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Subtopic 18.1
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Lewis theory of acids and
18.1 ()
bases
18.1.0 The big picture ()
18.1.0 ()
18.1.1 Lewis theory of acids and bases ()
18.1.1 () 18.1.2 Checklist ()
18.1.2 ()
Reactions of this kind are called Lewis acid–base reactions after the American
chemist, G.N. Lewis, who first identified them and was later killed by them (he died
in his lab after ingesting cyanide ions, a poison that acts by this kind of reaction). We
could represent this type of reaction as A + :B → A–B, where the double dot on B
represents an electron pair that is shared with A as a coordinate covalent bond is
formed.
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One role of Lewis acid–base reactions is to bring colour to the world. Transition
metal complexes are often brightly coloured as the result of the binding of ligands
such as water molecules to the central metal ion by coordinate bonding. The
hemoglobin in our blood is another example, its red colour being due to the heme
complex involving iron. The oxygen carrier, hemoglobin, is a protein macromolecule
that has four iron(II) ions embedded in it (Figure 1). The bonds between the iron and
the protein are the consequence of Lewis acid–base interactions, with Fe2+ the
Lewis acid and each :N a Lewis base. When you breathe in this structure takes part in
a further Lewis acid–base reaction when oxygen molecules, acting as Lewis bases,
use a pair of electrons to form a bond to each Fe2+ ion in the hemoglobin molecule.
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Important
Nature of Science
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All Brønsted–Lowry acids are Lewis acids, and all Brønsted–Lowry bases
are Lewis bases. When a proton, H+, accepts a lone pair from the oxygen
atom in a water molecule forming an oxonium (or hydronium) ion, H3O+,
the H+ is acting as a Lewis acid and the water as a Lewis base.
Certain reactions that are not classified as acid–base reactions under the Brønsted–
Lowry theory can be classified as such under the Lewis definitions. Therefore, the
terms Lewis acid and Lewis base are often applied to species that are Lewis acids and
bases but not Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases.
Exam Tip
Make sure that you can recognise species that act as Lewis acids; these
species are lone pair acceptors, and are a positively charged ion or have
a vacant orbital to accept a lone pair. In contrast, Lewis bases are species
that are a negatively charged ion or have a lone pair of electrons to
donate.
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The complex ions formed by transition metals are structures showing further
examples of Lewis bonding (section 13.1.3
(https://app.kognity.com/study/app/chemistry-hl-2016/periodic-transition-metals-
ahl/properties-of-the-transition-elements/structure-of-complex-ions/)). In aqueous
solution, metal ions become surrounded by water molecules. In many examples, the
transition metal ions become surrounded by six water molecules; for example, the
Fe3+ ion exists as the hexaaquairon(III) ion, [Fe(H2O)6]3+, in solution (Figure 3).
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Figure 3. The structure of the [Fe(H2O)6]3+ complex ion showing the water molecules
(ligands)
acting as Lewis bases.
In this complex, the six ligands each donate a lone pair of electrons from the oxygen
atoms of the water molecule to the empty 3d orbitals of the central iron(III) ion. The
water molecules are acting as Lewis bases (electron pair donors) and the iron(III) is
acting as a Lewis acid by accepting the electron pairs.
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carbocation shown in Figure 4 involves one of the electron pairs from the
oxygen being used to make a new sigma (σ) bond to the central carbon in the
carbocation.
This type of interaction is seen in the second stage of the SN1 mechanism of
nucleophilic substitution (section 20.1.1 (/schoolstaff/app/chemistry-hl-
2016/book/organic-ahl/types-organic-reactions/nucleophilic-substitution-reactions/)).
The water molecule is acting as a nucleophile in that it is attacking the electron-
deficient centre of the carbocation, but in the same instance, it is acting as a Lewis
base. Likewise, the carbocation is acting as an electrophile and a Lewis acid.
International Mindedness
The Swedish scientist Arrhenius was the first to link acidic behaviour to
the presence of hydrogen and to the concept of ions in solution. He
proposed that acids were compounds that produced hydrogen ions in
solution and bases were substances that produced hydroxide ions in
solution. Neutralisation occurs when these two – hydrogen ions and
hydroxide ions – react to produce water. There were several reasons,
however, why this theory was viewed as not being totally satisfactory.
For instance, some compounds with acidic properties did not contain
hydrogen, while some bases were found not to contain hydroxide ions.
Also, the theory was only applicable to solutions in water.
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An even more general definition of acids and bases was envisaged by the
approach of Gilbert Lewis. His theory was developed because of the
problem of substances which show acidic properties in solution (for
example, CO2) but do not contain an H+ ion. Lewis defined an acid as any
compound that could act as an electron pair acceptor and a base as any
compound that could act as an electron pair donor. In this Lewis scheme,
H+ itself is an acid.
Usanovich – 1939
Theory of Knowledge
Extension
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There are a number of different theories that are used to explain acid-
base behaviours, such as Brønsted–Lowry or Lewis, depending on which
perspective you take to explore the idea and the level of complexity that
you decide that you want to work to. We all know that theories and
explanations for the same phenomenon will become more complex with
elevated levels of study, but how do we know whether a particular
explanation is true or not? In Science, we first have to gather evidence
that then requires interpretation to form a hypothesis that then can be
tested. The hypothesis itself relies on our interpretation of the evidence
(which can involve a number of WOKs – which do you think scientists use
the most, and which do you?) So it could be argued that the findings are
subjective, at least to a degree. Furthermore, the same evidence could
have multiple explanations and hypotheses: so how do we judge which is
correct? Accurate? Valid? And how do these terms differ?
Watch the following video about alternatives to the big bang theory:
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For each theory, what WOKs are they using to decide whether or not a
theory might be correct? How are the theories similar and/or different?
What conclusions can you draw about how we judge and, in turn, value
competing scientific theories?
Checkpoint questions
+ Show 4 questions
Checklist
At the end of this Subtopic 18.1 - Lewis acids and bases, you should be
able to:
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