Chapter 18.3 Kognity PDF

5/22/2018 Book | Kognity
()
Subtopic 18.3
()
pH curves
18.3.0 The big picture ()
18.3 ()
18.3.1 pH curves and indicators ()
18.3.0 () 18.3.2 Salt hydrolysis and buffer solutions ()
18.3.3 Checklist ()
18.3.1 ()
18.3.2 ()
18.3.3 ()
The big picture
Essential idea: pH curves can be investigated experimentally but are
mathematically determined by the dissociation constants of the acid and base.
An indicator with an appropriate end point can be used to determine the
equivalence point of the reaction.
Titration is a type of volumetric analysis in which the concentration of an unknown

solution can be determined. It is used extensively in the food and drink industry as
well as in the testing of cosmetics and medicines. Environmental analysis is another
area where titration has a significant role to play, and Figure 1 shows the pH analysis
of a series of soil samples.

https://bssimprug.kognity.com/schoolstaff/app/chemistry-hl-2016/book/acids-bases-ahl/ph-curves/the-big-picture/?source=Table%20of%20contents 1/
Figure 1. Titration of multiple soil samples

Question: Ideally what safety items should this technician be wearing, if available?
Understanding the nature of acidity and alkalinity, and their measurement in terms of
pH value, is central to many aspects of modern chemistry and various phenomena in
our world. The following animations and links are presented here to give you chance
to explore different aspects of these ideas.
This first animation (http://www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/resources/phet/acid-base-

solutions_en.html) introduces the ideas of strong acids and bases and the equilibria
involved, giving you a molecular eye view on solutions and their pH, conductivity
and interaction with universal indicator. The next link provides an introduction to the
titration method itself and the manipulations involved in carrying out the procedure. It
can be found here
(http://group.chem.iastate.edu/Greenbowe/sections/projectfolder/flashfiles/stoichiometry/
The final link is to a downloadable spreadsheet and database facility that enables you
to plot the titration curves for different combinations of strong and weak acids and
bases and evaluate why the curves are the shape they are. It can be found here
(http://www2.iq.usp.br/docente/gutz/Curtipot_.html).
pH curves and indicators

Titration is one of the most widely used techniques in quantitative analysis, with
acid–base titration being a key method available to the research chemist (section 1.3.8
(https://app.kognity.com/study/app/chemistry-hl-2016/stoichiometric-
relationships/reacting-masses-volumes/volumetric-analysis/)). In a titration, a solution
of known concentration is added to a known volume of a solution with an unknown
concentration. An indicator is used to determine the equivalence point when the acid
and base have been reacted in stoichiometrically equivalent amounts. At that point,
the solution contains only salt and water. Figure 1 shows the titration of a strong acid,
HCl, with a strong base, NaOH.
Figure 1. Producing a titration curve.
In a neutralisation reaction between an acid and a base, there will be a change in pH

that depends on whether the acid is added to the base or vice versa. When a strong
acid is added to a strong base, the pH of the solution as measured by a pH probe
would decrease from a high pH, of approximately 14, to a lower pH as the

concentration of H+ ions increases. The resulting graph showing the change in pH is
known as a pH curve.
pH curve for strong acid/strong base

The pH curve shown in Figure 2 starts at a low pH, which is the pH of a strong acid.
With the addition of a strong base, the pH increases gradually until it undergoes a
sharp increase between pH 3 and 11; this is known as the point of inflection. The
equivalence point can be determined by finding the point half-way up the steepest
part of the curve and drawing a horizontal line across to the y-axis. For the titration of
a strong acid and a strong base, the pH at the equivalence point is 7.
The features of a titration curve for a strong acid and strong alkali.
Figure 2. The features of a titration curve for a strong acid and strong alkali.
 Important
The equivalence point occurs when stoichiometrically equal amounts

of acid and base have reacted and the solution contains only salt and
water. The pH of the solution at the equivalence point depends on the
combination of parent acid and base that have reacted together (section
18.3.2 (/schoolstaff/app/chemistry-hl-2016/book/acids-bases-ahl/ph-
curves/salt-hydrolysis-buffer-solutions/)). It is worth noting
that the equivalence point is only at pH 7.00 in the titration of a strong
acid and a strong base.
pH curve for a weak acid/strong base

Figure 3 shows the pH curve for the addition of a strong base to a weak acid. The
curve starts at pH 3, which is the pH of a weak acid. The addition of the strong base
results in the pH staying fairly constant, which is known as the buffer region. There
is a sharp increase in pH from 7 to 11 and the curve flattens out at pH 13, the pH of a
strong base. The pH at the equivalence point is greater than 7.
Titration curve for a weak acid (ethanoic acid) and a strong alkali (NaOH).
Figure 3. Titration curve for a weak acid (ethanoic acid) and a strong alkali (KOH).
The half-equivalence point can be found on the x-axis at the point which is half the
volume added at the equivalence point. On the pH curve in Figure 3, this corresponds
to the 25 cm3 point. At the half-equivalence point, exactly half the acid has reacted
with base and been neutralised, with the other half remaining unreacted. The
properties of the solution at this point make it an ideal buffer solution, which
explains why the pH remains fairly constant when a small amount of base is added to
the acid.
At the half-equivalence point, the pH is equal to the pKa of the acid. The pH at the
half-equivalence point can be read directly from the graph, and the pKa of the acid
can be deduced. At this point the Ka = [H+], therefore the pKa = pH.
 Exam tip
When presented with a pH curve, make sure that you are able to find the
pH at the equivalence point.
Of the four possible pH curves of strong and weak acids and bases, only two have
been considered here. The other two possibilities we will look at below in the context
of the use of indicators. You will find it helpful to view the four possible pH curves as
made up of two regions – an acidic region (strong or weak) and a basic region (strong
or weak) – and then any curve can be assembled by combining the appropriate
regions together.
 Be aware
It is possible to carry out these titrations the other way round – with the
alkali in the flask, and adding the acid from the burette. You should
realise that the curves obtained in this case are simply reflections of
those we have considered here (see the strong acid–strong base curves
below; Figures 5 and 7).
Acid–base indicators
In section 8.3.2 (https://app.kognity.com/study/app/chemistry-hl-2016/acids-bases/ph-
scale/acid-base-indicators/), we saw that an indicator changes colour depending on
the pH of the solution. Indicators are weak acids or bases with the dissociated and
undissociated forms having different colours. Like all weak acids and weak bases,
they exist in an equilibrium between the two forms which are represented as HIn (the
undissociated form) and In− (the dissociated form).
HIn (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + In− (aq)
Colour A Colour B
Applying Le Chatelier’s principle to this equilibrium, we can predict how it will

respond to a change in the pH.
Increasing [H+] by adding acid shifts the equilibrium to the left and colour A
will be seen.
Decreasing [H+] by adding OH− ions shifts the equilibrium to the right and
colour B will be seen.
To summarise, the addition of an acid shifts the position of equilibrium to the side of
the undissociated form (HIn) and the addition of a base shifts the equilibrium to the
side of the dissociated form (In−).
Table 1 has a list of indicators, their pH ranges and pKa values. This information can
be found in section 22 of the IB Chemistry data booklet.
Table 1. Indicator changes with pH
Colour in acid Colour in

Indicator (HIn) alkali (In–) pH range pKa
methyl red yellow 3.1–4.4 3.7

orange
bromothymol yellow blue 6.0–7.6 7.0

blue
bromophenol yellow blue 3.0–4.6 4.2

blue
phenolphthal colourless pink 8.3–10.0 9.6

ein
thymol blue red yellow 1.2–2.8 1.6
yellow blue 8.0–9.6 8.9
methyl red red yellow 4.4–6.2 5.1
litmus red blue 5.0–8.0 6.5
You will notice from the table that indicators do not necessarily change colour around
pH 7. Most indicators are weak acids with their own value of pKa and change colour
over a pH range that centres on that value. The change in colour of bromothymol
blue, known as its end-point, happens in the range pH 6.0–7.6, which is within the
approximate range of the pKa ± 1.0.
Figure 4 illustrates 'what the eye sees' during the colour change of bromothymol blue.
The human eye is able to differentiate between the two colours when the
concentration of one form to another has a ratio of 10:1. Note that this is in the range
of 2 pH units, which explains why the end-point of an indicator is given as its pKa ± 1
pH unit.
Figure 4. How the eye sees the colour change of bromothymol blue with pH.
Figure 5 shows how the colour change of bromothymol blue is capable of detecting
the equivalence point in the titration of a strong alkali with a strong acid. The key
factor here is that the colour change takes place over a small addition of acid,
coinciding with the vertical inflection in the pH curve which means that there is a
sharp end point.
Figure 5. A strong alkali/strong acid titration curve showing the colour change

for bromothymol blue.
 Important
Take care not to confuse the equivalence point and the end-point. The
end-point is the pH when the indicator changes colour and the
equivalence point is when acid and base have reacted in
stochiometrically equivalent amounts. A good indicator for a titration is
one for whom these two points coincide and the indicator changes
colour near to the equivalence point.
Phenolphthalein is an important indicator, and is particularly useful for titrations

where the equivalence point is around pH 7.0 or above. Figure 6 shows the
equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate base.
Figure 6. The different forms of phenolphthalein in acid and alkali.
Figure 7 shows the relationship between the pH range over which phenolphthalein
changes colour and the pH curve for a strong alkali/strong acid titration. This
shows that even though phenolphthalein changes colour around pH 9.6, it still gives a
sharp end-point for this titration as the range over which the colour changes falls in
the vertical region of the curve.
Figure 7. A strong alkali/strong acid titration curve using phenolphthalein.
https://bssimprug.kognity.com/schoolstaff/app/chemistry-hl-2016/book/acids-bases-ahl/ph-curves/the-big-picture/?source=Table%20of%20contents 10
Figures 5 and 7 show that both phenolphthalein and bromothymol blue would be
appropriate indicators for titrations between a strong acid and an alkali. In fact the
size of pH change around the equivalence point in such titrations is sufficiently great
that several different indicators could be used here. Figure 8 emphasises that methyl
orange would also be appropriate even though it changes colour over a very different
range to phenophthalein.
Figure 8. The titration curve for a strong acid / strong alkali titration showing that a
range of different indicators can be used for this experiment.
Looking at the titration curves for other acid–base combinations, it is possible to

make a judgment as to which are suitable indicators to use for a given titration.
Figure 9 shows clearly that while methyl orange would be appropriate for a titration
involving a strong acid with a weak alkali, phenolphthalein would not.
Phenolphthalein would not give a sharp end-point in this case as the pH range over
which it changes colour does not fall in the vertical region of the curve.
Figure 9. The titration curve for a strong acid / weak alkali titration showing why
phenolphthalein is not an appropriate indicator for this experiment.
Table 2 summarises the usual choices of indicator for the different possible
combinations of acid–base titrations.
Table 2. Choice of indicator for different acid–base titrations
Alkali Acid Equivalence point Indicator
strong strong approx. 7 methyl orange or

phenolphthalein
strong weak >7 phenolphthalein
weak strong <7 methyl orange
weak weak approx. 7 none
The titration of a weak acid with a weak base does not give a clearly defined
equivalence point as there is no significant jump in pH to identify. Consequently,
there is no suitable indicator for this case. This will be discussed in more detail in the
next section.
More complex and alternative

titrations
The examples we have looked at above have all been cases where is just a single
equivalence point in the titration. However, more complex possibilities do exist, such
as the titration of sodium carbonate solution with hydrochloric acid (two equivalence
points), or the reaction between phosphoric acid and sodium hydroxide solutions
(three equivalence points – see Figure 10).
Figure 10. The titration of phosphoric acid with sodium hydroxide, showing the three
equivalence points involved.
An alternative approach to titration follows the changes in conductivity as an acid

reacts with an alkali (Figure 11). As the acid and base react, the conductivity of the
solution falls as ions are removed to form water molecules. A V-shaped graph results
in which the point of the trough gives the volume of acid (or alkali) needed for
neutralisation. Experiments with weak bases and acids will, of course, show
shallower gradients than those using strong acids or bases and will finish at
lower values of conductivity since the concentrations of ions present are much lower.
The example shown in Figure 11 is a particular case where the conductivity reaches
zero at the end point because the salt formed is insoluble – the reaction is between
barium hydroxide and sulfuric acid:
Ba(OH)2 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l)

Figure 11. A conductimetric titration between barium hydroxide and sulfuric acid.
  
Checkpoint questions
+ Show 3 questions
Salt hydrolysis and buffer

solutions
Salt hydrolysis
Neutralisation reactions were covered in section 8.2.2
(https://app.kognity.com/study/app/chemistry-hl-2016/acids-bases/properties-acids-
bases/neutralisation-reactions/). Although salts are the products of a neutralisation
reaction, they do not all form neutral solutions. Salt solutions can be acidic or basic
depending on the combination of acid and base that reacted together. Table 1 shows
the pH of different salts that are produced in neutralisation reactions.
Table 1. pH of different salt solutions in relation to their parent acids and bases.
Neutralisat Hydrolysis
ion Acid and Salt by ions Type of salt pH of
reaction base formed present solution solution
Strong acid hydrochlori sodium neither ion neutral approx. 7.0

+ strong c acid + chloride hydrolyses
base sodium water
hydroxide
Weak acid ethanoic sodium ethanoate basic > 7.0

+ strong acid + ethanoate ion
base sodium hydrolyses
hydroxide water
Strong acid hydrochlori ammonium ammonium acidic < 7.0

+ weak c acid + chloride ion
base ammonia hydrolyses
water
Weak acid ethanoic ammonium both depends on cannot

+ weak acid + ethanoate hydrolyse strength of generalise
base ammonia water conjugates
Salts of strong acids and strong bases

Recall that in the previous section, we saw that the equivalence point of an acid–
base reaction is only pH 7.0 when reacting a strong acid with a strong alkali. This
tells us that it is only the salts of such neutralisation reactions that produce neutral
solutions. Examples of such salts are sodium chloride, potassium nitrate and sodium
sulfate. When a strong acid and strong base react, the resulting conjugate acids and
bases are both weak, which means that neither is able to hydrolyse water. The
solution will, therefore, have a pH of 7 at 298 K.
Some salts, however, dissolve in water to produce either acidic or alkaline solutions.
This occurs because one of the constituent ions of the salt reacts with water to release
an excess of either hydroxide or hydrogen ions. This phenomenon is referred to
as salt hydrolysis and it occurs with salts that are formed from either weak acids or
weak bases. The pH of an aqueous salt is dependent on the strength of the conjugate
acid and bases formed and their ability to hydrolyse water, producing H+ or OH− ions.
Salts of weak acids and strong bases

An example of hydrolysis by the salt formed from a weak acid and strong base is that
of sodium ethanoate. The ethanoate ion (CH3COO−) is the conjugate base of a weak
acid and is therefore strong enough to hydrolyse a water molecule.
CH3COO− (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ CH3COOH (aq) + OH− (aq)
The increasing concentration of OH− ions causes an increase in the pH of the

solution. Therefore, a solution of a salt formed by the reaction of a weak acid and a
strong base will have a pH greater than 7.
Salts of strong acids and weak bases

In the reaction of a strong acid and a weak base, the conjugate acid of the weak base
is strong enough to hydrolyse water. For example, the reaction of HCl and NH3
produces the ammonium ion according to the following reaction:
HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
The ammonium ion is strong enough to hydrolyse water:
NH4+ (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4OH (aq) + H+ (aq)
The pH of the solution decreases due to the increase in concentration of H+ ions. If

the cation is a metal ion with a high charge density (Fe3+, Al3+ or Cr3+) at the centre
of a hydrated complex ion, the solution will be acidic as a result of hydrolysis of a
ligand water molecule (Figure 1):
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ [Fe(H2O)5(OH)]2+ + H3O+ (aq)
Figure 1. The acidity of a complex ion in solution.
Salts of weak acids and weak bases

The pH of a salt formed by the reaction of a weak acid and a weak base depends on
the Ka and Kb values of the acids and bases involved. If the parent acid and base have
approximately the same value, neither ion will hydrolyse and the salt produced
will have a pH of around 7.0.
Buffer solutions
A buffer solution resists a change in pH when small amounts of acid or base are
added. Figure 2 shows the significant change in pH produced by simply adding a
very small volume of acid or alkali to unbuffered water.
The change in pH on addition of a small amount of acid or alkali to unbuffered

water.
Figure 2. The change in pH on addition of a small amount of acid or alkali to

unbuffered water.
Buffer solutions have many uses in chemistry – they are utilised whenever it
is necessary to have a controlled pH. Buffers are necessary in electrophoresis, for
example, and are used to calibrate pH meters. They are also an important ingredient
in shampoos and dyes. In addition, the pH of blood is buffered to a slightly basic
value of pH 7.4, as the action of enzymes is heavily pH dependent.
We saw in the previous section (18.3.1 (https://app.kognity.com/study/app/chemistry-

hl-2016/acids-bases-ahl/ph-curves/ph-curves-indicators/)) that there was a
buffer region in the pH curve produced when titrating a weak acid with a strong base.
There is also a similar buffer region produced in the pH curve of a strong acid and
weak base. Such observations give us clues to two of the main types of buffer
solutions and how to make such a solution.
Composition of an acidic buffer

An acidic buffer can be made by mixing together a weak acid and the salt of a weak
acid and a strong base. An example is mixing equimolar solutions of ethanoic acid
and sodium ethanoate. The equation for the dissociation of ethanoic acid is shown
below, with the position of equilibrium lying to the left.
CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ CH3COO– (aq) + H+ (aq)
Sodium ethanoate fully dissociates according to the following equation:
NaCH3COO (aq) → Na+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq)
The mixture therefore contains relatively high concentrations of both undissociated

CH3COOH molecules and CH3COO− ions (from the salt), which react with the added
H+ or OH− ions. When a small amount of acid is added, the H+ ions will combine
with the CH3COO– ions to form CH3COOH, removing most of the added H+ ions and
resisting a change in pH:
CH3COO– (aq) + H+ (aq) ⇌ CH3COOH (aq)
When a small amount of base is added, the OH– ions will combine with the
undissociated ethanoic acid molecules, therefore removing the hydroxide ions from
the solution and resisting a change in pH:
CH3COOH (aq) + OH– (aq) → CH3COO– (aq) + H2O (l)
Composition of a basic buffer

A basic buffer can be made by mixing together the same amounts of a weak base and
the salt of a weak base and a strong acid, for example, ammonia (NH3) and
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl). Ammonia reacts with water according to the following
equation (note that like the equilibrium lies to the left as NH3 is a weak base):
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
The salt, ammonium chloride, fully dissociates into ammonium ions and chloride
ions:
NH4Cl (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
The mixture contains relatively high concentrations of both NH3 and NH4+, that is the
base and its conjugate acid, which react with added H+ or OH− ions in the buffer
solution.
When a small amount of acid is added, the H+ ions will combine with the NH3 to
form NH4+, removing most of the added H+ ions and resisting a change in pH:
H+ (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH4+ (aq)
When a small amount of base is added, the OH– ions will combine with NH4+ to form
NH3 and H2O, therefore removing most of the added OH– and resisting a change of
pH:
OH– (aq) + NH4+ (aq) → NH3 (aq) + H2O (l)
Generally, buffer solutions can be made by mixing a weak acid or weak base with an
equimolar solution of a salt containing its conjugate. An alternative approach, which
results in an acidic buffer solution, is to start with a weak acid and add half as many
moles of strong base. Similarly, a basic buffer can be prepared by starting with a weak
base and adding half as many moles of strong acid.
For example, if 1.0 mol of ethanoic acid is reacted with 0.5 mol of sodium hydroxide,
the resulting solution would contain 0.5 mol of ethanoic acid and 0.5 mol of sodium
ethanoate. Alternatively, if 1.0 mol of ammonia is reacted with 0.5 mol of
hydrochloric acid, the resulting solution would contain 0.5 mol of ammonia and 0.5
mol of ammonium chloride. In both of these examples, the final solutions contain
equal amounts of a weak acid (or base) and its conjugate base (or acid), therefore
acting as buffer solutions.
The key point in any of the above methods is that the initial solution must be a weak
acid or base, otherwise the starting acid or base would already be 100% dissociated
into ions. Both components of a conjugate acid–base pair have to be present in the
solution for it to be able to neutralise any added acid or base.
The pH of a buffer is determined by the interactions of its components. Specifically it

depends on:
the pKa or pKb of its weak acid or base;

the ratio of the concentrations of weak acid and salt, or weak base and salt, used
to prepare the buffer solution.
A buffer solution is prepared by using a weak acid or base with a pKa or pKb value
that is as close to the required pH or pOH of the buffer as possible. Regardless of the
method of buffer preparation, the nature of an acid–base buffer remains the same – a
constant pH is sustained following any addition of small amounts of acid or base.
The calculation of the pH of a buffer is covered in more detail in Option B

(https://app.kognity.com/study/app/chemistry-hl-2016/option-b-
biochemistry/proteins-and-enzymes-ahl/buffering-capacity-of-amino-acids-and-
proteins/) (Human biochemistry) and Option D
(https://app.kognity.com/study/app/chemistry-hl-2016/option-d-medicinal-
chemistry/ph-regulation-of-the-stomach/neutralisation-of-stomach-acid/) (Medicinal
chemistry).
  
Checkpoint questions
+ Show 4 questions
Checklist
 What you should know
At the end of this Subtopic 18.3 - Titration curves, you should be able

to:
Understand the importance and methodology of the technique of

acid–base titration using indicators.
Describe how the pH of the solution changes during the titration of
a strong acid and a strong base, noting the key regions of the
curve obtained and the significance of the equivalence point.
Calculate the pH of the solution at any given point during the
titration of a strong acid with a strong alkali.
Describe and sketch the titration curves obtained for the various
different combinations of strong and weak acid and alkali; in
particular, noting the buffering regions and the positions of the
equivalence point in each case.
Describe how acid–base indicators are substances that change
colour in response to the pH of the solution they are added to.
Describe how indicators are themselves weak acids or bases that
change colour over a particular pH range (usually the pKa ± 1), and
that this range differs for different indicators.
Describe how different indicators are appropriate for particular
titrations of acid–base while others are not suitable for use with
certain titrations.
Describe how the salts of strong acid–base reactions have a pH of
around 7.0 in aqueous solution but those of weak acidbase
combinations have pH values above or below 7.0 due to salt
hydrolysis.
Understand that a buffer solution consists of a solution of a weak
acid or base and a solution of a salt containing its conjugate base
or acid.
Describe how an acidic or basic buffer is able to resist a change in
pH due to the addition of small amounts of extra H+ or OH- ions.
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5/22/2018 Book | Kognity

Titration is a type of volumetric analysis in which the concentration of an unknown

Figure 1. Titration of multiple soil samples

This first animation (http://www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/resources/phet/acid-base-

pH curves and indicators

Figure 1. Producing a titration curve.

In a neutralisation reaction between an acid and a base, there will be a change in pH

would decrease from a high pH, of approximately 14, to a lower pH as the

pH curve for strong acid/strong base

The equivalence point occurs when stoichiometrically equal amounts

pH curve for a weak acid/strong base

HIn (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + In− (aq)

Applying Le Chatelier’s principle to this equilibrium, we can predict how it will

Table 1. Indicator changes with pH

Colour in acid Colour in

methyl red yellow 3.1–4.4 3.7

bromothymol yellow blue 6.0–7.6 7.0

bromophenol yellow blue 3.0–4.6 4.2

phenolphthal colourless pink 8.3–10.0 9.6

thymol blue red yellow 1.2–2.8 1.6

yellow blue 8.0–9.6 8.9

methyl red red yellow 4.4–6.2 5.1

litmus red blue 5.0–8.0 6.5

Figure 4. How the eye sees the colour change of bromothymol blue with pH.

Figure 5. A strong alkali/strong acid titration curve showing the colour change

Phenolphthalein is an important indicator, and is particularly useful for titrations

Figure 6. The diﬀerent forms of phenolphthalein in acid and alkali.

Figure 7. A strong alkali/strong acid titration curve using phenolphthalein.

Looking at the titration curves for other acid–base combinations, it is possible to

Table 2. Choice of indicator for diﬀerent acid–base titrations

Alkali Acid Equivalence point Indicator

strong strong approx. 7 methyl orange or

strong weak >7 phenolphthalein

weak strong <7 methyl orange

weak weak approx. 7 none

More complex and alternative

An alternative approach to titration follows the changes in conductivity as an acid

Ba(OH)2 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l)

Figure 11. A conductimetric titration between barium hydroxide and sulfuric acid.

Salt hydrolysis and buﬀer

Strong acid hydrochlori sodium neither ion neutral approx. 7.0

Weak acid ethanoic sodium ethanoate basic > 7.0

Strong acid hydrochlori ammonium ammonium acidic < 7.0

Weak acid ethanoic ammonium both depends on cannot

Salts of strong acids and strong bases

Salts of weak acids and strong bases

CH3COO− (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ CH3COOH (aq) + OH− (aq)

The increasing concentration of OH− ions causes an increase in the pH of the

Salts of strong acids and weak bases

HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)

The ammonium ion is strong enough to hydrolyse water:

NH4+ (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4OH (aq) + H+ (aq)

The pH of the solution decreases due to the increase in concentration of H+ ions. If

[Fe(H2O)6]3+ (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ [Fe(H2O)5(OH)]2+ + H3O+ (aq)

Figure 1. The acidity of a complex ion in solution.

Salts of weak acids and weak bases

The change in pH on addition of a small amount of acid or alkali to unbuffered

Figure 2. The change in pH on addition of a small amount of acid or alkali to

We saw in the previous section (18.3.1 (https://app.kognity.com/study/app/chemistry-

Composition of an acidic buﬀer

CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ CH3COO– (aq) + H+ (aq)

Sodium ethanoate fully dissociates according to the following equation:

NaCH3COO (aq) → Na+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq)