1 1 
 P1 
2 2
PV (6.15)
n 1  P1  
 
 n 1

  
 1
P n
2n
W 1 1 
 P1 
2
PV
n 1 
 
2 1
P P P  P P P P P  2
Since 2  3 , then  2   2  3  3 , thus 2   3 
P1 P2  P1  P1 P2 P1 P1  P1 
1
P P  2
Substitute the 2   3  in above equation of work done,
P1  P1 
 n 1

  
 1
2n P 2n
 1 1 
 P1 
3
Wmin PV
n 1 
 
For ' x ' number of stages, the pressure ratio is,
1 1
P2 P3 P4 Px P  P  x  Final pressure  No. of stages
    x 1   x 1    
P1 P2 P3 Px 1 Px  P1   Initial pressure 
Minimum work for X number of stages with perfect intercooling at all stages is given by,
 n 1

xn   P  xn

W 1 1 
PV x 1
  1 (6.16)
n 1   P1 
 
Where ' x '  number of stages; P1 = initial or suction pressure; Px1 = final delivery
pressure and ' n '  polytropic index
 Conditions for the minimum work required are…

 The air is cooled to the initial temperature after each stage of
compression.
 The pressure ratio in each stage is the same.
 Work done in all stages is equal.
 The temperature ratios and maximum temperature are same in each
stage.

6.12 Work Done in a Two Stage Reciprocating Compressor

Considering Clearance
 Consider a two stage reciprocating compressor with clearance with perfect
intercooling and its P-V diagram is shown in Fig. 6.11.
 The area 1-2-3-4-1 and 5-6-7-8-5 represents the P-V diagram of L.P stage and H.P
stage respectively.
 Let, V3 = clearance volume of L.P stage and V7 = clearance volume of H.P stage
Fig. 6.11 P-V diagram for two stage compressor with clearance
W2 stage  WLP  WHP

 n 1
  n 1

      
 1
n P n
n P n
P1 V1  V4     1 
 n  1 2  5 8   P2 
W2 stage  2
P V V 3
n 1  P1  
   
For perfect intercooling, T1  T5 therefore, P1 V1  V4   P2 V5  V8 
 n 1 n 1

   
P1 V1  V4        2

n P n P n
W2 stage  2 3
(6.17)
n 1  P1   P2  
 
But if the imperfect intercooling, T1  T5 therefore, P1 V1  V4   P2 V5  V8  and work

done equation is given by,
 n 1
  n 1

      
 1
n P n
n P n
P1 V1  V4     1 
 n  1 2  5 8   P2 
W2 stage  2
P V V 3
n 1  P1  
   

6.13 Optimum Intermediate Pressure required in a Two Stage

Compression with Incomplete Intercooling
 Irrespective of the temperature T2’ attained in the first stage, T2 is the
temperature to which the air at the intermediate pressure P 2, can be cooled is
fixed and here T2 > T1 as shown in Fig. 6.12.
Work done required per cycle in the L.P cylinder,
 n 1

n   P  n

WLP  1 1 
PV 2
  1
n 1   P1 
 
Fig. 6.12 Two stage compressor with incomplete intercooling

Work done required per cycle in the H.P cylinder,
 n 1

n   P  n

WLP  2 2 
PV 3
  1
n 1   P2 
 
W  WLP  WHP
 n 1
  n 1

  P2     P3  n
 1
n
n n
W 1 1  1 
 P1   n  1 2 2  P2 
PV PV
n 1 
   
 n 1
  n 1

  P2    P3  n
mRT2    1

n
n n
W mRT1    1 
n 1   n 1  P2  
 1 
P
  
n n
Let, mR  A and  B and substitute in above equation,
n 1 n 1

 P  B   P  B 
W  AT1    1  AT2  3   1
2
 P1    P2  
W  AT1  P2 B P1 B  1  AT2  P3 B P2  B  1
For minimum work input,
dW
 0  AT1BP2 B 1  AT2 P3 B BP2  B 1
dP2
AT1BP2 B 1 AT2 BP3 B

P1B P2 B 1
T2 B B
P2 B 1  P2 B 1  P1 P3
T1
T2
P2 2 B   P1P3 
B
T1
1
T  B
P2   2 
2
  P1 P3 
 T1 
n
T  n 1
P2   2 
2
  P1 P3 
 T1 
1
n
 n
 2
 T2  n 1
P2  P3  T2  n 1 
P2  PP
1 3   or    (6.18)
 T1  P1  P1  T1  
 
The minimum work required for a two stage compressor with incomplete intercooling is
obtained by substituting the value of P2 in equation of work done
 
 
 n 1
  
  n
 2n   n 1 
n   T2  n 1
1 n  1
Wmin  mRT1   PP
1 3     n  1  1  mRT2 P3  n
 1
n 1   T1    n 1  n 1

   P1
   n
 2n

 n    T2  n 1 
 
 1 3   
PP 
   T1   
   
 n 1
  n 1

  P3  2 n   P3  2 n
mR T1T2    T2 

n n
 mR T1T2    T1 
n 1   1
P  n  1   P1  
   
 n 1

 P3  2 n
mR 2 T1T2    T1  T2  

n
Wmin  (6.19)
n 1   P1  
 

6.14 Terminology of Compressors

1) Single acting compressor
 In single acting compressor; suction, compression and delivery of air takes place
on one side of the piston and there is one delivery stroke per rev. of crank shaft.
2) Double acting compressor

 In double acting compressor; suction, compression and delivery of air takes place
on one both the sides of the piston and there are two delivery strokes per
revolution of the crank shaft.
3) Single stage compressor

 In single stage compressor compression of air from intake pressure to final
pressure delivery pressure takes place in one cylinder.
4) Multi stage compressor

 In multi stage compressor compression of air from intake pressure to final
pressure delivery pressure is carried out in more than one cylinder.
5) Compression ratio (Pressure ratio)

 It is the ratio of absolute discharge pressure to the absolute inlet pressure.
6) Swept volume (Displacement volume)

 It is the volume swept in the cylinder; when piston moving from TDC to BDC
during one stroke.

 For a single acting compressor; swept volume is given by, Vs   D2  L
4
 For a double acting compressor; it is the volume wept by both the sides of the

piston and it is given by, Vs  2   D2  L
4
7) Free air delivered (FAD)

 It is the actual volume of air delivered by a compressor reduced to the
surrounding atmospheric pressure (i.e 1.01325 bar abs.) and temperature (i.e
150C)
8) Capacity
 It is the quantity of free air actually delivered by the compressor in cubic meter
per minute.

9) Indicated power
 It is the power required to compress air from intake conditions to discharge
conditions and work done per cycle = area of the indicator diagram.
 Indicated power is determined by taking indicator diagram with the

instrument called indicator.
 Indicated power is the graphical representation of the pressure – volume
variation during the working of the cycle.
 The area of indicator diagram can be measured with the help of planimeter.

10) Brake power

 It is the power delivered to the compressor shaft or the power required to drive
the compressor.
11) Indicated Mean effective pressure

 It is the average height of the indicator diagram in proper pressure unit.
12) Mechanical efficiency

 It is defined as the ratio of the indicated power to the brake power.
 It usually varies from 85% to 95%.
13) Adiabatic efficiency

 It is defined as the ratio of the polytropic (i.e actual) work input to the adiabatic
work input.
14) Isothermal efficiency

 It is defined as the ratio of the isothermal work input to the polytropic (i.e actual)
work input.
15) Overall isothermal efficiency

 It is defined as the ratio of isothermal power to the shaft power (i.e brake power)
of the prime mover required to drive the compressor.
“Don’t worry if you don’t know; but worry if don’t

want to………….”

7
R0TARY COMPRESSORS
Course Contents
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Roots Blower
7.3 Vane Compressor or blower
7.4 Screw Compressors
7.5 Scroll Compressors
7.6 Comparison between Scroll and
Reciprocating Compressor
7.7 Comparison between Reciprocating
and Rotary compressor

7. Rotary Compressors Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
7.1 Introduction
 The reciprocating motion of the piston performs the compression in a
reciprocating compressor but in rotary compressor, a rotating component (rotor)
performs the compression.
 The rotary compressors are used where a large quantity of gas is required at a
relative low pressure.
 In rotary compressors, the flow is continuous and consequently, the size is small
relative to reciprocating machine for a given flow.
 Owing to their high speeds, they can be directly coupled to steam or gas
turbines, electric motors and high speed I.C. engines without gearing.
 In positive displacement rotary compressors; the air is trapped in between two
sets of engaging surfaces and the pressure rise takes place either by back flow of
air (roots blower) from receiver or both by squeezing action and back flow of air
(vane blower).
7.2 Roots Blower

Construction & Working
 The two lobe type roots blower is shown in Fig. 7.1. One of the rotor is connected
to an external drive and the second rotor is driven from the first.
Fig. 7.1 Roots blower with two lobe rotor

 The lobes of the rotors are of cycloid or involute form giving correct mating to
seal the delivery side from the inlet side.
Prepared By: Ketan Agola Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 7. Rotary Compressors
 The high pressure delivery side is sealed from the low pressure suction side at all
angular positions and this sealing continues until delivery commences.
 To reduce wear, a small clearance (i.e 0.01 cm to 0.02 cm) is provided between
the lobes and casing.
 The clearance however forms a leakage path and has an increasingly adverse
effect on efficiency as the pressure ratio increases.
 During rotation, volume of air ‘V’ at atmospheric pressure ‘P’ is trapped between
the left hand rotor and the casing and this air is positively displaced at constant
pressure without change in volume until the space opens to high pressure region.
 Theoretically, there should be no pressure rise; because flow area does not
decrease from inlet to exit.
 But when the outlet port opens, the high pressure air in the receiver offers
resistance to the delivery of blower discharge causing in instantaneous
irreversible pressure rise.
 The air in space ‘A’ and ‘C’ is at atmospheric pressure P1 and the air in the space
B increases in pressure to the value of receiver pressure P2 .
Fig. 7.2 P-V diagram for roots blower
 The irreversible pressure rise from P1 to P2 at constant volume is shown in P-V

diagram.
Efficiency of Roots blower

Roots efficiency is defined as the ratio of isentropic work done to actual work done and
it is given by,
Isentropic Work done
 Root 
Actual Work done
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Ketan Agola

For actual work done:

From the P-V diagram work done per cycle is given by,
W   P2  P1  V ; Where V = volume between a lobe face and casing
But the free air delivery for a two lobe rotor will be 4V per revolution.
For a two lobe rotor, Work done per revolution of rotor is,
W  4  P2  P1  V
If VS is the volume deal per minute at pressure P1 and temperature T1 , then work done
per minute is,
Wact   P2  P1  VS
For isentropic work done:

Work input for isentropic (i.e reversible adiabatic) compression process form P1 to P2 ,
 1
 
   
PV    1
 P
Wisen  2
  1 1 S  P1  
 
Roots efficiency is given by,
Isentropic Work Wisen
 Root  
Actual Work Wact
 1
 
   
PV    1
 P2
  1 1 S  P1  
 

 P2  P1 VS
Divided by PV
1 S in numerator and denominator we get,
 1
 
  P2  
   1
  1  P1  
=  
P2
1
P1
P2  Cp
By substituting  rp and 
P1  1 R
Cp   1

  rP   1

R  
 Root 
rP  1
This equation shows that the roots efficiency decreases with the increase in pressure
ratio.

Applications
1) Scavenging and super charging of I.C. Engines.
2) Delivery capacity: 0.14 m3/min to 1400 m3/min.
Pressure ratio: 2:1 for a single stage and 3:1 for a two stage.
Advantages
1) It has only two moving parts (i.e two rotors) which are identical in shape and size.
2) Its operation is entirely rotary.
3) As the rotors are symmetric about their centre of rotation, the operation is
dynamical balanced.
4) Discharge of the compressed gas is complete and there is no clearance volume.
7.3 Vane Compressor or Blower

 It consists of a rotor mounted eccentrically in a circular casing and is supported
by ball and roller bearings in the end cover of the body as shown in Fig. 7.3.
 A set of spring loaded vanes made of non-metallic material (i.e fiber or carbon)
are mounted in slots on the rotor.
 When the rotor rotates; the centrifugal force acts on the vanes which throw the
vanes out to make contact with the casing for all angular positions of the rotor.
 The vanes divide the space between the rotor and casing in to a number of
compartments.
Fig. 7.3 Vane Compressor

 Two consecutive vanes form one compartment and due to eccentric motion of
the rotor the volume of each compartment keeps on changing.
 The suction side opens to the large area of vanes; thus as the rotor rotates; the
volume of air V1 at pressure P1 is trapped between the vanes of rotor and
casing.
 The delivery side opens to a much smaller; thus the space between the rotor and
casing reduces and air has reduced volume V2 and increased pressure P2 .
 The half of the total pressure rise takes place by internal reversible compression
before the entrapped air is open to the delivery port.
 The air is further compressed in irreversible manner due to momentarily back
flow of high pressure air from the receiver.
 The P-V diagram for this compression process of a vane compressor is shown in
Fig. 7.4.
Fig. 7.4 P-V diagram for vane compressor
Work done equation

Process 1-2
 In the compression process 1 – 2; the volume is reduced from V1 to V2 , and
pressure is increased from P1 to P2 and follow according to the law PV   C .
Work done due to isentropic compression 1 – 2 is given by,

 1
 
   
PV    1
 P
W12  2
  1 1 1  P1  
 

Process 2-3
 In the compression process 2 - 3, due to the back pressure from the already
compressed air from the receiver is assumed to be at constant volume.
 Work done due to the compression process 2-3 is given by,
W23  V2  P3  P2 
Total work done during process 1-2 and 2-3 for X number of vanes is given by,
   1
 
   P2    
W13 X 1 1 
PV   1  V2  P3  P2 
 1  P1  
   
Applications
1) Use for capacity up to 150 m3/min.
2) Pressure ratio up to 9 bar.
Advantages
1) The rotor and the vanes are only moving parts in the compressor.
2) No valves are required.
3) Discharge is complete and there is no clearance volume.
4) The operation is positive displacement as the gas is drawn in, trapped and
positively displaced by the movement of the vanes.
Disadvantages
1) The pressure involved in forcing the vanes back into the rotor will cause some
vibration.
2) The speed is limited to 3000 rpm.
3) Lubrication must require at the vane tip to reduce the friction between vanes
and casing.
 For a given air flow and given pressure ratio the vane blower requires less
work input than a roots blower.
 To reduced the friction between vanes and casing; floating drum is used
between rotor and casing which doesn’t allow the vanes to make contact
with the casing.
 Multi-stage vane compressor may use to achieve higher discharge
pressure.

7.4 Screw Compressors

Construction
 It is a positive displacement compressor in which compression is accomplished by
the enmeshing of two mating helically grooved rotors suitably housed in a
cylinder equipped with inlet and discharge ports as shown in Fig. 7.5.
 The male rotor (driving rotor) and consists of a series of lobes (usually four) along
the length of the rotor that mesh with similarly formed corresponding helical
flutes (usually six) on the female (driven rotor) rotor and very small clearance
between them.
 The entrapped gas is progressively compressed as it moves through the
narrowing passage ways formed by the lobes.
 The inlet and outlet flow from the compressor are neither radial as in the case of
roots blower nor axial but oblique.
 The casing is made of high grade cast iron and is ribbed for extra strength.
 Rotors are forged from normal carbon steel and must dynamically balance after
machining.
 Sleeve bearings are used as shaft seals within the compressor.
Fig. 7.5 Screw compressor

Working
The working cycle of the screw compressor has three distinct phases as following:
(i) Suction process
(ii) Compression process
(iii) Discharge process

(i) Suction process:

 As the rotors rotate, air is drawn through the inlet opening to fill the space
between the male lobe and the female flute.
 As the rotor continues to rotate, the air is moved past the suction port and
sealed in the interlobe space.
(ii) Compression process:
 As the main rotor turns, the air trapped in the ineterlobe space is moved both
axially and radially.
 The air is compressed by direct volume reduction as the enmeshing of the lobes
progressively reduced the flute volume and compression occurs.
(iii) Discharge process:
 At fixed point where the leading edge of the flute and the edge of the discharge
port co-inside, compression ceases and the air is discharged into the delivery
line, until the flute volume has been reduce to zero.
Applications
1) Delivery capacity: from 200 to 20000 m3/hr
2) Pressure ratio: less than 3 bar in one stage and up to 12 to 14 bar in two stages.
3) It is used in industrial refrigeration.
Advantages
1) Its operation is entirely rotary.
2) It has simplicity, versatility, durability and reliability.
3) It cannot suffer from surging.
4) The compressor is fully sealed and there is no leakage problem.
5) The oil consumption is negligible.
6) It is capable of high compression efficiency and having very good mechanical
efficiency.
Disadvantage
1) The high frequency noise caused by the discontinuous suction and discharge of
the air.
 A screw compressor has advantages of both turbo compressor and

reciprocating compressor.
 It can compete with centrifugal and axial compressor.

7.5 Scroll Compressors

Construction:
 It is rotary, orbital motion and a positive displacement compressor with hermetic
motor.
 The motor shaft bearings and the orbiting scroll journal bearings are lubricated
by oil supplied by a centrifugal pump which is submerged in the oil sump.
 It has two inter fitting matching spiral shaped scrolls assembled 1800 out of
phase configuration to perform the gas compression.
 A scroll is an involute spiral open at one end of the vane and bound by a base
plate on the other.
 When the two scrolls are placed together; they form a series of gas pockets
between the two mating spirals.
 One of the two scrolls, the fixed scroll is held stationary, while the other, the
orbiting scroll is made to orbit, but not rotates around a fixed point on the
stationary scroll. (Refer Fig. 7.6)
Fig. 7.6 Arrangement of fixed and orbiting scroll

 The flanks of the scroll remain in contact, although the contact locations move
progressively inwards.
 Relative motion between the pair is prevented by interconnecting couplings;

which maintains a relative angle between the pair of scrolls.
 The scroll tips are fitted with seals that ride on the surface of the opposing scroll
and act like piston rings, providing a gas seal at the mating surface.
 The intake of the suction gas occurs at the outer edge of the scroll assembly and
discharge occurs through the port at the centre of stationary scroll.
 The centre of the scroll journal bearing and the centre of the motor shaft of the
drive assembly are offset and this offset imparts an eccentric or orbiting motion
to the driven scroll.

Working:
 The orbiting motion causes the mated scrolls to form gas pockets and as the
orbiting continues, the relative movement between the orbiting scroll and the
fixed scroll causes the scroll to move towards the discharge port at the centre of
the assembly with constantly decreasing and increasing the pressure of the gas.
(i) First shaft revolution (Suction phase):
Fig. 7.7 (a) First revolution of shaft

 When the shaft rotates, the orbiting scroll orbits and opens suction port creates
space between two scrolls.
 At the completion of the first revolution, the scroll lateral surfaces again meet;
forming gas pockets. [Refer Fig. 7.7 (a)].
(ii) Second shaft revolution (Compression phase):
Fig. 7.7 (b) Second revolution of shaft

 Further rotation of shaft; by sealing suction gas in pockets of given volume at the
outer periphery of the scrolls; and the volume of the gas pockets is progressively
reduced and the gas is compressed.
 At the completion of the second revolution produces maximum compression of

gas occurs. [Refer Fig. 7.7 (b)].

(iii) Third revolution (Discharge phase):
Fig. 7.7 (c) Third revolution of shaft

 During third revolution of shaft; the compressed gas is discharge through
discharge port.
 At the completion of the third revolution, the volume of the gas pockets is
reduced to zero, squeezing the remaining gas from the scrolls.
 In the complete cycle, the three phases intake, compression and discharge
occurs simultaneously in an on-going sequence. [Refer Fig. 7.7 (c)].
Advantages
1) It has very high compression, mechanical and volumetric efficiency; thus it has
higher energy efficiency ratio also.
2) It has fewer moving parts and hence lower mechanical losses.
3) It can handle liquid refrigerant flooding back from evaporator during fluctuating
operating condition and design to start at full load.
4) It does not require crank case heater and/or suction line accumulator.
5) It has almost laminar/uniform/continuous flow of refrigerant and hence lower

noise level as well as no need of discharge muffler.
6) As the suction, compression, and discharge processes take place simultaneously;

thus the smooth flow of gas reduces gas pulsations and lower the flow losses.
7) No metal to metal contact.
8) No suction and discharge valves; thus lower noise level and lesser chances of
compressor ceasing & compressor motor failure.
9) Compact in size and weight hence easy to handle and maintain.
10) The system is perfectly balanced; thus extremely low vibrations & noise.

Applications
1) In residential and commercial refrigeration & air conditioning.
2) Central heat pump.
3) Automotive air-conditioning.
 The check valve at the discharge port is provided to prevent the back flow
of pressurised gas; when the compressor is turned off or in emergency
like power failure or shut down due to failure of any component.
 The dome of the compressor acts as a hot gas muffler to dampers the
pulsations before the gas enters the discharge line.
 To function effectively, the scroll compressors require close tolerance
machining of the scroll members.
7.6 Comparison between Scroll and Reciprocating Compressor

Sr.
Parameters Scroll Reciprocating
No.
1. Volumetric efficiency Excellent Poor due to clearance volume
2. Derating Low - Flat High - steep
3. Technology Latest Conventional
4. Energy efficiency ratio Very high Low
5. Power consumption Low - 100% High 125 - 130%
6. Initial cost High - 130% Low - 100%
7. Operating cost Low - 100% High 125 - 130%
8. Controls In Built External
9. Pay back 1 year -
10. Voltage withstand capability Very good Poor
11. Locked rotor current Low - 100% High - 130%
12. Vibration Negligible Noticeable
13. Liquid handling capacity Very good Extremely poor
14. Accumulator Not required Mandatory
15. Valve & valve plates Absent Mandatory
16. Metal to metal contact Almost nil Very high
17. Refrigerant flow pattern Continuous Intermittent
18. Discharge muffler Not required Mandatory to smoothen the flow
19. Direction of rotation One direction Both directions
20. Crank case heater Not required Mandatory

21. Chances of motor failure Almost nil High due to compression ceasing
22. Overall size and weight Compact and light Bulky and heavy
23. Loaded start No problem Not possible
24. Oil carry over Almost nil Very high
25. No. of Moving parts Very less- 02 nos. Very high > 10
7.7 Comparison between Reciprocating and Rotary compressor

Sr.
Parameters Reciprocating Rotary
No.
1. Discharge pressure Very high i.e. 1000 bar Very low i.e. 10 bar
2. Free air delivered The maximum free air delivery The maximum free air delivery is
is about 300 m3/min. as high as 3000 m3/min.
3. Air supply The air supply is intermittent. The air supply is continuous.
4. Balancing Balancing problem is major. No major balancing problem.
5. Speed Cannot run at high speed & Can be run at high speed &
directly coupled with the shaft directly coupled with the shaft of
of prime mover. prime mover.
6. Lubrication system Complicated Simple
7. Purity of air The air delivered is not clean as The air delivered is clean as it
it comes in contact with does not come in contact with
lubrication oil. lubricating oil.
8. Size of compressor Large size for a given discharge. Small size for a same discharge.
9. Efficiency Isothermal efficiency is used as Isentropic efficiency is used as
standard for reciprocating standard in rotary compressor.
compressor.
10. Suitability Suitable for low discharge of air Suitable for large discharge of air
at very high pressure. at low pressure.
“Don’t say you don’t have enough time; you have exactly
the same numbers of hours per day that were given to
Helen Keller, Mother Teresa and Albert Einstein.”

8
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
Course Contents
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Essential Parts of Centrifugal compressor
8.3 Principle of Operation of centrifugal
compressor
8.4 Static and Total Head (Stagnation) Properties
8.5 Theoretical Analysis of Centrifugal compressor
8.6 Velocity Diagrams
8.7 Work done & Pressure ratio equations
8.8 Effect of Impeller Shape on Performance of
centrifugal compressor
8.9 Pre-whirl
8.10 Surging, Choking and Stalling in Centrifugal
compressor
8.11 Losses in Centrifugal compressor
8.12 Comparison between Reciprocating and
Centrifugal compressor

8. Centrifugal Compressors Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
8.1 Introduction
 Centrifugal compressors are turbo-machines employing centrifugal effect to
increase the pressure of fluid.
 In centrifugal compressors energy is transferred by dynamic means from a
rotating impeller to the continuously flowing fluid.
 The main feature of the centrifugal compressors is that the angular momentum
of the fluid flowing through the impeller is increased partly by virtue of the
impeller outlet diameter being significantly larger than its inlet diameter.
 A pressure ratio in the order of 4:1 can be obtained from a single stage
compressor manufactured using conventional materials.
Characteristics Features of Centrifugal Compressors

a) It occupies a smaller length than an equivalent axial flow compressor.
b) It has better resistance to foreign object damage.
c) Because of the relatively short passage length, loss of performance due to build-
up deposits on blade surfaces will not be as great as the axial flow compressors.
d) It can work reasonably well in a contaminated atmosphere as compared to axial
flow compressor.
e) It has ability to operate over a wide range of mass flow rate at any particular
rotational speed.
f) Its efficiency under the most favourable circumstances, are less than those of
axial compressors designed for the same duty, by as much as 3 or 4 %.
g) However, at very low mass flow the axial flow compressor efficiency drops,
blading is small and the advantage appears to lie with the centrifugal compressor
in its relative simplicity and cost.
Applications of Centrifugal Compressors

1) Gas pumping in long distance pipe line and in petro-chemical industries.
2) Large scale refrigeration plants and big central air conditioning plants.
3) Fertilizer industry.
4) Supercharging of I. C. Engines.
 The advent of titanium alloys, permitting much higher tip speeds, combined
with advances in aerodynamics now permit pressure ratios of greater than
8:1 to be achieved in a single stage.

Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 8. Centrifugal Compressors
8.2 Essential Parts of a Centrifugal Compressor

 The principal components of a centrifugal compressor are shown in Fig. 8.1 and
detail of each part is given below.
1. Inlet casing with accelerating (converging) nozzle
2. Inlet guide vanes (IGV)
3. Impeller
4. Diffuser
5. Scroll or volute
6. Inducer section
Fig. 8.1 Centrifugal compressor
1. Inlet casing with accelerating nozzle

 The function of inlet casing is to accelerate the fluid from its initial condition to
the entry of inlet guide vanes and to provide uniform velocity at the eye.
 The inlet flange is axisymmetric and the inlet duct takes the form of a simple
converging nozzle.
 The outlet of the inlet casing is known as the impeller eye.
2. Inlet guide vanes (IGV)

 The function of inlet guide vanes is to direct the flow in the desired direction at
the entry of the impeller.
 The inlet guide vanes should be chosen so as to obtain a minimum relative Mach
number at the eye tip.

3. Impeller
 The function of the impeller is to increase the energy level of fluid by whirling it
outwards by increasing the angular momentum of the fluid. (Refer Fig. 8.2)
 Both static pressure and velocity of fluid are increased in the impeller.
 The impeller vanes help to transfer the energy from the impeller to the fluid.
 The hub is the curved surface of revolution of the impeller A-B.
 The shroud is the curved surface C-D forming the outer boundary to the flow of
fluid.
(Shrouding an impeller eliminate tip leakage losses but at the same time
increases friction losses.)
 Impellers may be enclosed by having the shroud attached to the vane ends
(called shrouded impellers) or unenclosed with small clearance gap between the
vane ends and the stationary wall.
Fig. 8.2 Essential components of centrifugal compressor stage
Fig. 8.3 Single - sided and double sided impeller

 The impeller may be a single sided or double sided as shown in Fig. 8.3.
 In a single sided impeller, air enters in to the compressors from one side only.
 In double sided impeller, there is an eye on either side of the impeller and air
enters from both the sides and the advantage is the impeller is subjected to
approximately equal stresses in the axial direction.
4. Diffuser
 The function of the diffuser is to convert the high kinetic energy of the fluid at
impeller outlet into static pressure.
Fig. 8.4 Vaneless diffuser
Fig. 8.5 Vanned diffuser

 As the impeller imparts energy to the air by increasing its velocity; and the
diffuser converts this imparted kinetic energy into static pressure rise.
 Diffuser is housed in a radial portion of the casing and it may be vaneless or
vaned diffuser as shown in Fig. 8.4 and 8.5.

5. Scroll or Volute
 The air leaving the diffuser is collected in a spiral passage known as volute or
scroll and the volute discharges the air through delivery pipe.
 Different cross sections are employed for the volute passage are rectangular,
circular and trapezoidal.
6. Inducer section
 At entry to the impeller the relative flow has a velocity Vr1, at angle α1 to the axis
of rotation as shown in Fig. 8.6.
Fig. 8.6 Inducer section in the impeller
 This relative flow is turned into the axial direction by the inducer section or
rotating guide vanes.
 The inducer starts at the eye and usually finishes in the region where the flow is
beginning to turn into the radial direction.
8.3 Principle of Operation of Centrifugal compressor

 When the impeller rotates at high speed, suction is created at the impeller eye
and the air is drawn in through an accelerating nozzle.
 Due to flow acceleration in the compressor inlet part, the velocity of air is
increased from V0 to V1, and thus pressure and temperature decrease.
 This acceleration is not isentropic but accompanied with friction. Thus P 1, and T1,
are the pressure and temperature at the inlet of the impeller.
 Due to energy supplied on the compressor shaft, the impeller is rotated at

speeds of 20000 to 30000 rpm and thus each particle of air passing through the
impeller is accelerated i.e. the kinetic energy of fluid is increased.
 There are two actions takes place in centrifugal compressor are: (i) Diffusion
action and (ii) Centrifugal action as following:

Diffusion action
 The impeller vanes are such that the cross-sectional area between two vanes
increases from inlet to outlet of the impeller and this gives rise to
Vr12  Vr2 2
diffusion action, .
2
Centrifugal action
 The air enters the impeller at smaller diameter and comes out at larger diameter
u2 2  u12
and this gives rise to centrifugal action, .
2
 Thus due to diffusion and centrifugal action, a part of the kinetic energy imparted
to the air is converted into static pressure and temperature rise.
 The absolute velocity V2 of air at the impeller outlet is very high and it has to be
converted into pressure energy and this conversion is achieved in the vaneless
diffuser and vaned diffusers.
 The vaneless diffuser converts some part of kinetic energy into pressure energy
and velocity reduces from V2 to V3 and it also stabilizes the flow coming out from
the impeller so that the entry to the vaned diffuser is without shock.
 The rest of the kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy in the vaned
diffuser and the velocity reduces from V3 to V4.
 The air leaving the vaned diffuser is collected in spiral passage (scroll or volute)
from which it is discharged from the compressor.
Pressure and velocity variation across a centrifugal compressor:
Fig. 8.7 Pressure and velocity variation across centrifugal compressor

 Air enters the compressor at mean radius with a low velocity V1, and atmospheric
pressure P1 as shown in Fig. 8.7.
 It is then accelerated to a high velocity V2, and pressure P2, depending upon the
centrifugal action of the impeller.
 The air now enters the diffuser where its velocity is reduced to some value V3,
and pressure increases to P3.
 In practice, about half of the total pressure rise per stage is achieved in the
impeller and the remaining half in the diffuser.
8.4 Static and Total Head Properties

 In rotary compressors high fluid velocities are encountered and therefore total
head quantities which take into account the kinetic energy have to be
considered.
 If the moving air is brought to rest isentropically without external work transfer
then resulting state is known as total head or stagnation state and
corresponding values of the properties describing this state are called stagnation
properties.
 Following are the important properties to be considered:
1) Stagnation Temperature (T0)
2) Stagnation Pressure (P0)
3) Stagnation Density (ρ0)
 Consider a horizontal passage of varying area with no external heat transfer and
work transfer.
1. Static and Stagnation Temperature (T0)
 “It is the actual temperature of the air that would be registered by a

thermometer moving with air with the same speed of the air is called static
temperature (T).”
 “If the moving air is brought to rest isentropically without external work transfer
then the kinetic energy of the air is converted in to heat energy increasing the
temperature of the air, the resulting temperature of the air is called stagnation
temperature (T0).”
 Apply steady flow energy equation for 1 kg of air flow diverging passage with no
heat and work transfer is given by,
V12 V2
u1  Pv
1 1  u2  P2v2  2
2 2

But u  Pv  h
V12 V2
h1   h2  2
2 2
For specific heat h  C pT
V12 V2
C pT1   C pT2  2
2 2
2
V
C pT   C pT0  h0  Constant
2
Where T0 is known as stagnation temperature
V2
T  T0
2C p
V2
T  T0 
2C p
V2
T0  T  (8.1)
2C p
V2
Where T is static temperature and is called dynamic temperature
2C p
2. Stagnation Pressure (P0)
then the kinetic energy of the air is converted in to pressure of the air, the
resulting pressure of the air is called stagnation pressure (P0).”
 Stagnation pressure can be found by using following relation between pressure
and temperature is,

P0  T0   1

P  T 
3. Stagnation Enthalpy (h0)
then resulting enthalpy is known as stagnation enthalpy.”
 The stagnation enthalpy remains constant in a moving stream in the absence of
heat and work transfer.
 Stagnation enthalpy can be found by using following relation is given by,
V2
h0  h 
2

4. Stagnation Density (⍴0)
then resulting density is known as stagnation density.”
 Stagnation density can be found by using following perfect gas relation is given
by,
P0
0 
RT0
1
  T   1
 Also for isentropic process 0   0 
 T 
8.5 Theoretical Analysis of Centrifugal Compressor

 As when dealing with a gas and the rise in temperature and pressure causes the
density to change. (Refer Fig. 8.8)
 The performance of the each component in terms of the thermodynamic
properties of the gas is discussed below:
Fig. 8.8 Enthalpy-entropy diagram of a centrifugal compressor

1) Inlet casing
 The air is being drawn from the atmosphere into the inducer section and
accelerated from velocity V0 to V1 and the static pressure falls from P0 to P1.
 Since the stagnation enthalpy is constant in steady, adiabatic flow without shaft
work then,
h0o  h01
V0 2 V2
h0   h1  1
2 2
2) Impeller
 From section 1 to 2 the fluid moves through the impeller where work is done on
it to increase its static pressure from P1 to P2.
 The specific work done on the fluid is equal to the stagnation enthalpy rise.
 The work done equation per unit mass of the fluid in terms of enthalpy,
W  h02  h01
 From Euler’s equation,

W  u2Vw2  u1Vw1
 Equating above two equations we get,

u2Vw2  u1Vw1  h02  h01
h01  u1Vw1  h02  u2Vw2
V2
 By substituting h0  h  in above equation we get,
2
V12 V2 2
h1   u1Vw1  h2   u2Vw2  I
2 2
Where I is the impeller constant and it has same value at inlet and outlet.
V2
I  h  uVw
2
1
 h  V f 2  Vw2   uVw
2
1
 h  Vr 2  Vrw 2  Vw 2   uVw
2
1
 h  Vr 2   u  Vw   Vw2   uVw
2
2  
1
 h  Vr 2  u 2  2uVw  Vw2  Vw2   uVw
2

1 1
 h  Vr 2  u 2  uVw  uVw
2 2
2 2
V u
 h r 
2 2
u2
I  h0 rel 
2
 Since I1  I 2 across the impeller,
Vr12 u12 V 2 u2
h1    h2  r 2  2
2 2 2 2
h2  h1   u2 2  u12   Vr12  Vr 2 2 
1 1
(8.2)
2 2
Conclusion from above equation:
 Main contribution to the static enthalpy rise is form the first term
2

1 2
u2  u12 
due to centrifugal action of blade velocity.
 The second term

1
2
 
Vr12  Vr 2 2 represents contribution from the diffusing action
of relative velocity.
3) Diffuser
 The fluid is decelerated adiabatically from velocity V2, to a velocity V3, the static
pressure rising from P2 to P3 as shown in enthalpy-entropy diagram.
V2 2
 If the total kinetic energy of the air leaving the impeller is converted to
2
pressure, the delivery pressure could be P02 .
 Since the diffusion process is not accomplished isentropically, and some kinetic
energy remains at diffuser with exit velocity (V3) the static delivery pressure at
point 3 is P3.
 The final state in the collector has static pressure P 3, low kinetic energy
 V32 
  and stagnation pressure P03.
 2 
 As the stagnation enthalpy in steady adiabatic flow without shaft work is

constant, h02  h03 and the stagnation pressure P03 is lower than P02 diffusion
process is incomplete as well as irreversible.

8.6 Velocity Diagram of Centrifugal Compressor

 The velocity diagrams at inlet and outlet of the impeller of a centrifugal
compressor is shown in Fig. 8.9 (a) and (b).
 In the analysis of centrifugal compressor the following assumptions are made:
(i) The flow phenomenon is steady and uniform throughout.
(ii) There is no separation of flow.
(iii) The flow through the impeller is frictionless.
(iv) There are no shock waves occurring any where.
 The following are the notations used in the analysis of a centrifugal compressor.
Let’s take;
1 = Exit angle from the guide vanes at entrance = absolute angle at inlet
1 = Inlet angle to the rotor or impeller
2 = Outlet angle from the rotor or impeller
2 = Inlet angle to the diffuser or the stator
u1 = Mean blade velocity at inlet
u2 = Mean blade velocity at exit
V1 = Absolute velocity of air at inlet to the rotor
V2 = Absolute velocity of air at exit to the rotor
Vr1 = Relative velocity of air at inlet to the rotor blade l
Vr 2 = Relative velocity of air at exit to the rotor blade
Vw1 = Velocity of whirl at inlet (tangential component of absolute velocity V1 )
Vw 2 = Velocity of whirl at exit (tangential component of absolute velocity V2 )
V f 1 = Velocity of flow at inlet (Component of V1 perpendicular to the plane of
rotation)
V f 2 = Velocity of flow at exit (Component of V2 perpendicular to the plane of
Rotation)
.
m  Mass flow rate, kg/sec
 The inlet and outlet velocity triangle assuming ideal condition (no pre-whirl and
no slip) is shown in Fig. 8.9 (a).
(i) If no pre-whirl, the air enters the impeller eye in an axial direction,
1  900 , V f 1  V1 , Vw1  0 and air will be leaving the impeller in radial direction
2 = 900, Vr 2  V f 2 and Vw2  Vu 2 .

Fig. 8.9 (a) Velocity diagrams of centrifugal compressor when 1 = 900 and 2 = 900
(ii) If the air enters the impeller eye in an axial direction 1  900 but air will not
leaving the impeller in radial direction 2 < 900, Vr 2  V f 2 and Vw2  Vu 2
Fig. 8.9 (b) Velocity diagrams of centrifugal compressor when 1 = 900 and 2 < 900
8.7 Work done and Pressure ratio Equations for Centrifugal

Compressor
Work Done Equations
(1) Euler’s Work done Equation for Impeller
 According to the Newton’s second law of motion, force applied is equal to the
rate of change of momentum,
 Tangential force = mass of air x Rate of change of tangential velocity

 m  Vw2  Vw1  t
.
 m Vw2  Vw1 
 Torque T  Rate of change of angular momentum
.
 m Vw2 r2  Vw1r1 
Where r1 and r2 are impeller radius at inlet and outlet
Theoretical work done or energy transfer,
.
W  E  m Vw2 r2  Vw1r1  
 But r1  u1 and r2  u2 then,
.
W  E  m Vw2u2  Vw1u1  (8.3)
 In a centrifugal compressor it is assumed that air enters the impeller eye in an

axial direction 1  900 and the whirl component Vw1 of the inlet absolute
velocity V1 is zero and the flow component V f 1 of the inlet absolute velocity
equals the absolute velocity itself.
 Thus by substituting Vw1 = 0 and V f 1  V1 .
.
W  E  mVw2u2 (8.4)
 This work is known as Euler’s work done equation.

(2) Ideal Energy Transfer or Maximum Work Done Equation for Impeller
 For an ideal case it is assumed that: The impeller is radial vanned (  2  900 ) i.e.
the air leaves the impeller with a tangential velocity Vw 2 equal to the blade
velocity u2 at the impeller exit.
 Thus by substituting Vw2  u2 and V f 2  Vr 2 in equation (8.4) we get,
 Thus, work done or energy transfer is given by,

. .
W  E  mVw2u2  mu2u2
.
W  mu2 2 (8.5)
 Since the air cannot leave the impeller at a velocity greater than the impeller tip
velocity, the above equation gives the maximum work capacity of the impeller.
(3) Work Done Equation for Impeller in Terms of Slip Factor
 Under ideal conditions the air particles follow exactly the path of blades and the
absolute velocity V2 at outlet is such that its whirl component is equal to the

blade tip velocity (Vw2  u2 ) irrespective of mass flow rate, speed and other
variables.
 Such an ideal condition may be possible from an impeller having infinite number
of blades of negligible thickness.
 But in actual practice; where the numbers of blades are finite, the air trapped
between impeller vanes and due to its inertia is reluctant to move round with the
impeller; and this result in a difference in pressure on the vane, being a high
pressure on the leading face and a low pressure on the trailing face.
 Because of this pressure variation a velocity gradient would exit across the
channel and relative eddies formed as shown in Fig. 8.10.
Fig. 8.10 Slip in an impeller

 On the high pressure side the air follows the blade contour and leaves the vane
tangentially and on the low pressure side, the air does not follow the blade
contour but it leaves the blade with a certain circumferential component across
the channel from one leading face to the other trailing face.
 The air will thus be discharged at a certain average angle 2 , which is less than
the geometric blade angle  2 ' ; thus the air slips with respect to the impeller
during its passage through it as shown in Fig. 8.11.
 Due to this deviation in the flow path the tangential component gets reduced
from Vw 2 ' to Vw2 and the difference Vs  Vw 2  Vw 2 ' is called slip and slip velocity
is given by, Vs  Vw 2  Vw 2 ' as shown in Fig. 8.11.

Fig. 8.11 Exit velocity triangle with and without slip (Radial vanes)
 “Slip factor is defined as the ratio of actual outlet whirl velocity to the blade
velocity at the outlet “and is denoted by,
Vw 2 Vw 2 Actual outlet whirl velocity
  
Vw 2 ' u2 Blade tip velocity
 The work done equation in terms of slip factor is given by,

.
W  m u22 (8.7)
(4) Work Done Equation in Terms of Total Temperature

 Considering steady flow isentropic equation at inlet and outlet of the impeller,
V12 V2
h1   W  h2  2
2 2
Work done per kg of air,
 V2 2   V12 
W   h2     h1  
 2   2 
 V2  V2 
  C pT2  2    C pT1  1 
 2   2 
 V2   V2 
 C p  T2  2   C p  T1  1 
 2C p   2C p
  
 C pT02  C pT01  C p T02  T01 
.
For mass flow rate m kg/sec, then work done equation in terms of total temperature is,
.
W  mC p T02  T01  (8.8)
(5) Work Done Equation in Terms of Slip factor and Power Input Factor
.
 The actual work required by the compressor is, W  m u22

 The actual work is always greater than the theoretical work due to following
factors:
(i) Friction between air and walls of the flow passages.

(ii) Windage losses - due to leakage and finite clearance between impeller
and casing, some air will be churned without contributing to useful work.
(iii) Disk friction, turbulence and shock losses due to flow separation.
 The extra work required to drive the compressor is taken in to account by

multiplying the theoretical work by an experimentally determined factor called
the power input factor p .
.
 Actual work done equation, W  m p u22
 The value of power input factor is about 1.04 and it should be as low as possible.
Pressure Ratio Equations

 Following are the various expressions for pressure ratio.
(1) Pressure Ratio in Terms of Isentropic Efficiency
Isentropic Efficiency:
 The compression process in a reciprocating compressor may approach
isothermal compression due to slow speed, cooling of cylinder and interstage
cooling.
 But in centrifugal compressor; running at high speed, there is a lot of friction

between molecules of air, between air and blade passages, eddies formation,
and shocks at inlet and exit.
 These factors cause internal generation of heat and consequently the maximum
temperature reached would be more than that for adiabatic compression.
 Therefore, the index of compression of uncooled rotary compression may be as

high as 1.7 and the high value of compression index demands a large amount of
compression work and this value may be reduced by surrounding the air
passages with cold water jackets and by the use of intercoolers.
 But it is generally impossible to provide sufficient cooling to bring the

compression curve to the left of isentropic line.
 It is because of this reason that the criterion of thermodynamic efficiency of

reciprocating compressor is isothermal while that for rotary compressors is
isentropic compression.

 “Isentropic efficiency is defined as the ratio of isentropic work required to

compress the air from P01, to P02 to the actual work required for the same
pressure ratio.”(Fig. 8.12)
Isentrpic Compression Work
Isentropic Efficiency,c 
Actual Compression Work
h02'  h01

h02  h01
 Now, isentropic efficiency in terms of static temperature is given by,
c 

CP T2 '  T1 T 2  T1 Isentropic static temperature rise
'

CP T2  T1  T2  T1 Actual static temperature rise
 Assuming V2’= V2 and isentropic efficiency in terms of total head temperature is

given by,
c 

CP T02'  T01 T  T01 Isentropic total temperature rise
02
'

CP T02  T01  T02  T01 Actual total temperature rise
Fig. 8.12 Isentropic efficiency

 But actual temperature rise is,
T02 '  T01

T02  T01 
c
 1
T T '  T ' P  
T02  T01  01  02  1 since 02   02 
c  T01  T01  P01 

 1
 
T01  P02   
T02  T01     1
c  P01 
 
Actual work required is,
. .
W  m p u2 2  mC p T02  T01 
 1
 
. T01  P02   
 mC p    1

c  P01 
 
Total pressure ratio in a centrifugal compressor is given by,

P02  c p u2 2   1
 1  
P01  CPT01 
(2) Pressure Ratio in Terms of Pressure (loading) Co-efficient

 It is a performance parameter which is useful in comparing various centrifugal
compressors.
 Each impeller has a definite maximum work capacity limited by the maximum
tangential velocity at exit.
 If this maximum work is utilized to maximum advantage, an isentropic
compression will result and the delivery pressure of P02max will be obtained.
Fig. 8.13 T-S diagram

 “Pressure co-efficient is defined as the ratio of isentropic work required to cause
the actually observed pressure rise to the work required to cause the maximum
pressure rise specified by the impeller tip speed.”
OR
 It may also be defined as the ratio of isentropic work to the Euler work and it is
given by,

Isentropic work
p 
Maximum work
Isentropic work

Euler work


C p T02'  T01 
Vw 2u2
For radial vanned impeller Vw2  u2
p 

C p T02'  T01 
2
u2
But T02 '  T01  c T02  T01  then we can write,
C pc T02  T01 

p 
u2 2
but p u2 2  C p T02  T01  then,
c p u2 2
p   pc
u2 2
Now substituting the  p  pc in above equation we get,


P02   p u2   1
2
 1  
P01  CPT01 
It is concluded that; pressure developed depends upon total inlet temperature ( T01 ), the
square of the impeller tip velocity ( u2 ) and independent of mass flow rate.
8.8 Effect of Impeller Shape on Performance of Centrifugal

Compressor
 For the inlet velocity diagram, it has been assumed air is enters without pre-
whirl; Vw1  0 and V f 1  V1 .
 The air leaves the impeller with relative velocity Vr 2 at an angle 2 which is the
discharge vane angle as shown in Fig. 8.14.

Fig. 8.14 Velocity diagram for centrifugal compressor

Euler energy equation per unit mass is,
E  Vw2u2  Vw1u1 Since Vw1  0
E  Vw2u2
From outlet velocity diagram,
u2  Vw2
Cot 2 
Vf 2
Vw2  u2  V f 2 Cot 2
Substitute the value of Vw2 in above energy equation we get,
E  u2 u2  C f 2 Cot 2 
But the volume flow rate,
Q
Q  Flow velocity  Area of flow = Vf 2  A2 thus V f 2 
A2
Substitute the value of Vf2 in above equation we get,
 Q 
E  u2 u2  Cot 2 
 A2 
But for any particular impeller running at constant speed u2 , A2 and 2 are constant, the
energy equation can be written as,
u2 Cot 2
E  K1  K2Q where K1  u2 2 and K 2 
A2
The energy transfer per unit mass is called the change of head of fluid and is designated
by Euler’s head H; thus
H  E  K1  K2Q

Fig. 8.15 (a) Type of impeller vanes based on curvature of vane
Fig. 8.15 (b) Outlet velocity diagrams of different impeller vanes

 These impellers shape and their corresponding velocity diagrams for the same tip
diameter and rotational speed are shown in Fig. 8.15 (a) and (b) respectively.
 The value of K1 in equations is proportional to twice the kinetic energy of fluid at
 u2 2  u2
vane tip speed i.e 1
K  2   while K 2  Cot  2 determines whether the
 2  A2
slope of H  Q curve is positive, zero or negative.
Case-(A) For Backward Curved Vanes:

 Backward curved vanes are inclined opposites to the direction of rotation.
 If  2  900  Cot 2 is positive  increase in Q  the Euler’s head falling 

H  Q characteristics will have negative slope as shown in Fig. 8.16.
 In this vanes, the tangential component Cw2 is much small and for a given
impeller speed u2 , the impeller will have a low energy transfer, then the
pressure ratio will be lower.
 Backward curved vanes are slightly better in efficiency and stable over a wide
range of flows than either radial or forward curved vanes.

Case-(B) Radial Curved Vanes:

 Radial vanes are normal to the direction of rotation.
 If  2  900  Cot  2  00  Euler’s head remains constant with variation of Q; as

shown in Fig. 8.16.
Advantages
a) Ease of manufacturing.
b) Lowest risk stress due to vane mass loading for a given diameter and rotational
speed and hence lightest weight.
c) Equal energy conversion in impeller and diffuser giving high pressure ratios with
good efficiency.
d) It has reasonable compromise between high exit kinetic energy and high energy
transfer with high speeds.
Application
 It is used in aircraft centrifugal compressors.
Fig. 8.16 Characteristics of backward, radial and forwards curved vanes
Case-(C) Forward Curved Vanes

 Forward curved vanes are inclined towards the direction of rotation.
 If  2  900  Cot 2 is negative  decrease in Q  the Euler’s head rising 

H  Q characteristics will have positive slope as shown in Fig. 8.16.
 In case of forward curved vanes, Vw2 is increased and consequently the energy
transfer for forward curved vanes is maximum.

 But the absolute velocity at impeller outlet V2 is also increased; the large value
of 2 leads to a large value of V2 ; whish is not desirable as its conversion into
static pressure cannot be very efficiently carried out in the diffuser section.
 In the diffusion process, there is always a tendency for the air to break away
from the walls of the diverging passages and if the diffusion is too rapid, i.e. it is
carried out in a small diffuser section; the air may reverse its direction and flow
back in the direction of pressure gradient.
 The reversal results in the formation of eddies and turbulence; which cause
conversion of some of kinetic energy into heat rather than useful pressure
energy.
Advantages
a) Higher pressure ratios can be achieved.
Disadvantages
a) Low efficiency due to large slip factor.
b) Centrifugal effects on the curved vanes create bending moment and produce
increased stress which reduces the maximum speed of tat which the impeller.
c) As slip factor increases, the energy conversion required in the diffuser increases
as a result of which diffuser inlet velocity is higher and diffuser efficiency falls
rapidly. (It is very rare to find compressor with forward curved vanes.)
d) Produce the higher pressure ratio for given blade tip speed but is inherently less
stable and has narrow operating range closer to the surge line even under
normal running conditions.
e) Efficiencies are lower than that are possible with the backward curved or radial
curved vanes.
8.9 Pre-whirl
Definition of Pre-whirl
 The initial pre-rotation of air is given by a set of fixed intake guide vanes attached
to the compressor casing before entering to the eye of the impeller is called pre-
whirl.
Purpose of Pre-whirl
1) It will reduce eye tip Mach number if it is above the desired value and reduce the
losses of compressor used in aircraft gas turbine ay higher altitude.
2) It reduces the relative velocity of air entering the eye of the impeller.

 Let’s take; ABC is the inlet velocity triangle when the air enters the impeller in an
axial direction without any pre whirl i.e. 1  900 , Vw1  0 and V1  V f 1 . (Fig.
8.17)
 AB’C’ is the inlet velocity triangle when the air at inlet is given pre rotation.
Angle of Pre-whirl DC ' B  
Vr1
Mach number at inlet is, M 1 
 RT1
 By providing the inlet guide vanes, the relative velocity is reduced from CA to C’A
without changing the flow velocity & mass flow rate; this reduces the inlet Mach
number as shown in Fig. 8.17.
 Energy transfer per unit mass without pre-whirl  Vw2u2
 Energy transfer per unit mass with pre-whirl  Vw2u2  Vw1u1 ; thus pre-whirl
reduces work capacity by Vw1u1 .
Fig. 8.17 Effect of pre – whirl

Advantages
1) It reduces the curvature of impeller at inlet.
2) It reduced the inlet relative Mach number; by reducing the relative velocity of air
entering the eye of the impeller.

Disadvantages
1) Due to additional part (i.e inlet guide vanes), the weight of compressors is
increased, which is not favourable for jet airplanes compressors.
2) There is a danger of possible icing in the vanes when compressor working at high
altitudes.
3) The cost of additional construction is increased.
4) Pre-whirl reduces work capacity of the compressor by Vw1u1 .
8.10 Surging, Choking and stalling in Centrifugal Compressors

1. Surging
 It is the phenomenon which is caused due to unsteady, periodic and reversal of
low through the compressor when compressor has to operate at less mass flow
rate than a predetermined value (a value corresponding to maximum pressure
ratio).
 The theoretical pressure ratio versus mass flow rate for centrifugal compressor
shown in the Fig. 8.18 which delivering air through a flow control value situated
after the diffuser.
 The mass flow rate is zero when the discharge valve is fully closed and the
pressure ratio will have some value represented by point ‘A’.
 The pressure at this condition is equal to the centrifugal pressure head produced
by the action of the impeller on the air trapped between the vanes.
 As the discharge valve is open slightly, mass flow commences and the diffuser
becomes effective in increasing the static pressure and the pressure ratio
increases as shown at ‘B’.
 With further opening of the discharge valve, the pressure ratio goes on
increasing till the maximum pressure rise is attained represented by the point ‘C’;
at this point maximum efficiency achieved for the given speed, inlet pressure and
temperature.
 With further opening of the discharge valve, the mass flow rate increases beyond
the point ‘C’, the efficiency of the compressor decreases with a corresponding
decrease in pressure ratio.
 For mass flows greatly in excess of the designed mass flow, the air angles
become widely different from the vane angles, causing break away of the air
(flow separation and shock occur) and the efficiency decreases rapidly.

 Finally when the discharge valve is fully opened, the pressure ratio approaches
unity, the mass flow rate would be maximum but the compression efficiency will
be zero. (All the power is absorbed in overcoming internal frictional resistance).
Fig. 8.18 Surging and chocking in centrifugal compressor

 Let the compressor operate to the left of the point ‘C’, at some point ‘B’ and at
this point decrease in mass flow rate is accompanied by decrease in pressure
developed by the compressor.
 If the static pressure in the discharge line does not decrease as rapidly as the
developed pressure, there is a natural tendency for the air to flow back into the
compressor in the direction of the pressure gradient.
 This will result momentarily in the reversal of flow; and after a lapse of time the
fluid from the delivery pipe would leave, the pressure downstream of the
compressor falls, the pressure gradient is reversed and again the air flow is back
to its normal direction.
 The pressure therefore surges back and forth, if the downstream conditions are
unchanged; then this phenomenon is known as surging or pumping.
 Thus, when, the compressor has to operate at reduced mass flow rates, the air
surges and pulsates throughout the compressor and the compressor does not
give a steady flow of air.
 The region between the points A and C is known as surge region and it is
objectionable to operate the compressor in this region.
 Surging does not take place in the region CF as the reduction in mass flow is
accompanied with increase in pressure and of tire flow is not possible and the
stability of the operation is maintained.

Effects of Surging
1) Surging could lead to failure of the compressor parts.
2) Surging causes noise, vibration, overheating and stress reversal in the vanes and
may damage the compressor.
Remedies of Surging
 Surging can be reduced by making the number of diffuser vanes an odd-number
multiple of the impeller vanes.
 Thus, a pair of diffuser passages will be supplied with air from an odd number of
vanes and pressure fluctuations are evened out around the circumference than if
exact multiple of diffuser vanes are employed.
2. Chocking
 “The maximum mass flow rate possible in a compressor is known as choking
flow” OR the fixed mass flow rate regardless of the pressure ratio.
 At constant rotor speed, the tangential velocity component at the impeller
remains constant.
 With the increase in mass flow rate, at the right of maximum pressure point, the
pressure ratio decreases and hence the density is decrease.
 These effects result in a considerable increased redial velocity which increases

the absolute velocity and the incidence angle at the diffuser vane tip and there is
a rapid progression towards a choking state.
 The slope of the characteristic steepens and finally vertical (i.e. the mass flow
cannot be increased further); thus the phenomenon of choking puts an upper
limit on the mass flow.
 The point ‘E’ on the characteristic curve is called the choking point as shown in
Fig. 8.18.
 Choking indicates that at some point within the compressor sonic

conditions have been reached causing; the limiting maximum mass flow
rate to be set as in the case of compressible flow through a converging –
diverging nozzle

3. Rotating Stall
 “The phenomenon of a reduction in mass flow rate through the blade passage at
higher angles of incidence is known as rotating stall”.
 It is a separate phenomenon which may lead to surging but can exist on its own
in a stable operating condition.
 Fig. 8.19 illustrates the air directions in a number of blade passages.
Fig. 8.19 Rotating stall propagation

 If the angle of incident on to blade ‘A ‘is excessive perhaps due to partial
blockage or uneven flow in the diffuser, the blade may stall.
 Because of the partial mass flow decrease in the blade passage, the deflected air
causes the angle of incidence to the left of blade ‘A’ to increase; while the angle
of incidence to the right of the blade ‘B’ will tend to decreased.
 Thus the blade ‘B’ will be the next to stall while the blade ‘A’ will be unstalled and
the process is repeated about the periphery of the disc.
 Prolonged cyclic loading and unloading of the rotor blade can lead to fatigue
failure or even immediate catastrophic failure.
 The stall propagates in the opposite direction to blade motion at a frequency
related to shaft speed.
 In compressor tests, rotating stall may be audibly recognised as a high frequency
‘screech’.
 At low speed and starting the front stages are more likely to stall; but at high
speeds, the stall occurs in the last stages.
 Low speed and starting stall may be eliminated by variable inlet guide vane
rows.

8.11 Losses in Centrifugal Compressor

 The total losses in a centrifugal compressor may be divided into:
1. Frictional losses
2. Inlet losses
3. Incident losses
4. Clearance and leakage losses
 The power supplied to the centrifugal compressor stage is the power input at the
coupling less the mechanical losses on account of the bearing, seal and disc
friction as shown in Fig. 8.20.
 These losses result from fluid friction, separation, circulatory motion and shock
wave formation and losses lead to an increase in enthalpy and decrease in
stagnation pressure.
Fig. 8.20 Losses in centrifugal compressor
1. Frictional losses
 The major portion of the losses is due to fluid friction in stationary and rotating
blade passages.
 Losses due to friction depend on friction factor, passage length and the square of
fluid velocity (V2) and hence proportional to m2.
 Therefore the stage with relatively larger impeller, diffuser and volute passages
and higher fluid velocity will have poor performance.
2. Inlet losses
 In centrifugal compressors fluid enters axially and turns radially in the vaneless
space before entering the impeller blades.
 In this process the fluid suffers losses and these losses depend on velocities Vi
and V1.

 Inlet losses increase due to change in mass flow designed conditions. When mass
flow changes the ratio of axial velocity of flow to blade velocity also changes.
 The aerodynamic losses occurring in the stage during the flow processes
from its entry to exit are taken into account by the stage efficiency.
 The actual temperature of air coming out from the compressor is higher
than the temperature of air compressed isentropically.
 The flow, except in accelerating nozzle and inlet guide vanes is
throughout decelerating; thus the thickening boundary layer separates;
where the adverse pressure gradient is too steep and leads to additional
losses on account of stalling and wasteful expenditure of energy in
vortices.
3. Incident Losses
 During the off design conditions the flow at the entry of the impeller and diffuser
blades approaches them with some degree of incidence as shown in Fig. 8.21.
8.21 Effect of incidence on velocity diagrams and variation of shock losses

 At the same rotational speed the reduced flow rate introduces positive incidence
whereas negative incidence results from increased flow rate; shock losses are
increase rapidly at large value of incidence.
 Large positive incidences lead to flow separation, stalling and surge. Incidence
losses in terms of drag coefficient CD are proportional to CD V2.
 Shock losses also occur in the diffuser and volute.
8.12 Comparison between Reciprocating and Centrifugal

Compressors
Sr.
Parameters Reciprocating Centrifugal
No.
1. Balancing Poorly balanced and vibration
Better balanced; because no
problem occurs. reciprocating part.
2. Mechanical efficiency Less efficiency due to more More due to less bearing
sliding and bearing members members
3. Pressure ratio Pressure ratio per stage is Pressure ratio per stage is
high about 5 to 8. high about 3 to 4.5.
4. Initial cost High Less
5. Delivery pressure Capable to deliver high Capable to deliver medium
pressure. pressure.
6. Capacity Handles small volume Handles large volume
7. Flexibility More flexible with capacity No flexibility in capacity and
and pressure range. pressure range.
8. Compression efficiency Higher at compression ratio Higher at compression ratio
above 2. below 2.
9. Speed Adaptability to low speed Adaptability to high speed
drive low maintenance cost driver
such as turbine.
10. Maintenance cost High Low
11. Suitability For low, medium and high For low and medium
pressure and low and medium pressure and large gas
gas volumes. volumes.
“No Student ever attains very eminent success by simply

doing what is required of him; it is the mount and
excellence of what is over and above the required that
determines the greatness of ultimate distinction.”

9
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
Course Contents
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Construction of an axial flow
compressor
9.3 Stage velocity triangles
9.4 Work input for an axial flow
compressor
9.5 Total pressure ratio per stage of an
axial flow compressor
9.6 Degree of Reaction
9.7 Aerofoil blading
9.8 Lift and Drag
9.9 Surging
9.10 Rotating stall
9.11 Losses in axial flow compressor
9.12 Comparison between Centrifugal
and Axial Flow compressor

9. Axial Flow Compressors Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
9.1 Introduction
 Axial flow compressors are positive displacement type of compressor.
 Axial flow compressors are turbo machines that increase the pressure of air or
gas flowing continuously in the axial direction.
Advantages
1) It has higher efficiency than centrifugal compressor.
2) It is more suitable for multi staging & increase in pressure with negligible losses.
3) Pressure ratio of 8:1 or even higher can be achieved using multi stage axial flow
compressor.
4) It can handle large amount of air inspite of small frontal area.
5) It has high thrust per unit frontal area.
Disadvantages
1) The performance is very sensitive to its mass flow rate at the design point and
any deviation from the design condition causes the efficiency to drop off
drastically.
2) It has more complexity and cost.
Applications
1) Constant load applications such as in aircraft gas turbine engines.
2) Fossil fuel power stations; where gas turbines are used for topping up the station
output when normal peak loads are exceeded.
3) Large marine gas turbine plant.
 Earlier Axial flow compressor had pressure ratio of 5:1 in

10 stages & 40% efficiency.
 Due to continue aerodynamic development resulted in
increased in stage pressure ratio & number of stage for
given overall pressure ratio has been greatly reduced.
 Today Axial flow compressors reported efficiency up to
90% at pressure ratio of 8:1.

Fluid Power Engineering (2151903 9. Axial Flow Compressors
9.2 Construction of an Axial Flow Compressor

Construction
 An axial flow compressor consists of fixed and moving sets of blades in
alternating sequence as shown in Fig. 9.1.
 The sets of moving blades are attached to periphery of a rotor hub and the sets
of fixed blades are attached to the walls of the outer stationary casing called the
stator.
Fig. 9.1 Flared stator (Drum rotor)

 At the inlet of the compressor, an extra row of fixed vanes called inlet guide
vanes are fitted; which guide the air at the correct angle onto the first row of
moving blades.
 The rotor and stator blade banks must be as close as possible for smooth and
efficient flow.
 The radius of the rotor hub and the length of the blades are designed so that
there is only a very small tip clearance at the end of the rotor and stator blades.
 One set of the rotor blades and one set of the stator blades constitute a stage.
 The height of successive sets of blades is reduced to compensate for the
reduction in volume resulting from increasing pressure from stage to stage; thus
the axial flow velocity constant through the compressor.
 The rotor and stator blades are so arranged that the spaces between them form
diverging passages; hence the velocity of the air is decreased as it passes through
them, and rise in pressure takes place.

Working
 As the air passes through the moving blades, the kinetic energy added to the air
and pressure rises at the expense of a reduction in the relative velocity of the
air; by providing diffuser passages between blades.
Fig. 9.2 Velocity and pressure variation in axial flow compressor

 The absolute velocity of air increases due to work input to the moving blades
through the rotor shaft. (Fig. 9.2)
 Now, the air is then discharged at the proper angle to the first row of fixed
blades; where the pressure is further increased by diffusion.
 Then, the air is directed to the second row of moving blades and the same
process is repeated through the remaining compressor stages.
 It is usually arranged to have an equal temperature rise in the moving and the
fixed blades; to keep the axial velocity of the air constant throughout the
compressor.
 Thus each stage of the compression is exactly similar with regard to air velocity
and blade inlet and outlet angles.

9.3 Stage Velocity Triangles of Axial flow compressor

 The velocity triangles for one stage of an axial flow compressor as shown in
Fig. 9.3 with all angles are measured from the axial direction and the blade
velocity ' u ' is taken to be the same at blade entry and exit; because the air
enters and leaves the blades at almost equal radii.
Fig. 9.3 Stage velocity diagram for axial flow compressor
 As shown in velocity triangles; the air with an absolute velocity V1 and angle 1
from the previous stage and the flow is changed to the desired direction by
providing a row of inlet guide vanes.
 Air enters the rotor blades with absolute relative velocity V1 and angle 1 at with
the axial direction.
 The relative velocity Vr1 obtained by the vectorial addition of the absolute
velocity V1 and blade velocity u has the inclination 1 with the axial direction.
 The air is turned towards the axial direction by blade camber and the effective
flow area is increased from inlet to outlet, thus causing diffusion.

 The flow diffuses and the air leaves with lower relative velocity Vr 2  Vr1 
causing some pressure rise in the rotor blades; as the work is done on the air by
the rotor blades, the absolute velocity increases from V1 to V2 .
 The air then passes through the diverging passages formed by the stator blades,
where its pressure is further increased due to diffusion and the part of kinetic
energy is converted into pressure energy and the absolute velocity reduces from
V2 to V3 .
 Finally the air leaves the stator blades with velocity V3 at angle  3 and direct to
the next stage.
 If the following stage is the same as the previous one, the stage is said to be the
normal then, V1  V3 and 1  3 .
 Axial flow compressors are designed on the basis of constant axial velocity
Va1  Va 2  Va .
 The following are the notations used in the analysis of an axial flow compressor.
Let’s take;
1 = Exit angle from the guide vanes at entrance = absolute angle at inlet
1 = Inlet angle to the rotor blades or moving blades
2 = Outlet angle from the rotor blades or moving blades
2 = Inlet angle to the diffuser or the stator blades
u1 = u2 = u  Mean blade velocity at inlet and exit
V1 = Absolute velocity of air at inlet to the rotor blades or moving blades
V2 = Absolute velocity of air at exit to the rotor blades or moving blades
Vr1 = Relative velocity of air at inlet to the rotor blade or moving blades
Vr 2 = Relative velocity of air at exit to the rotor blade or moving blades
Vw1 = Velocity of whirl at inlet (tangential component of absolute velocity V1 )
Vw 2 = Velocity of whirl at exit (tangential component of absolute velocity V2 )
Fig. 9.4 Combined velocity diagram

 From inlet velocity triangles:

Va1  V1 cos 1  Vr1 cos 1
Vw1  V1 sin 1  Va1 tan 1
Vrw1  Vr1 sin 1  Va1 tan 1
u  Vw1  Vrw1
u  V1 sin 1  Vr1 sin 
u  Va1 tan 1  Va1 tan 1
u  Va1  tan 1  tan 1 
 From exit velocity triangles:

Va 2  V2 cos  2  Vr 2 cos  2
Vw2  V2 sin  2  Va 2 tan  2
Vrw2  Vr 2 sin  2  Va 2 tan  2
u  Vw2  Vrw 2
u  V2 sin  2  Vr 2 sin 
u  Va 2 tan  2  Va 2 tan  2
u  Va 2  tan  2  tan  2 
 For constant velocity through the stage;

Va1  Va 2  Va
Va  V1 cos 1  Vr1 cos 1
Va  V2 cos  2  Vr 2 cos  2
 As we know that; u  Va1  tan 1  tan 1  and u  Va 2  tan  2  tan  2  ; thus by

equating this two equations, we get
u
 tan 1  tan 1  tan  2  tan  2
Va
u  Vw1  Vrw1  u  Vw 2  Vrw 2

Vw2  Vw1  Vrw1  Vrw 2
Va  tan  2  tan 1   Va  tan 1  tan  2 
tan  2  tan 1  tan 1  tan  2
9.4 Work input to the axial flow compressor

 The derivation of work input the compressor is based on the assumption that the
axial velocity remains constant through the compressor.
 The energy given to the air per unit mass flow rate is given by,
W  u2Vw2  u1Vw1 (9.1)

But from velocity triangles and noting that Va is constant through the stage
u1  u2  u
W  u Vw2  Vw1  (9.2)
W  u Va tan  2  Va tan 1 
W  uVa  tan  2  tan 1  (9.3)
But from velocity triangle;
Vw2  u  Vrw2  u  Va tan  2
Vw1  u  Vrw1  u  Va tan 1
Substitute the value of Vw2 and Vw1 in equation (9.2)
W  u  u  Va tan  2    u  Va tan 1  
W  uVa  tan 1  tan  2  (9.4)
But Vw1  Va tan 1  u  Vrw1  u  Va tan 1
Va tan 1  u  Va tan 1
Substitute the value of Va tan 1 in equation (9.4)
W  u u  Va tan 1  Va tan  2 
W  u u  Va  tan 1  tan  2   (9.5)
The energy input to the air will be usefully absorbed in raising the pressure & velocity of
the air and wastefully in overcoming the viscous friction losses.
But regardless of the losses, the whole work of this work input will reveal itself as a rise
in temperature of the air.
The work input per kg,

W  C p To3  To1  (9.6)
Equation two equations (9.3) and (9.6) we get,
W  u Va tan  2  Va tan 1   C p To3  To1 
The stagnation temperature rise in the stage
uV
To3  To1  a  tan  2  tan 1 
Cp
uVa
To3  To1   tan  2  tan 1  (9.7)
Cp
Flow coefficient
“It is defined as the ratio of axial velocity to the peripheral velocity of the blades.” i.e
Va

u
Stage loading
“It is defined as the ratio of work input to the u2.“ i.e   W 2
u
9.5 Total pressure ratio per stage of an axial flow compressor

 “It is defined as the ratio of ideal isentropic work input to the actual work input
between the same pressure limits.”
W
isen  ideal
Wactual
Total Enthalpy rise in a stage

Actual enthalpy rise between the same total pressure limit
ho3'  ho1 To3'  To1
 
ho3  ho1 To3  To1
To3'  To1  isen To3  To1 
 1
 To3'  To3' P 
To1   1  isen To3  To1  But   o3 
 To1  To1  Po1 
  1 
  P  

To1    1  isen To3  To1 
o3
 o1 
P


Po3  isen  1

  1  To3  To1  (9.8)
Po1  To1 
Actual work input per kg,
Wact  C p To3  To1   uVa  tan 1  tan  2 
uVa
To3  To1   tan 1  tan  2  (9.9)
Cp
From above equation (9.8) and (9.9) we get

Po3  isen  uVa   1
 1   tan 1  tan  2  (9.10)
Po 2  C pTo1 
9.6 Degree of Reaction

 Degree of reaction prescribed the distribution of the stage pressure rise between
the rotor and diffuser blade rows.
 It is expressed in terms of pressure or enthalpy.
(a) For incompressible & reversible flow
 “The static pressure rise in rotor to the static pressure rise in the stage is known
as degree of reaction“
Static Press rise in the rotor blades PR P2  P1
R  
Static Press rise in the stage PS P3  P1

(b) For compressible & irreversible flow

 “The static enthalpy rise in rotor to the static enthalpy rise in the stage is known
as degree of reaction
Static Enthalpy rise in the rotor blades H R h2  h1 T2  T1
R   
Static Enthalpy rise in the stage H S h3  h1 T3  T1
With the help of velocity triangle Degree of reaction can be written as,
Vr12  Vr 2 2
R OR (9.11)
2u Vw2  V w1 
Va
R  tan 1  tan 2  (9.12)
2u
1 1  Va 
R   tan 1  tan 1  (9.13)
2 2  u 
For 50% reaction blading

 In a 50% reaction stage, the static enthalpy and pressure increase in the rotor
and diffuser are equal. i.e. the pressure rise is equally divided between the rotor
and the diffuser.
 Putting R = 0.5 in equation (9.12)
1 Va 1
R  tan 1  tan 2  
2 u 2
u
 tan 1  tan  2 (9.14)
Va
From inlet velocity triangle,

1 Va 1
R  tan 1  tan  2  
2 u 2
u  Va tan 1  Va tan 1
u
 tan 1  tan 1 (9.15)
Va
From exit velocity triangle,
u  Va tan 2  Va tan 2
u
 tan  2  tan  2 (9.16)
Va
Comparing equation (9.14) and (9.15)

u
 tan 1  tan  2  tan 1  tan 1
Va
1   2
Comparing equation (9.14) and (9.16)
u
 tan 1  tan  2  tan  2  tan  2
Va
 2  1
Because of equality of angles 1  2 and  2  1 ; velocity triangle becomes

symmetrical and compressor blading is symmetrical blading.
In symmetrical velocity diagram V1  Vr 2 and V2  Vr1
In 50% reaction choice the fluid losses and tip clearance are minimum because it
minimise the tendency of the blade boundary layers to separate from the solid surface.
Figure 9.5 Enthalpy-entropy diagram for 50% reaction stage
For 50% reaction; the Degree of reaction is,
Vr12  Vr 22
R  1/ 2
2u Vw2  V w1 
Vr12  Vr 22  u Vw2  V w1 

2

1 2
 
1
2
 
1
V2  V12  Vr12  Vr 2 2  u2 2  u12
2

For an axial flow compressor, u1 = u2

Vr12  Vr 2 2 
2

1 2
 
1
V2  V12  Vr12  Vr 2 2
2

Vr12  Vr 2 2  V2  V1
2 2
9.7 Aerofoil Blading

 “An aerofoil blade may be defined as a streamlined body bounded principally by
two flattened curves and whose length and width are very large in comparison
with the thickness.”
 Axial flow compressors fitted with aerofoil blading efficiencies as high as 90 %.
 It has a thick rounded leading edge and a thin (sometimes sharp) trailing edge
and its maximum thickness occurs somewhere near the midpoint of the chord a
shown in fig. 9.6.
 The back bone line lying midway between the upper and lower surfaces is known
as the camber line.
 When such a blade is suitably shaped and properly oriented in the flow, the force
acting on it normal to the direction of flow is considerably larger than the force
resisting its motion.
 Aerofoil shapes are used for aircraft wing sections and the blades of various
turbo machines.
Fig. 9.6 Aerofoil Blade section

Notations of an aerofoil blade:
1) Camber line: It is the line representing the locus of all points midway between the
upper and lower mean surfaces of an aerofoil.
2) Leading edge: It is a circular arc blended into the main profile and specified by its
radius r1 as a percentage of the maximum thickness.
3) Maximum thickness ’t’: It is useful parameter for describing an aero-foil and it is
expressed as a percentage of blade length.

4) Trailing edge: It is ideally sharp i.e. of zero radius, but this is impossible from
strength consideration. It is also a circular arc specified as a percentage of the
maximum thickness.
5) Camber angle: The tangents to the camber line at the entry and exit make the
camber angles with the axial direction.
x1 = Camber inlet angle
x2 = Camber outlet angle
 = Camber angle = x1  x2
b = Maximum Camber
a = Distance of the point of maximum camber from the leading edge.
c = Chord, the straight line form the leading to the trailing edge i.e. the distance
between the blade leading and trailing edges.
9.6.1 Symmetrical (un cambered) Aerofoil
Fig. 9.7 Flow pattern around un-cambered and cambered aerofoil

 “The aerofoil whose axis of symmetry is parallel to the direction of undisturbed
velocity of approach is called symmetrical aerofoil.”
 The flow pattern around a symmetrical aerofoil placed in a stream of air is shown
in Fig. 9.7 (a).
 The air divides around aerofoil at the leading edge and then re-joins at the
trailing edge.
 Though there is some local is no permanent deflection of the main stream and
the only significant forces exerted on the aerofoil and due to friction and the
local disturbance.
9.4.2 Non symmetrical Aerofoil
 Fig. 9.7 (b) shows a non-symmetrical aerofoil inclined with the direction of the
undisturbed approaching flow at an angle i. This angle is known as the "angle of
attack" or incidence angle.
 Unlike the symmetrical aerofoil, there is a pronounced disturbance which results
in greater local deflection of flow.

 The local deflection of air stream can only be created (by Newton's law) if the
aerofoil exerts a force on the air and hence the reaction of the air must produce
an equal and opposite force on the aerofoil.
 The presence of the aerofoil has changed the local pressure distribution and
hence by the Bernoulli equation the local velocity.
 The system of blades used in centrifugal compressor is known as momentum

blading because the force on the blades is calculated from the rate of change
of momentum.
 Axial flow compressors fitted with momentum blading are not efficient on
account of the occurrence of boundary layer separation from the blade
surfaces. This does not occur usually on radial flow blading owing to the
increase in pressure due to centrifugal head.
 Boundary layer separation causes serious loss pressure due to violent eddies
and distortion of flow.
 Aerofoil blades give less restricted passage of air compared with momentum
blading.
9.8 Lift and Drag

 The centrifugal force on the fluid particles on the upper convex side tries to move
them away from the surface; this reduces the static pressure on this side below
free, stream pressure. On account of this suction effect, the convex surface on
the blade is known as the suction side.
 But the centrifugal force on the lower concave side presses the fluid harder on
the blade surface, thus increasing the static pressure above that of the free
stream. Therefore, the concave side of the blade is known as pressure side.
 The static pressure distribution around a cambered aerofoil with an angle of
attack ‘i’ is shown in Fig. 9.8 (a).
Fig.9.8 (a) Pressure distribution around Fig.9.8 (b) Lift and drag
a cambered aerofoil blade

 Due to this phenomenon, the flow on the suction side begins accelerating along
the blade chord accompanied by a deceleration on the pressure side.
 The vertical sum of these pressures will produce some resultant force R acting on
the blade normal to the chord tine.
 This resultant aerodynamic force R can be resolved into two components:
(i) The component normal to direction of undisturbed air stream called the lift (L)
(ii) The component parallel to the direction of undisturbed air stream is called the
drag D.
 The lift is due to an unbalanced pressure distribution over the aerofoil surface
and it is the basic force causing the aeroplane to maintain its lift.
 On aircraft wing there is a large area available for the production of lift force;
therefore only a small pressure difference over its aerofoil wing section will
provide the required lift.
 The drag force is made up of a friction drag, due to the pure skin friction effects
and a pressure drag, due to unbalanced pressure distribution around the blade.
 Lift and drag forces depend only on the density, velocity of the fluid and the
blade chord.
L,D  f  ,C,l
The projected area per unit lenght of the blade is
A  l1
where l  chord lenght
 The Iift and drag co-efficient based on this area relate the dynamic
1
pressure C2 to the lift and drag forces.
2
1
L  CL A C2
2
1
D  CD A C2
2
L
Lift co-efficient,CL 
lC2
D
Drag co-efficient,CD 
lC2
For a given blade CL and CD depend upon the aerofoil shape, the degree of curvature,
Reynolds number, Mach number and the angle of incidence.

9.9 Surging
 AII dynamic compressors have certain characteristic instability of flow over their
operational range. This instability is associated with….
 Some typical performance characteristic curves at different speeds are shown in
Fig.9.9.
 Let the operation of compressor at any given instant of time is represented by
point ‘A’ having pressure Pa and mass flow rate ma on the characteristic, N3
curve.
 If the flow rate through the compressor is reduced by partially closing the
delivery valve to mB the static pressure upstream of the valve is increased.
 This higher pressure, PB is matched with the increased delivery pressure (at point
B) developed by the compressor.
 With further closing of the delivery valve, the flow reduces to mC and mS; the
increased pressures in the delivery pipe are matched by the compressor delivery
pressures at C and S on the characteristic curve.
 The characteristic curve at flow rates below mS, provides lower pressure at D & E.
 However delivery pipe pressure due to further closure of delivery valve will be
higher than PD and PE.
Figure 9.9 Surging in axial flow compressor
 The mismatching between the delivery pipe pressure and compressor delivery
pressure can exist for a very short time. This is because the higher pressure in the
delivery pipe will blow the air towards the compressor, thus reversing the flow

leading to a complete breakdown of the normal steady flow from the compressor
to the delivery pipe.
 During this very short period the pressure in the delivery pipe decreases and the
compressor regains its normal stable operation (say at point B) delivering higher
flow rate (mB).
 But, the valve position still corresponds to the flow rate mD. Therefore the
compressor operating condition returns through point C and S to D.
 Due to breakdown of the flow through the compressor, the pressure further falls
to Ps and the entire phenomenon i.e. the surge cycle EBCSDE is repeated again
and again.
 The frequency and magnitude of this to and fro motion of the air depends on the
relative volumes of the compressor and delivery pipe and the flow rate below the
maximum mass flow rate mS.
 This to and fro motion of air will cause pulsation i.e. Noise and vibration of the
entire compressor which can lead to mechanical failure. This phenomenon is
known as surging.
 Therefore the operation of compressor on the left of the peak of the
performance curve having positive slope is injurious to the compressor and must
be avoided.
 Surge points (s) on each curve corresponding to different speeds can be located
and a surge line can be drawn. The stable range of operation of the compressor is
on the right hand side of the surge line.
9.10 Stalling
 Stalling of a stage of axial flow compressor is the breakaway or separation of the
flow from the suction side may be due to low mass flow rate than the designed
value or due to non-uniformity in the blade profile.
Figure 9.10 Stall propagation in a compressor blade row

 At low flow rates (lower axial velocities) the incidence is increased as shown in
Fig. 9.10. At large values of the incidence, the flow separation occurs on the
suction side of the blades which is called "Positive stall.
 The negative stall is due to separation of flow occurring on the pressure side of
the blade due to large values of negative incidence.
 The stall does not occur on all blades at one time, not even on all blades of a
single stage, but usually occurs on a set of blades. This stall moves in a direction
opposite to that of blade motion with a velocity equal to half the rotational
velocity and is called rotating stall.
9.11 Rotating Stall

 Rotating stall can be depicted as the propagation of large stall zones relative to
the blade row. This propagation mechanism is explained with Fig. 9.11.
 Consider a row of blades in cascade and suppose that due to some flow
disturbance or non uniformity in the incoming flow or non uniformity in a blade
profile due to manufacturing or faulty mounting, blade 3 has reached a stalled
condition.
Figure 9.11 Rotating stall cells in axial compressors

 The blade passage adjacent to the stalled blade 3 will cause a reduction in the
flow passage through it. This results in diversion of some flow into the passage
on either side of the stalled passage.
 As a result the flow incidence on blade 2 is reduced while it is increased on blade
4.
 Now the blade 4 is stalled freeing blade 2 from stall. Thus the stall has
propagated from blade 3 to 4 and the process continues.
 The stall cells move towards the left hand side at a fraction of the blade speed; in
the relative system, the stall cells appear to move in a direction opposite to that
of the rotor blades.
 The phenomenon of reduction in lift force at higher angle of incidence is known
as stalling.

 If the natural frequency of vibration of the blades coincides with the frequency at
which the stall cells pass a blade, then resonance and possible mechanical failure
of the blades may occur.
 Both the efficiency and delivery pressure drop considerably on account of
rotating stall.
9.12 Losses in Axial Flow Compressor Stage

 The process of energy transfer in a compressor is always associated with losses in
the direction of flow.
 The non utilizable energy content of the fluid will be higher at the discharge end
compared to the inlet end.
 These losses tend to increase the heat capacity of the flow media, raising there
by the end temperatures of the fluid discharged compared to an ideal isentropic
flow. (Fig. 9.12)
 The various principal aerodynamic losses occurring in a stage of an axial flow
compressor are:
a) Profile loss on the surface of the blades.
b) Annulus loss associated with boundary layer growth on the walls of the
annulus.
c) Secondary flow loss arising from secondary flows.
d) Tip clearance loss due to clearance between moving blades and casing.
(a) Profile Loss
 Separation of the boundary layer occurs when the pressure gradient on the
surface becomes too steep or under the conditions of extreme angle of incidence
or high inlet Mach number and this separation increases the profile loss.
 The pattern of the boundary growth and its separation depend on the
geometries of the blade and flow. Positive and negative stall losses also occur on
account of increased positive or negative incidences respectively.
 Generally the suction surface of the blade is more prone to boundary layer
separation. If the inlet Mach number is high, additional losses occur due to
formation of shock waves.
 Profile loss means the total pressure loss of two dimensional rectilinear cascade
arising from the skin friction on the blade and due to mixing of flow particles
after the blades. This is mostly determined experimentally.

(ii) Annulus Loss
 Annulus loss is the friction loss due to compressor annulus walls. This wall friction
total pressure loss arising from the skin friction on the annulus walls are difficult
to analyse as the boundary layer growth on these walls is complex three
dimensional phenomenon.
Figure 9.12 Losses in compressor stage

 In stationary blade rows a loss of energy occurs due to growth of the boundary
layer on the end walls. This also occurs in the rotating row of blades. But the flow
on the end walls in this case is subjected to effects associated with the rotation
of cascade.
 The boundary layer on the hub of the blade passages in subjected to centrifugal
force where as that on the outer casing is scrapped by the moving blades.
(iii) Secondary Loss
 The term secondary is applied to all flows which are not in the direction of main
flow.
 Secondary flows (unwanted circulatory and cross flows) are developed when a
wall boundary layer is turned through an angle by an adjacent curved surface.
 The deflection of a stream of non uniform velocity through a row of blades
causes three dimensional flows. The losses that arise from three dimensional
separation of the flow are known as secondary flow losses.
 The magnitude of the loss due to secondary flow depend on the fraction of the
passage height that is affected by this flow. Blade passages of high hub-tip ratio
are likely to be fully occupied by secondary vortices and experience higher

secondary losses. In contrast to this longer blades have a large proportion of the
flow free of secondary flows and therefore experience comparatively lower
secondary losses.
(iv) Tip Clearance Loss
 Tip clearance loss arises due to the clearance between a moving blade and the
casing. Due to the static pressure difference the flow leaks from the pressure
(concave) side towards the suction (convex) side.
 However the blade tips scrape the boundary layer from the casing and opposes
the tip leakage. The secondary flows and tip clearance are closely related to each
other and it is convenient to estimate them together.
9.13 Comparison between Centrifugal and Axial Flow

Compressors
Sr.
Parameters Centrifugal Axial
No.
1. Direction of flow Radial flow Flow is Parallel to the direction of
axis of the machine
2. Pressure rise per Low pressure ratio per stage i.e Low pressure ratio per stage i.e
stage 4.5:1; thus compact unit 1.2:1 due to absence of
(Supersonic compressor 10:1 centrifugal action.
but cost of efficiency) 10-20 stage required to achieve
pressure ratio equal to
centrifugal compressor
3. Isentropic Efficiency 80-82% 86-88%
4. Operation Wide range of operation Narrow range of operation
between surging and choking between surging and choking
limit. limit.
The head capacity curve is flat. The Part load performance is
The part load performance is poor.
better.
5. Frontal area Larger frontal area. smaller frontal area for the same
mass flow rate than that of
centrifugal compressor.
6. Deposits The accumulation of deposits The accumulation of deposits on
on the surface of flow passage the surface of flow passages
does not adversely affect the adversely affects the
performance. performance.
7. Starting power Need low starting torque Need high starting torque
8. Construction & Cost Simple, rigid and relatively Complex and costly. It is sensitive

cheap. At high altitude less to icing troubles at high altitudes.

sensitive to icing troubles.
9. Suitability for Slightly difficult Most suitable for multistage
multistage
10. Applications Low pressure Refrigeration, Due to higher efficiency and
Large central air conditioning smaller frontal area mostly used
plant, Supercharging in I.C in Jet engines & large marine gas
Engines turbine plant.
“No one will catch you falling, it’s only you who have to
stand up and fly high
Keep confidence in yourself”

10
MISCELLANEOUS MACHINES
Course Contents
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Hydraulic Press
10.3 Hydraulic Accumulator
10.4 Hydraulic Intensifier
10.5 Hydraulic Ram
10.6 Hydraulic Lift
10.7 Hydraulic Crane
10.8 Hydraulic Jack
10.9 Hydraulic Coupling
10.10 Hydraulic Torque Converter
10.11 Air Lift Pump

Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 10. Miscellaneous Machines
10.1 Introduction
 Miscellaneous machines are the device in which power is transmitted with the
help of a fluid which may be liquid (water or oil) or a gas (air) under pressure.
 Most of these devices are based on the principles of fluid statics and fluid
kinematics.
 In this chapter, the following miscellaneous devices will be discussed:
1. The hydraulic press
2. The hydraulic accumulator
3. The hydraulic intensifier
4. The hydraulic ram
5. The hydraulic lift
6. The hydraulic crane
7. The Hydraulic jack
8. The fluid or hydraulic coupling
9. The fluid or hydraulic torque converter
10. The air lift pump
10.2 Hydraulic Press

Function
 “The hydraulic press is a device used for lifting heavy weights by the application
of a much smaller force.”
Construction and Working

 The hydraulic press is based on Pascal's law, which states that the intensity of
pressure in a static fluid is transmitted equally in all directions.
 It consists of two cylinders of different diameters; one of the cylinder is of large
diameter and contains a ram, while the other cylinder is of smaller diameter and
contains a plunger as shown in Fig. 10.1.
 The two cylinders are connected by a pipe; the cylinders and pipe contain a liquid
(i.e oil) through which pressure is transmitted.
Fig. 10.1 Hydraulic press

10. Miscellaneous Machines Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
 When a small force F is applied on the plunger in the downward direction, a

pressure is produced on the liquid in contact with the plunger; this pressure is
transmitted equally in all directions and acts on the ram in the upward direction
and the heavier weight placed on the ram is then lifted up.
 Let’s take,
W  Weight to be lifted
F  Force applied on the plunger
A  Area of ram
a  Area of plunger
p  Pressure intensity produced by force F
 Due to Pascal's law, the intensity of pressure will be equally transmitted in all
F
directions; hence the pressure intensity at the ram will be, p 
a
Weight W
 But pressure intensity at the ram is also, p  
Area of ram A
F W
 Equating the pressure intensity on ram,  then weight lifted is,
a A
F
W A (10.1)
a
Mechanical Advantage (M.A)
 “It is the ratio of weight lifted to the force applied on the plunger.”
Mathematically, it is written as,
Load to be lifted W
M.A   (10.2)
Force applied F
Leverage of the Hydraulic Press
 If a lever is used for applying force on the plunger, then a force F ' is smaller than
F ; which can lift the weight W ; the ratio of L l is called the leverage of the
hydraulic press as shown in Fig. 10.2.
Fig. 10.2 Leverage of the hydraulic press

Taking moments about O , F '  L  F  l

L
F  F'  (10.3)
l
Substituting the value of F in equation (10.1), then weight lifted is given by,
L A
W  F'   (10.4)
l a
Applications
1) Sheet metal works
2) Drawing & pushing rods
3) Packaging & cotton press works
4) Bending & straitening of metal pieces
Actual Heavy Hydraulic Press
Fig. 10.3 Actual hydraulic press
 It consists of a fixed cylinder in which ram is sliding and to the lower end of the
ram, movable plate is attached as shown in Fig. 10.3.
 As the ram moves up and down, the movable plate attached to the ram also
moves up and down between two fixed plates.
 When any liquid under high pressure is supplied into the cylinder, the ram moves
downwards direction and exerts a force on any material place between the lower
fixed plate and the movable plate; thus the material gets pressed.
 To bring back the ram in the upward position, the liquid from the cylinder is
taken out; then by the action of the return weights, the ram along with the
movable plate will move up.

10.3 Hydraulic Accumulator

Function
 “The hydraulic accumulator is a device used for storing the energy of a liquid in
the form of pressure energy when it is not needed and may be supplied for any
sudden or intermittent requirement.”

 In case of hydraulic lift or the hydraulic crane, a large amount of energy is
required when lift or crane is moving upward and this energy is supplied from
hydraulic accumulator.
 But when the lift is moving in the downward direction, no external energy is
needed to operate them; during this period the energy from the pump is stored
in the accumulator.
 The hydraulic accumulator is consists of a fixed vertical cylinder containing a
sliding ram and a heavy weight is placed on the ram as shown in Fig. 10.4.
Fig. 10.4 Hydraulic accumulator

 The inlet of the cylinder is connected to the pump, which continuously supplies
water under pressure to the cylinder and the outlet of the cylinder is connected to
the machine (which may be lift or crane etc.)
 As the ram is at the lowermost position in the beginning; when the pump supplies
water under pressure continuously and if the water under pressure is not required
by the machine (lift or crane), then it will be stored in the cylinder; this will raise the
ram on which a heavy weight is placed.

 When the ram is at the uppermost position, the cylinder is full of water and
accumulator has stored the maximum amount of pressure energy.
 When the machine (lift or crane) requires a large amount of energy, the hydraulic
accumulator will supply this energy and ram will move in the downward
direction.
Capacity of Hydraulic Accumulator

 “It is defined as the maximum amount of hydraulic energy stored in the
accumulator.”
 The expression for the capacity of accumulator is obtained as:
Let’s take,
A  Area of the sliding ram
L  Stroke or lift of the ram
p  Intensity of water pressure supplied by the pump, and
W  Weight placed on the ram (including the weight of ram)
 Intensity of pressure  Area of ram  p  A
 The work done in lifting the ram  W  lift of ram  W  l  p  A  l
 Work done in lifting the ram is also the energy stored in the accumulator and
energy stored is equal to the capacity of the accumulator.
 Capacity of accumulator = work done in lifting the ram  p  A  l  p V
Differential Hydraulic Accumulator
 “It is a device in which the liquid is stored at a high pressure by a comparatively

small load on the ram.”
 It consists of a fixed vertical cylinder of small diameter; which is surrounded by
loosely fitting brass bush, which is surrounded by an inverted moving cylinder,
having circular projected collar at the base on which weights are placed.
 The liquid from the pump is supplied to the fixed vertical cylinder and the liquid
moves up through the small diameter of fixed vertical cylinder and then enters
the inverted cylinder as shown in Fig. 10.5.
 The water exerts an upward pressure force on the internal annular area of the
inverted moving cylinder, which is loaded at the base; the internal annular area
of the inverted moving cylinder is equal to the sectional area of the brass bush.
 When the inverted moving cylinder moves up, the hydraulic energy is stored in
the accumulator.

Fig. 10.5 Differential hydraulic accumulator

 Let’s take,
p  Intensity of pressure of liquid supplied by pump
a  Area of brass bush
L  Vertical lift of the moving cylinder
W  Total weight placed on the moving cylinder including the weight of cylinder
W
 Now, the weight placed on the moving cylinder is, W  p  a ; thus p 
a
 From above equation, it is clear that pressure intensity can be increased with a
small load W by making area a small.
 The total energy stored in accumulator = Total weight  Vertical lift = W  L
Applications
 To supply accumulated energy to the lift and crane during working stroke.
10.4 Hydraulic Intensifier

Function
 “It is the device, which is used to increase the intensity of pressure of water by
means of hydraulic energy available from a large amount of water at a low
pressure.”
Applications
 To run hydraulic machines such as hydraulic press, lift and crane; which requires
fluid at very high pressure; which cannot be obtained from the main supply
directly.

 A hydraulic intensifier consists of fixed ram through which the water, under a
high pressure, flows to the machine at a low pressure as shown in Fig. 10.6.
Fig. 10.6 Hydraulic intensifier

 A hollow inverted sliding cylinder, containing water under high pressure is
mounted over the fixed ram; which is surrounded by another fixed inverted
cylinder which contains water from the main supply at a low pressure.
 Let’s take,
p = Pressure intensity of low pressure water from supply to the fixed cylinder
A = External area of the sliding cylinder
a = Area of the end of the fixed ram
p* = Pressure intensity of high pressure water on the sliding cylinder
 The forced exerted by low pressure water on the sliding cylinder in the
downward direction is,
 p A
 The forced exerted by high pressure water on the sliding cylinder in the upward
direction is,
 p*  a

 Equating the upward and downward forces, the pressure intensity of high
pressure water is given by,
p A
p* 
a
10.5 Hydraulic Ram

Function
 "The hydraulic ram is a pump which raises water without any external power for
its operation.”
 “When large quantity of water is available at a small height, a small quantity of
water can be raised to a greater height with the help of hydraulic ram.”
 The hydraulic ram is works on the principle of water hammer.

 When the inlet valve fitted to the supply pipe is opens, water starts flowing from
the supply tank to the chamber, which has two valves at ‘B’ and ‘C’; the valve ‘B’
is called waste valve and valve ‘C’ is called the delivery valve.
 The valve ‘C’ is fitted to an air vessel; as the water is coming in to the chamber
from supply tank, the level of water rises in the chamber and waste valve ‘B’
starts moving upward and the stage comes, when the waste valve ‘B’ suddenly
closes as shown in Fig. 10.7.
 This sudden closure of waste valve creates high pressure inside the chamber and
this high pressure force opens the delivery valve ‘C’; thus the water from
chamber enters the air vessel and compresses the air inside the air vessel.
 This compressed air exerts force on the water in the air vessel and small quantity
of water is raised to a greater height.
 When the water in the chamber loses its momentum, the waste valve ‘B’ opens
in the downward direction and the flow of water from supply tank starts flowing
to the chamber and the cycle will be repeated.
 Let,
Q  Discharge from supply pipe
q  Discharge to delivery tank through delivery pipe
W = Weight of water flowing per second into chamber
w = Weight of the water raised per second
h = Height of water in supply tank above the chamber
H = Height of water raised from the chamber

 The energy supplied by the supply tank to ram is,

= Weight of water supplied  Height of supply water
= W h
 The energy delivered by the ram is,
= Weight of water raised  Height through which water is raised
= w H
Fig. 10.7 Hydraulic ram

 The D' Aubuisson efficiency of the hydraulic ram is,
Energy delivered by the ram w  H q  H
  
Energy supplied to the ram W  h Q  h
 The Rankine efficiency of hydraulic ram is,
Energy delivered by the ram w   H  h  q   H  h 

  
Energy supplied to the ram W  w h Q  q   h
10.6 Hydraulic Lift
Function
 “The hydraulic device is a device used for carrying passenger or goods from one
floor to another in multi-storeyed building.”
 The hydraulic lifts are of following two types:
a) Direct acting hydraulic lift b) Suspended hydraulic lift
a) Direct Acting Hydraulic Lift

 It consists of a ram, which is sliding in fixed cylinder; at the top of the sliding ram,
a cage (on which the persons may stand or goods may be placed) is fitted as
shown in Fig. 10.8.

 The liquid under pressure flows into the fixed cylinder. This liquid exerts force on
the sliding ram, which moves vertically up and thus raises the cage to the
required height.
Fig. 10.8 Direct acting hydraulic lift

 The cage is moved in the downward direction by removing the liquid from the
fixed cylinder.
b) Suspended Hydraulic Lift

 It is a modified form of the direct acting hydraulic lift; which consists of a cage is
suspended from a wire rope as shown in Fig. 10.9.
 A jigger, consisting of a fixed cylinder, a sliding ram and a set of two pulley
blocks, is provided at the foot of the hole of the cage.
 One of the pulley block is movable and the other is a fixed one; the end of the
sliding ram is connected to the movable pulley block.
 A wire rope, one end of which is fixed at ‘A’ and the other end is taken round the
movable and fixed pulley blocks and finally over the guide pulleys.
 The cage is suspended from the other end of the rope and it may raising or
lowering with the help of the jigger mechanism.
 When water under high pressure is admitted into the fixed cylinder of the jigger,
the sliding ram is forced to move towards left; as one end of the sliding ram is
connected to the movable pulley block and hence the movable pulley block
moves towards the left, thus increasing the distance between two pulley blocks
and the wire rope connected to the cage is pulled and the cage is lifted.

Fig. 10.9 Suspended hydraulic lift

 For lowering the cage, water from the fixed cylinder is taken out; thus the sliding
ram moves towards right and hence movable pulley blocks and the cage is
lowered due to increased length of the rope.
10.7 Hydraulic Crane

Function
 “Hydraulic crane is a device, used for raising or transferring heavy loads.
 A hydraulic crane consists of a mast, tie, jib, guide pulley and a jigger as shown in
Fig. 10.10.
 The jib and tie are attached to the mast; the jib can be raised or lowered in order
to decrease or increase the radius of action of the crane.
 The mast along with the jib can revolve about a vertical axis and thus the load
attached to the rope can be transferred to any place within the area of the
crane's action.
 The jigger, which consists of a movable ram sliding in a fixed cylinder, is used for
lifting or lowering the heavy loads.
 One end of the ram is in contact with water and the other end is connected to
set of movable pulley block and another pulley block, called the fixed pulley
block is attached to the fixed cylinder.

Fig.10.10 Hydraulic crane

 The pulley block, attached to the ram, moves up and down while the pulley
block, attached to the fixed cylinder is not having any movement.
 A wire rope, one end of which is fixed to a movable pulley (which is attached to
the sliding ram) is taken round the two sets of the pulleys and finally passes over
the guide pulley, attached to the jib.
 The other end of the rope is provided with a hook, for suspending the load.
 For lifting the load by the crane, the water under high pressure is admitted into
the cylinder of the jigger.
 This water forces the sliding ram to move vertically up and due to the movement
of the ram in the vertically up direction, the movable pulley block attached to the
ram also moves upward.
 This increases the distance between two pulley blocks and hence the wire
passing over the guide pulley is pulled by the jigger and thus raises the load
attached to the hook.
Applications
1) Workshops
2) Warehouses
3) Dock sidings

10.8 Hydraulic Jack

Function
 It is used for lifting heavy load through small vertical distance by the application
of much smaller effort.
Applications
1) It is used for raising automobile vehicles in service station for maintenance
purpose.
2) It is also used to lift trolley in agriculture vehicles.

 It consists of cylinder which is inverted and can move downwards on ram which
is fixed with frame of jack as shown in Fig.10.11.
Fig.10.11 Hydraulic jack

 The top end of the inverted cylinder contains a small reciprocating pump
operated by a lever outside the casing.
 When lever is working, water is contained in the casing is forced out of into the
portion of the inverted cylinder above ram.
 Due to pressure, the upward force acts on the inverted cylinder; thus the cylinder
moves up and lifts load placed on the top of casing.
 There is screw arrangement to take water back from cylinder to the casing and
thus lower the when it is required.

10.9 Hydraulic Coupling (Fluid coupling)

Function
 The fluid or hydraulic coupling is a device used for transmitting power from
driving shaft to driven shaft with the help of fluid; without any mechanical
connection between the two shafts.

 It consists of radial pump impeller mounted on a driving shaft ‘A’ and a radial
flow reaction turbine mounted on the driven shaft ‘B’ as shown in Fig. 10.12.
 Both the impeller and runner are identical in shape and they together form a
casing which is completely enclosed and filled with oil.
 In the beginning, both the shafts A and B are at rest; when the driving shaft A is
rotated, the oil starts moving from the inner radius to the outer radius of the
pump impeller.
 The pressure energy and kinetic energy of the oil increases at the outer radius of
the pump impeller and the oil enters the runner of the reaction turbine at the
outer radius of the turbine runner and flows inwardly to the inner radius of the
turbine runner.
 The oil while flowing through the runner; transfers its energy to the blades of the
runner and makes the runner to rotate.
 The oil from the runner then flows back into the pump impeller, thus having a
continuous circulation.
Fig. 10.12 Hydraulic coupling

 The power is transmitted hydraulically from the driving shaft to driven shaft and
the driven shaft is free from engine vibrations.
 The speed of the driven shaft ‘B’ is always less than the speed of the shaft ‘A’, by
about 2%.
 The efficiency of a fluid coupling is about 98%.
Efficiency of a Fluid coupling

The efficiency of a fluid coupling is given by,
Power output Power transmitted to shaft B
  (10.5)
Power input Power available at shaft A
Let, N A  Speed of driving shaft A

TA  Torque at the driving shaft A
N B  Speed of driving shaft B
TB  Torque at the driven shaft B
2 NT
But power at any shaft   NT  (Speed  Torque) (10.6)
60000
P  NT
Power transmitted to shaft A is given by,
PA  N ATA
Power transmitted to shaft B is given by,

PB  NBTB
Substituting these values of powers in equation 10.5,

N BTB

N ATA
But, torque on the driving and driven shaft are equal, TA  TB

NB
  Speed ratio (10.7)
NA
Conclusions from above equation:

1) The efficiency is zero; when speed ratio is zero
2) Theoretically, efficiency is 100%; when speed ratio is one (NA = NB); no slip
3) Actually, efficiency increases from zero uniformly till speed ratio is about 0.95
and then it rapidly decreases to zero.

Slip of Fluid coupling

 “Slip of fluid coupling is defined as the ratio of the difference of the speeds of the
driving and driven shaft to the speed of the driving sharp. “
 Mathematically, it is written as,
N A  NB N
Slip, S   1  B  1  (10.8)
NA NA
Advantages
1) Wear-free power transmission because of absence of mechanical connection
2) No-load start-up of motor irrespective of machine load.
3) Simple control of maximum or limiting torque by easy variation of oil filling.
4) Added protection for motor and driven machine by limiting torque to a

predetermined safe value.
5) Automatic unloading of prime mover in case of any sustained overload, by

blowing-off of fusible plug on coupling, thus draining out oil.
6) Automatic synchronisation and load sharing in case of multi-motor drives
7) Effective dampening of shocks, load fluctuations and torsional vibrations.
8) Smooth and controlled acceleration of driven machines such as conveyors, wire

drawing and textile machines.
Disadvantages
1) Slip always occurs and difference between pump and turbine speed.
2) Fluid filled in casing must be compactable with coupling material.
3) It can’t develop torque when driving and driven shaft rotates at same angular
velocity.
4) Under stalling; coupling dissipates energy as heat which may lead to damage.
Applications
1) When driven shaft is required to run at a speed close to that of the driving shaft.
2) The large initial loads are involved and smooth free operations are required.
3) It is used in automobiles, marine engine and ropeway cable drive units.

10.10 Hydraulic Torque Converter

Function
 “The hydraulic torque converter is a device used for transmitting increased
torque at the driven shaft.”

 It consists of radial pump impeller mounted on a driving shaft ‘A’ and a radial
flow reaction turbine mounted on the driven shaft ‘B’ and one fixed element as
stationary guide vanes provided between the pump impeller and the turbine
runner as shown in Fig. 10.13.
 Both the impeller and runner are identical in shape and they together form a
casing which is completely enclosed and filled with oil.
Fig. 10.13 The hydraulic torque converter

 It is fact that the power at any shaft is proportional to the product of torque and
speed of the shaft.
 Hence, if the torque at the driven shaft is to be increased, the corresponding
value of the speed at the same shaft should be decreased.
 The speed of the driven shaft is deceased by decreasing the velocity of oil, which
is allowed to flow from the pump impeller to the turbine runner and then
through stationary guide vanes; thus due to decrease in speed at the driven
shaft, the torque increases.
 If there is no stationary guide vane, oil enters the impeller directly, it will push
the impeller in the opposite direction and thus cause loss of power.

 Thus with stationary guide vane oil from the turbine runner strikes the fixed
guide vanes which change the direction in the same direction of impeller
running.
 Then impeller throws the oil back the turbine runner at outer edge and goes on
continuously, thus repeated pushing of turbine runner blades; the torque on the
turbine increases, these phenomena is called Torque multiplication.
 The maximum torque multiplication occurs; when the turbine runner is

stationary and impeller running fast.
 The torque transmitted at the driven shaft may be more or less than the torque
available at the driving shaft.
Efficiency of a Fluid torque converter

 Let,
TB  Torque at the driving shaft A
TA  Torque at the driven shaft B
TF  Variation of torque caused by fixed guide vanes
Power at the driving shaft  TAA
Power at the driven shaft  TBB
But TB  TA  TF
Thus efficiency of a Fluid torque converter is given by,
TBB TA  TF  B  TF  B
   1  
TA A TA A  TA  A
Conclusions from above equation:

1) The efficiency is zero; when there is no fixed guide vanes provided.
2) If TF is positive, torque is increased at driven shaft and If TF is negative, torque

is decreased at driven shaft.
B
3) The maximum value of efficiency occurs when  0.5
A
4) The efficiency is better at smaller speed than of fluid coupling.

10.11 Air Lift pump

Function
 “It is used to lift water from a deep well or sump by using compressed air.”
Construction & Woking

 It consists of (i) air compressor to supply compressed air, (ii) air pipe fitted with
one or more nozzles and (iii) delivery pipe as shown in Fig. 10.14.
 The lower portion of delivery pipe dips into well and water gets discharge from
the upper end of the delivery pipe.
Fig. 10.14 Air lift pump

 The compressed air from compressor is introduced at the bottom end of delivery
pipe through air pipe line and the air is issued from nozzle in the form of a fine
spray.
 The air mixed with water in the delivery pipe; as more and more air gets into the
water inside the delivery pipe, density of air-water mixture decreases.
 As soon as pressure of the column of air water mixture in the delivery pipe of
height ‘H’ becomes less than the pressure due to the height of water column ‘h’
in the outlet of the delivery pipe, the water begins rising in the delivery pipe
above the level of water outside the delivery pipe.
 This happens because the water inside the delivery pipe becomes lighter than
the water outside of the delivery pipe.

 The flow rate of water depends upon the density of the mixture in the delivery
pipe.
h
 The best result obtained when the value of the ratio is in between 4 to 1;
H h
for the values of h between 30 to 100 m respectively.
Advantages
1) It has no any moving parts below water level and hence there are no chances of
suspended solid particles damaging the pump.
2) It can raise water through a bore hole of given diameter than any other pump.
3) It is very suitable where compressed air is available.
4) Act as a water aerator and in some configurations lift stagnant bottom water to
the surface.
5) Compare to centrifugal pump it is :
 Robust, versatile and flexible
 Substantially cost effective (≈50-70% in energy savings)
 Lower capital, operation and maintenance costs
 Lower operating noise and vibration
Disadvantages
1) It has very low efficiency, only 20 to 40% energy available in form of useful water
2) It cannot lift water when the level of water in deep well goes down below limit.
3) Quantity of air to compress is high compared to the liquid flow required
4) Very difficult to get a wide range of flow control by varying the volume of
compressed air.
5) The suction is limited.
6) Suitable only if the head is relatively low. To obtain a high head, one has to
choose a conventional pumping system.
7) Lot of air remains in the liquid can be problematic.
Applications
1) In Aquaculture to pump, circulate and aerate water in closed recirculating
systems.


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2151903 Fluid Power Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

1 Hydro Power Plant 1.1 – 1.9

2 Impact of Jet 2.1 – 2.28

3 Hydraulic Turbines 3.1 – 3.41

4 Centrifugal Pumps 4.1 – 4.25

5 Reciprocating Pumps 5.1 – 5.15

6 Reciprocating Compressors 6.1 – 6.27

7 Rotary Compressors 7.1 – 7.14

8 Centrifugal Compressors 8.1 – 8.33

9 Axial Flow Compressors 9.1 – 9.22

10 Hydraulic Machines 10.1 – 10.21

Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.1. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Major applications of hydro power plant

 Normally hydro projects are developed for the following purpose:

1.2. SELECTION OF SITE FOR A HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.3 GENERAL LAYOUT & ELEMENTS OF A HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER

Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO-PLANT

I. High Head Plants

Fig. 1.2 Schematic of high head power plant

Department of Mechanical Engineering

II. Low Head Power Plants

Fig. 1.3 Schematic of low head power plant

Fig. 1.4 Schematic of medium head power plant

Department of Mechanical Engineering

B. According to the quantity of water available

I. Run-off river plant

II. Run-off river plant with reservoir

III. Storage type plants

IV. Pump storage plants

V. Mini and micro hydro plants

Department of Mechanical Engineering

C. According to the nature of land

Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.2 Force Exerted by the Jet of

2.3 Force Exerted by the Jet of

2.4 Force Exerted by the Jet of

2.5 Force Exerted by the Jet of

2.6 Jet Propulsion

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Impulse – Momentum Principle:

2.2 Force Exerted by the Jet on a Stationary Plate

Department of Mechanical Engineering

B. Plate is inclined to the jet

A. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary vertical flat plate

Fig. 2.1 Jet striking a fixed vertical plate

Department of Mechanical Engineering

B. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary inclined flat plate

Fig. 2.2 Jet striking a fixed inclined plate

Department of Mechanical Engineering

C. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary curved plate

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. 2.3 Jet striking a fixed curved plate at the center

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. 2.4 Jet striking curved fixed plate at one end

Department of Mechanical Engineering

D. Force exerted by a jet of water on a hinged plate

Fig. 2.5 Force on a hinged plate