R

WARM GREETINGS TO
YOU DEAR AUDIENCE

METAL FORMING PROCESSES & DEFECTS RELATED ASPECTS
PROF. P. VENUGOPAL,
PROFESSOR & HEAD, METAL FORMING LABORATORY,
Department of Metallurgical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai -600 036
0. Cast Part to wrought Part & Special features.

0.1 Classification depending upon, state of stress, end use, temperature and strain
rate.
1. Metal Forming Processes at a glance.
QUOTE:
2. Rolling Process.
CIRP FORECAST:
3. Extrusion Process.
BY 21ST CENTURY, MANUFACTURING
4. Powder Metallurgical Processing.
OF
5. Drop Forging
COMPONENTS WILL BE BY FORMING
6. Bending of Sheet Metals.
ROUTE DUE TO
7. Deep Drawing.
CONSERVATION OF MATERIALS &
8. Cutting.
ENERGY
9. Summary of Defects in Metal Forming.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF
FORMING PROCESSES
WITH RESPECT TO:
1. CASTING,
2. MACHINING
3. WELDING AND
4. POWDER METALLURGY
During solidification, the casting cools faster at skin (faster cooling rate), the center with latent
heat allows the grains to grow, along the grains, precipitates or second phase particles are formed,
due to heavier weight, segregation occurs at the bottom
Shrinkage
Cavity
Carbon say
Fe2S
Coarse
Grains
Fine Grains
Precipitates
Top & and Bottom are cropped to
As Cast Structure free the casting from the defects
Initial Casting defects 1.Heterogeneous grain size, 2. Chemical non-

homogeneity, 3.. Precipitation & Segregation of low melting
constituents and heavy inclusions at the bottom, 4. Piping defect at
the top due shrinkage. The top and bottom are cut off initially to avoid
the piping and segregation defects.
What does forming operation do to the cast parts: Cast transforms into wrought
Fine Grains
Coarse Grains
Roll
Deformation
Zone
Wrought
Cast Part
Part
Roll
2nd Phase particles
Uniform chemical get diffused into the
constituents ductile matrix –
Initial Breaking down of cast fiber line
structure by Hot Rolling
+ +
Fibers are fused into Near Chemical
Near homogeneous
the ductile matrix homogeneity across
recrystallised grains
cross section
WHAT IS THE MAIN OBJECTIVE FORMING PROCESS?
CAST STRUCTURE IS TRANSFORMED INTO WROUGHT STRUCTURE
Columnar Dendritic Coarse cast

structure
Plastically deformed Randomly Fragmentation &

equi-axed recrystallised grains oriented fusion of fiber
fibers
Seggregarted Chemical Well dispersed

Constituents chemical
constituents
Dynamic Welded fiber to ensure

Recrystallization of Fiber flow line
grains
Equiaxed more or less
Chemical Homogeneity Formation of Fiber line
Uniform Grains
Structural Integrity + Compositional Integrity + Mechanical Integrity

The importance of monitoring the fiber line for
increased life of the wrought part
Mechanical Integrity in Such a fiber line should not By resorting to a machining

terms orienting the be depleted by secondary process, the fiber line is cut
continuous fiber line is process. By forming route, and depleted. Length of fiber is
ensured by the expensive the fiber line is monitored shortened. Wear starts at the
primary process for end use & INCRESED fiber. Since the line is short,
LIFE the cementing of ductile matrix
by the fiber is lost and
premature failure will occur.
Initial hot working (breaking/cogging) of cast ingot
ensures the following features:
1By the application of applied stresses and temperature, the

recrystallization process and diffusion mechanism are ensured.
2As a result of the above, homogenous grain size (strain free) and
near chemical homogeneity are established.
3By the application of mechanical stresses, the brittle second phase

particles are fragmented and welded into the ductile matrix giving rise
to the so called wrought structure.
4Due the fiber line, the strength is increased and consistent along the
fiber as opposed to a cast structure.
5In addition to the above, pores/voids present in the cast structure are
closed and thus, a sound structure is ensured.
Rod after hot rolling, followed by cold rolling & rod drawing with continuous fiber line
Thread cutting decrease the length of fiber, life of the

Crank shaft bending. Load
part decreases due to corrosion and wear.
acts perpendicular to fiber
Some techniques which cause failure of

the part due to fouling with fiber line.
The heavy investment cost to obtain a wrought part with continuous fiber line gets defeated by
resorting to methods which introduce discontinuity in fiber line.
Rod is roll forged to gather mass and then
off set sheared by which the fiber lines are
monitored to improve the life of the crank
shaft.
By resorting to thread rolling (a

forming process), the fiber lines are
monitored favourably. The
component ( a small value) is only
acting perpendicular to the fiber.
Besides, the flow line is continuous
which means the life of the part is
increased even if wear and
corrosion were to act.
FORMING TECHNIQUES ENABLE THE MONITORING OF THE FIBER LINE FOR INCREASED LIFE
OF THE PART.
Roughness Measurement with a Perthen meter
Initial Billet
Cold deformed piece
Notch effect is
reduced
RP1 RP2 RP3
R,
m
RP1 RP2
{RP1 + RP2 + RP3}/ 3 = Ra
Length of the part
Surface undulations get annihilated. Superior accuracy and increased

property (fatigue)
Special Merits of Extrusion in Joining of Two Dissimilar Metals
Punch bolster
Hooker Punch Pressure

With Mandrel Plate
Punch Holder Clamp Counter
Z
Sunk Screws
Space for Clamping
D
I
E
Die Shrink Copper
M
Ring R A
I N
N D Deformation Zone
G R
Weld Interface E
Steel
L
Die Back up plate
Die
Bolster
Clamp
Screws
Harder Metal is kept below the softer metal. To ensure yielding of harder metal, higher axial stress is
required. This will ensure larger surface stretching of softer metal and thus effecting solid state
diffusion welding (larger surface area). Done for more than 250 dissimilar with wide melting point
difference at cold extrusion condition.
Casting Energy Loss is proportional to fourth
power of Temperature
Energy for
Unit weight Welding
Energy Loss is proportional scrap loss
Machining Volume before & after is constant
Hot Work
Cold Work
Warm Work
Manufacturing Processes
Reference: Detroit Ford Company, USA.
Conversely, the efficiency by forming route is the highest

Classification of Forming
Processes Based on
State of Stress,
Temperature, Strain Rate
and End Use
CLASSIFICATION OF FORMING PROCESSES
More Work due to V

Intentional Change in
1. BULK FORMING
thickness of the formed
Limit on tool stress
part
S0 S1
Less work due V S0
1.1 Sheet Forming No intentional change
Limit on strain on in thickness
the material S0
Crack Closure &

2. State of Stress 2.1 Formability increases.
Compression Tool stress increases.
Tool failure increases.
Form error, lubricant
Eg: Rolling, Forging, Extrusion depletion, tool pick up &
galling increase
Stress State contd.. 2.2
Spring Back is less.
Tension
Formability, strain,
instability increases.
Eg: Stretch Forming
Fracture is preponed.
Form Error is
2.3 Combined
less.
Tension & Comp
Formability
Eg: Rod, Deep Drawing & Bending decreases
For offset forming,
2.4 for separation, 1/3
Shear shear, 2/3 fracture,
distortion
Eg: Sheet Shear, Bulk Shear
Semifinished part.
3. Primary Processes
Accuracy is less
Net
4. Secondary Processes shape/Finished
part with good
accuracy
3. DEPENDING UPON TEMPERATURE
3.1 COLD WORK Forming before heating
Excessive strain hardening leads to cracking.

Unfavorable residual stresses set in.
Cold Shortness due "P", anisotropy alarming tool stresses in
bulk forming, excessive deformation possibly encounters
Dynamic Strain Aging (DSA)
3.2 HOT WORK Forming After heating to HOT WORKING TEMPERATURE
Scale loss & Pitting, hot shortness due to "S", high stick
friction, high die wear, under filing, chemical homogeneity,
differential grain size distribution, less accuracy, higher
heat cost are the inherent problems.
Since recrystallisation is ensured, forming forces are less.
3.3 Warm Work Forming after heating to the warm working temperature
Demerits of cold work and hot work are overcome.

Limitation is w.r.to tool stresses and selection of proper lubricant
DEPENDING UPON STRAIN RATE
INCREASED STRAIN RATE CAUSES
1.Increased hardening.
2.Increased adiabatic heating & fouling with DSA.
3.Increased retardational stress vide  = (E. V) / (C).
4.Tool failure, machine elements failure.
5.Cracking of part in extrusion, wire drawing & deep drawing.
6.Incipient melting in H.W.
7.Demands higher H.W. temperature & leads to its own attendant problems like scale loss,
material loss, underfilling.
DECREASED STRAIN RATE CAUSE
1.In H.W, higher heat loss to the dies occurs.

2.Die temperature increases.
3.Die wear and under filling of impression occur
Stress,
Slope = m, strain rate
2 sensitivity index
N/mm
With increase in temperature
0.01 Strain Rate, per sec 1000
Strain Rate A B C
Sensitivity
m2 A COLD WORKING RANGE
index, m m3
m1
B WARM WORKING RANGE
C HOT WORKING RANGE
Forming temperature
Strain Rate Sensitivity index, m discriminates
cold, warm & hot working mechanism
METAL FORMING PROCESSES - DEFECTS - REMEDIAL MEASURES IF N/C
Prof. Dr. P. Venugopal, Professor & Head, Metal Forming Laboratory,

Department of Metallurgical Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai - 600 036
0. PREAMBLE:
The defects in metal deformation area are too many that, a systematic approach to enumerate the defects has been attempted based
on the classification of metal forming processes itself. Individual processes are dealt in brief and defects associated with them are
discussed.
CLASSIFICATION OF FORMING
PROCESSES
Schematic of Characteristics
1.1 Based on State
state of stress
of Stress BULK All the principal stresses are purely compressive. Crack
FORMING: closure is implicit. Deformation (ideal) is around 99%.
Pure Limitations are: Expensive tools, tool stresses are high,
Compression failure of punch, die, die shrink ring etc. Form error &
Z, R,
T Dimensional Error are more. Intentional change in
Extrusion thickness. Lub - depletion., tool pick -up & galling
Process defects
Primary principal stress is tensile. The other two

stresses in the deformation zone are compressive. %
Tension and deformation is only (ideal) 66.33 as against
Compression compression. Crack opening is distinct. Cup and cone
Z, R, fracture, instability are the problems. Since forces are
Rod Drawing T less, form error is less. Tool life is increased w.r.t pure
Process compression mode.
IF N/C
Based on State of Stress Wrinkle on flange and cup wall due to compressive
SHEET FORMING stresses. Earing due to an-isotropy., worms due to
DSA., spring back due to bending., thinning due
Z, R,
Tension and Compression improper die dimensions, wall tearing and bottom
T
tearing
Deep Drawing Process
Thickness
S0 Engineering strain = S0/2Rd., for a large radius
Pure Tension and for a small thickness sheet stretch forming is
sought after. In other tensile forming, instability is
Stretch Forming Tool Radius a defect. Spring back, tearing amount of
Process RD Sheet with deformation being less are the other problems.
thickness S0 &
Punch radius
Rd
PROCESSES..contd..
Characteristics
Based on State of
N.A S0/2
Stress SHEET FORMING
b Involves compressive stress in lower plane
and tensile stress in upper plane. Upper plane
Compression S0 R
is likely to develop cracks due tensile stresses.
& Tension D
Adjacent to neutral plane, elastic stresses are
present. So spring back is another defect
Bending Process
arising. Remedy lies in coining. Load
increases. Tool failure as a result is distinct.
Optimal load should be applied.
   after bending
Shear Stress
Fibre
Offset Shear Process Original Rod Flow lines get depleted in bending & get
monitored in off set shear. Fatigue life is
decreased in case 1, increased in case 2.
For a vertical load, only a small
component of this force is acting
perpendicular to the fibre and hence, life
One point One point
is increased in case 2. Mass gathering by
Crank shaft Crank shaft
produced by produced by roll forging prior to sequence 2 favours
the increase in life of the product.
bending off set shear
1.2 Primary Process

Roll
Hot Working Function of the primary process is to break down
the cast structure into a wrought structure.
Scale
Wrought structure is characterized by, structural,
HOT chemical, strain free grains, fused fibres into the
BLOOM ductile matrix for improved mechanical properties.
Working is easier because, flow stress is less and
there is no strain hardening effect. dRX/dt = d/dt,
Semi-
where dRX means recrystallization rate and d/dt
HOT ROLLING finished
means strain rate.
Roll part
Initial breaking down Process(Cogging Mill)
Scale losses, grain growth, residual stresses, silvers, scores, less accuracy, pitting, blisters, rolled in oxides, gas pockets,
high temperature furnace requirement, energy loss  4 are the chief attendant problems associated with any hot working
process. The product that comes out of primary process is called semi - finished part, since, it will be further processed by
many secondary metal working processes. Note the form error on the product produced. Ovality (form error) is obtained
instead of round form for several mets. of length.
PROCESSES..contd..
Punch Die Ring The wrought parts are usually annealed, pickled
& lubricated & finished by the various secondary
1.3 Secondary processes to obtain NET SHAPE parts. The
Processes processes are done usually at cold working
temperature and thus many of the demerits of
Die Shrink Ring the hot working are eliminated. Accuracy is
better. To large extent, post-forming operations
E.g.: Cold are done with. Tool stresses are high. As a
Extrusion/ result, tool failures are more common. Proper
Cold Working lubrication is necessary to ensure least friction
Work Piece
during forming. Tool pick up and tool galling will
otherwise be distinct. Work hardening due to
cold work increases the stages of forming.
By proper control of cold work and annealing cycles, the part can be
produced with desired mechanical properties. Implies that, heat treatment can
be done with, in most cases. Due to surface accuracy, notch effect is reduced
and improved fatigue property is ensured. The miscellaneous secondary
processes can be seen in the attached process description hand out. The
process shown can be used for cold pressure welding, extrusion of metals
and materials. Since, tri-axial compressive stresses are involved in the
deformation zone, crack closure is ensured & thus, deformation assured. This
process competes with machining, rolling, joining and drop forging. Any
method of reduction of force will obviate the failure of tool members.
1.4 WARM P 1
Working
R 8
O LOG PLOT
C 2
E
S
S 9
3 RT to 1500C
Dynamic Strain P
4
A 5
Ageing R
A
M 6
E
T
E 7
R
Volume Dilation S
Forming Temperature
150 to 3000C
Pinning down atoms.,

dislocation
1. Tool Stress, 2. Flow Stress, 3. Lubricant Efficacy, 4. Ductility, 5. Scale

Loss, 6. Tolerance, 7. Properties, 8. Fuel Energy, 9. Strain rate sensitivity Beyond
index, "m". 3000C
Warm Extrusion competes with hot and cold extrusion today since it
combines the merits of clod & hot working. Apart from the parameters
cited above, the strain rate sensitive index &  are powerful tools to
arrive at the warm working temperature range.
.
V
1.5 Strain Rate:
Strain Rate is given by d/dt = dh/h/dt = dh/dt/h = V/h where V is
h0 the velocity of the tool. Machine velocity characteristics thus have
Strain Rate = V/h s-1 strong influence of strain rate. Higher strain rate generally causes
increased strain hardening. Increases the adiabatic heating and
Increased Strain d0 possibly fouling with the DSA. Retardational stresses in the tools
Rate Before are increased by equation: R = E.V/C, Mpa increases where E is
d Upsetting young's mod. of elasticity of hitting member, C is compression
shock wave velocity given by: E/. This leads to tool failure.
h After
Reflected tensile wave
Upsetting
leads to fracture on work pieces. Increased velocity increases cracking of extrudes, rod/wire drawing & deep drawing.
In creased strain rate increases the melting of Mns leading to hot shortness. Higher strain rate demands higher hot
working temperature & leads to attendant demerits like increased scale losses, material loss, under filling, metallurgical
and mechanical properties of formed parts. (Please note: dRX/dt = d/dt to avoid work hardening).
The positive aspects of increased strain rate are: 1. Time of contact of tools - work piece is reduced. 2.  is reduced., 3.
Large d/h ratio parts can be easily formed vide equation (after SIEBEL): Z = F [ 1 + 1/3. .d/h]. 4. Friction hill formation
(dead zone) disc forgings are reduced. 5. More homogeneous deformation is assured. 6. At cold work, with low resident
temperature of the work piece, work softening is achieved. Less demand on the selection of lubricant. STRAIN RATE
SENSITIVITY INDEX "m" DISTINGUISHES THE COLD WARM AND HOT WORK TEMPERATURE RANGE OF MATERIALS
BEING SELECTED. [Please refer selection of warming temperature in which, the variation of "m" is shown].
Decreased Strain In hot working, higher heat losses to dies occur. Die temperature increases. Die tempering
Rate and failure is distinct. Die wear increases. Reflects on poor
Quality of the products. In H.W, stick friction is dominant. Frictional stresses are more. Flow of material is hampered.
Under filling is also thus a possibility. Positive aspects are: In extrusion (hot) rod/wire and deep drawing the cracking
is eliminated. Especially in hot extrusion, isothermal extrusion is ensured so that, large extrusion ratio (R) is possible.
Very serious transverse cracks in hot extrusion are avoided. (Snake skin or fir-tree defect)
Typical transverse crack in hot extrusion due to high exit velocity

(influenced by high strain rate).( Mass) (acceleration) is the inertial forces.
Typical Under filing & Folds or laps
Acceleration being high and fracture stress being low at elevated
(dark) in hot forging - common
temperature, snake skin defects are normally encountered. Extrudes exit in
defects encountered due to
bits as shown.
temperature effect and & improper
Forming Processes at a Glance
Schematic of Various SOURCE FOR CONCEPTS: Courtesy: Dictionary of Production Engineering, C.I.R.P.
Forming Processes Vol.1, 3, 5 Verlag W, Girardet, Essen, 1962
Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications

Sketch
Dies CIRP.303: Forming of hot Discs or blanks used as

Open Die metals by compression w/o the preforms. Also used as
Work Forging aid die cavities standard fundamental test
piece
for formability of metals &
materials
Sketch Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications
Shaped parts - small to medium

Dies Drop CIRP.302: Forming by size such as con.rods, handles,
W/p Forging compression between shaped levers, gears, spanners, crank
dies, which control lateral flow. shafts, knives, surgical
instruments, hand tools etc.
(done in hammers or presses).
Dies gripped tight Heading Upsetting or CIRP.313: A special type of Heads on bolts, valves,
Punch Heading closed die forging to shorten flanges and shoulders on
Headed axial length and increase cross shafts.
part sectional area. (hot & cold Extensively used in
heading o heading machines) Fastener production).
CIRP. 5121: Forming by axial Regular/ irregular

Forward flow of a billet through a die structural shapes - window
Extrusion orifice in the direction of an mouldings, angle sections,
applied force circular or irregular tubing.
Punch, w/p, die, extrude
CIRP.5122: An extrusion
Punch, operation, in which, the Regular or irregular shapes,
Back tubes for grease and
w/p, undeformed part of the billet is
Extrusion cosmetics, etc.
die, stationary relative to its
extrude surrounding container/die.
Also called reverse extrusion
Uses or Applications
Sketch Operation Definition or Description
Upper die
Coining CIRP.5161: A compression Shallow configurations on
process for stamping or raising flat objects
W/P to be coined
the relief features of a tool or a
Coined Piece die on the surfaces of a metal
FORMING PROCESSES PERFORMED IN PRESSES & HAMMERS. 01

Designed & Drawn: Prof. P. Venugopal, IIT Madras, May 2001.
Hob Punch Hobbing CIRP.541: Forming very smooth Making many duplicated
(Hubbing) accurately shaped die cavity by cavities, e.g. plastic molds,
pressing a hardened punch into drop forging dies etc.
Hobbed die
a softer metal die block
CIRP.2360: Forming a design on Forming ribs to increase

Embossing thin material by raising or rigidity. Making ornamental
lowering portions of the or communicative designs.
After
material by localized bending Making coins.
Before
CIRP.2340: Forming by pulling a

blank punch Drawing flat sheet through a forming Cups, shells, short tubes,
(deep/ punch and forcing it the sheet automotive bodies, gas
cup) over a shaped die edge into the tanks, appliance covers.
Die After cavity to take the shape of a
Before hollow part.
W/P
CIRP.2351: Forming by reducing

Initial Ironing the wall thickness of a cup by For thinning and sizing
&final w/p forcing through a die with a walls of preformed (drawn
punch wherein the clearance is or extruded) parts.
Die Side wall thickness less than original wall
reduced thickness.
punch Sizing CIRP.2350: Finish forming

Accurate control over
operation done usually on a
height, base, bosses of an
pre-formed part in close dies to
already formed part with
Die obtain very accurate
Sized part error. (E.g. spring back
dimensions.
error).
CIRP.2323, 2325: Forming of Structural shapes such as

punch Braking structural parts such as angles automobile and truck
(Bending) and channels by bending chassis. Angle and channel
Die sheets or plates in a long press sections having large
Bent part called PRESS BRAKE moment of inertia to weight
ratio.

die Rubber Pad CIRP.2345, 2346: Bending or Low quality of parts that
rubber drawing operation in which could be made by drawing.
Forming
either the punch or the die is a
blank piece of constrained rubber
punch Drawn part
Rotary DIN 8583, 1969: Forming Nosing of ends of tubes,

Swaging operation in which the diameter reduction of tube or shaft
of bars or tubes is changed by diameter. Tipping of
repeated blows radially wire/rod before drawing.
actuated shaped hammers. Cable joint connection.
Top Blade CIRP 2200, 2210: A material Rapid method of cutting bar
Hold down Shearing separating operation using two stocks or plates to length.
knife edged blades or punch
and die wherein the metal
Lower Blade Work sheet deformation is localized and
due to shear forces.
punch Scrap
CIRP 2222: A material Making discs, washers or
Blanking separation process using a flat blanks, which may be
punch and die to shear a useful drawn or extruded
blank from a piece of material afterwards.
Die End piece
Sketch
Die Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications
punch End piece CIRP 2227, 2228: A material Rapid method of making
Piercing separation process using a holes or slots in a part.
punch and die to shear a hole in
a piece.
Die Scrap
Punch
Rod Cold CIRP 5124: The extrusion of a For stepped parts with good
Extrusion solid billet to form a solid accuracy, competes with
uniform cross section machining. Material saving.
Shrink Container &

Ring Die

Competes with ironing or

Punch Tube CIRP 5126: The extrusion of a deep drawing since
Extrusion hollow or incompletely pierced compressive stresses are
(Hooker billet through an annulus involved. Back-extruded
Shrink Container Extrusion) formed by the die aperture and can is produced for longer
Ring & Die mandrel or pilot to form a tube. length and reduced wall
thickness.
Punch Can Can CIRP 5125: The extrusion of a A process for lubrication
Extrudate Extrusion solid billet through the annulus performance. To produce
(Cup formed by the container wall hollow cans restricted by
Extrusion) and an indenting punch or tool wall and base thickness.
Container & Die to form a can. Edges of parts are sharp
than deep drawn parts.
Rolls Rolling CIRP 2302: Forming operations Rapid method of producing

on cylindrical rolls wherein the bars of uniform cross-
cross section of a bar or plate section.
is reduced with a
Billet before Billet after corresponding increase in
length.
CIRP 2328: A continuous

Roll Forming bending operation generally Rapid method of producing
performed on originally pre- long lengths of tubes or
coiled strip material and structural shapes. Roll
resulting in long shaped embossing, tubes with
sections such as angles, seams are other
channels and tubes applications.
Mass gathering before

CIRP 312: A closed die forging counter blow forging.
Forge operation in which the die Similar to die forging except
Rolling cavities are machined on the that longer parts than drop
periphery of cylindrical rolls. forging, but shorter parts
than rolling can be
produced.
CIRP 2370: Forming of a conical

Original blank Power part from a disc in which the For low volume production
and spun part Spinning diameter does not change. forming since the cost of
Mandrel Achieved by progressively tooling is low (compared to
Spin roller tool forcing the disc against a deep drawing).
mandrel with a small roller
moving from center out.
FORMING PROCESSES PERFORMED IN PRESSES & ROLLING. 04

CIRP 2304: Straightening of a

Roll bar or plate by passing it To straighten sheets that
Straighten through a series of rolls, which have been rolled.
are not in the same plane. This
causes the material to be bent
so that, it is straight after
rolling.
DIN 8583: Tube piercing a

Plug Mandrel rolling process in which a solid To produce seamless
Tube
bar is formed into a seamless tubing.
Piercing
tube by two conical rolls
oppositely skewed a few
degrees from the axis of the bar
CIRP 2372: A plastic

deformation process in which To form threads by plastic
Thread flow under rolling rather
threads are formed on a
Rolling
cylinder that has an original than machining. Gear teeth
diameter equal to the pitch and splines can be formed
diameter. by similar process.
CIRP 2370: Forming a three-

Metal dimensional symmetrical part by Low volume production
Spinning holding the sheet since the tool cost is very
D0 in a rotating chuck and causing it to low with respect to deep
take the shape of the former through a
tool, without reduction in thickness.
drawing.
D1D0
For cutting thin sheets.

Roll Feed CIRP 2710: Feeding unit with one Curling and breakage of
or more pair of rolls, which draw strip sheet will be avoided.
and push the sheet through the Back and front tension is
Sheet Forming Rolls tools also possible so that, large
Tool radius can be formed on
sheet.
Ring Rolling The rotating master roll can Hot pierced (by forging)
Cone make a stroke in horizontal plane hollow parts are further
Rolls (pass). Work piece being held rolled to form outer as well
between mandrel and master roll inner race of bearings.
reduces in wall thickness. The Suitable shapes of the
Work piece mandrel Master Roll two support cone rolls control master roll and mandrel can
the spread. roll hollow section of
after different types.
FORMING PROCESSES PERFORMED IN ROLLING (ROLL FORMING). 05

Forming cross sectional
die Wire or DIN: 8583, 1970. Reducing parts of uniform cross
F Bar Drawing diameter of bar or wire by section and close tolerance.
pulling it through a tapered Form error is also low since
D1 D2 orifice of in a die it is a tensile operation and
D2D1 force is less.
Tube DIN 8583, 1970: Reducing the Forming very close

Drawing wall thickness of a tube by toleranced tubing. (Say in
F pulling it simultaneously over application related to fluid
A mandrel and through a die power engineering).
orifice.
mandrel die
Sketch Operation
Operation
Definition or Description Uses or Applications
Stretch DIN 8585, 1970: Simultaneously Bending "  " or " L "
Forming stretching and bending over a sections to small radii. Also
die, a bar or plate that would used for bending very thin
otherwise buckle by sheets for very large radii.
compression if bending alone
is attempted.
Stretcher DIN 8585, 1970: Straightening a Straightening sheets or

Levelling sheet or plate by performing plates previously formed.
slight tensile deformation.
Done low carbon steel

Skin Pass 3 to 5% thickness reduction by which exhibit DSA (upper &
Rolling cold rolling on the sheets which lower yield point
exhibit dynamic strain aging phenomena) leading to
phenomena. worm defect in subsequent
forming.
Cut sheets can be rolled,

Bellow welded and axially pressed to Extensively used in
Forming form bellows. thermal joints. Used also
The bellows can also be formed springs, instruments etc.
by rubber pad, with cycle balls,
hydraulic fluid.
FORMING PROCESSES PERFORMED BY TENSILE STRESSES & ROLL FORMING.

Designed & Drawn: Prof. P. Venugopal, IIT Madras, May 2001. 06
Sketch Operation & Description Uses or Applications
Steel Belt Counter blow forging. The two High energy due to higher
masses are coupled by steel belt. velocity. Time of contact is
When top mass moves down, less.  is reduced. Ideally
lower mass moves up. The used for crank shaft, levers,
masses are guided. Different flywheel & similar family of
Top Mass & types of coupling medium are products which belong to
Lower Mass also employed. the laid in forging category.
Fixed Roll
Sketch Piston Rod Operation & Description

Uses or Applications
Petro-Forge Machine. Works on
deflagration principles. Top mass is
For laid in forging and as
made to move down (by combustion
Top Mass & above.
in cylinder) & through pneumatic
Lower Mass coupling, (via piston rod) the bottom
mass moves up.
Pneumatic
Cylinder

High velocity drop hammer. Mass
Steel rope
is lifted to a larger height for As above. Besides, can be
increasing velocity of impact & used for compaction,
Falling mass
released to strike the job by blanking.
gravity. Simple in construction.
Work piece
Guidance for falling mass can be
through wire.
Bottom die
Water tank Explosive forming. An explosive
Explosive is decomposed by ignition to For low volume
Blank Holder generate deflagrating gases, production of large
Blank
which on expansion does the disc shaped
Die
Air vent work of deformation on the components.
material. Tank may contain
air/water.

Spark Electro-Hydraulic Forming. Spark For making well
Die ensured by the gap between two defined products.
Tube elec.rods generates shock waves, Example shows,
Elec. Rods whose energy is used for forming convolution formed
Water materials. on a tube (bellow).
EHF

Discharged voltage from bank of Used extensively for tube
Coil capacitors produces eddy current joints, laminations etc.
Initial Tube on a magnetic coil through emf. Caution to be observed:
The repulsive force/energy stored STAPLE.
in the coil deforms the material in S: SAFETY
micro seconds. Field shapers are T: TECHNOLOGY
Part introduced for useful shape of A: ADMIN.PROBLEMS
formed the part.EMF P: PEOPLE CONCERNED
with step L: LEGAL COMPLICATIONS
E: ECONOMIC VIABILITY
STAPLE APPLIES FOR ALL HIGH ENERGY RATE FORMING TECHNIQUES

07
FORMING PROCESSES PERFORMED BY HIGH STRAIN RATE APPLICATIONS
Rolling Processes
Hot Hot Rolled

Billet/Ingot Wrought Part
Cast Ingot Structure is rolled between a set of rolls at hot working

temperature to produce wrought structure .
Solids, tubes are produced by this technique.
Cold rolling produces bars, strips and sheets which are mostly
semifinished parts.
Roll forming like thread rolling, spinning etc are used for producing
finished parts.
Highly capital intensive plant.
ROLLING PROCESS
HOT ROLLING PROCESS
Definition:
It is a hot working process by which, the cast ingot in plastically deformed to produce either
semi finished part (bloom & billets) or finished parts (sheets and strips) determined in favorable
chemical homogeneity, structural integrity and wrought parts, so that, the mechanical properties
are better than cast part. Between two rolls, the hot cast ingot is rolled in by application of
compressive stresses so that, cross-section is reduced. Sections of solid geometry and hollow
geometry are produced. Several passes of rolling are required to get the final part so that, the
load is delegated in each pass.
Variables: Strain, strain rate and temperature are important variables during rolling to ensure
successful rolled parts. Friction is to be greater than angle of bite to ensure rolling. Reference
to the attached rolling analysis will enumerate this aspect. While the process has all the
advantages inherent in hot working, its special feature is that of the speed and length of the part
produced.
Terminology:
Belongs to orbital forming. Draught = h/h0 - where ho is the initial thickness of work piece and
h is the reduction per pass. This characterizes the deformation per pass. Angle of bite, 
characterizes the angle subtended by the roll with planes of entry and exit.  should not be
greater than angle of friction,  to ensure part entry for rolling. Entry plane - where part enters,
exit plane - where part exits the roll axes, neutral plane - where the peripheral velocity and
velocity of the part are the same. This neutral plane decides about the roll torque. Friction hill -
characterizes the axial and normal stress variation in the deformation zone, chiefly responsible
many defects, decides about the roll separating force, torque, - vide SIEBEL Equation :
Y = F [1 + 1/3.d/h]. Back tension and front tension to minimize the roll separating force (or to
reduce the friction hill) and also roll torque.
SEQUENCES IN ROLLING CAST INGOT FROM SOAKING PIT (after homogenization)
BLOOM -done by Cogging Mill or Breaking down mill, Ch: width = thickness area = 230 cm2
BILLET SLAB
By two, three, four high mill or by cluster mill also in By two, three, four high mill or by cluster mill also
hot work condition. in hot work condition.
Cross section usually is 40 by 40 mm Width is greater than two times thickness,
Cross section usually is greater
100 cm2
SEMIFINISHED
PART
PLATE
Done by two, three, four high mill or by cluster mill at
BARS, STRUCTURAL SHAPES
Done in merchant mill, Universal mill cold work condition through several passes.
Thickness is greater than 6 mm
STRIP AND SHEET

Other Mills used in Cold Rolling are: Cluster mill, Done by cluster mill. Strip: width is less than 600 mm
Planetary Mill, Sendzir Mill and sheet w is 600 mm
SEMIFINISHED or FINISHED
PART
Schematic & Analysis of Rolling -Understanding Rolling Terminology
Top Roll
Foot Note:
=ANGLE OF BITE A: Entry plane
ROLL AXIS B: Neutral plane
C: Exit plane
ENTRY EXIT
A
B
W/P AXIS FT C
FN Sin
FT Cos 
FN
Bottom Roll
If "FN" is the normal force and "FT" is the Tangential Frictional force, With the
angle of bite from above figure, "FOR ENTRY OF STOCK" the condition is: FT
COS  should be greater than FN SIN  . FT / FN =  (frictional angle) Condition
for roll stock entry is: FT COS   FN SIN ., FT / FN =  SIN / COS = TAN = 
(Angle of Bite)
Understanding the stress variation in the deformation zone which is chiefly responsible for
various defects in rolling
r  = v, peripheral velocity
Vel: 7.5m/s
5 m/s
10 m/s
Initial W/P
DEF. ZONE Final W/P
ExitPlane
Entry Plane
- Y - ( - X) = F
- Y R
e
Flow Criterion
Neutral Plane
+ F
- X Torque = R.e
X 0 X
Analysis of Stresses in Deformation Zone of Cold Rolling of Sheet, using SIEBEL equation.
Inferences of Entry Plane, Exit Plane, Neutral Plane, Resultant Force, Eccentricity, Roll Torque.
l
Y = F 1 + 1/3() d/his the SIEBEL'S Equation ( a linear equation). Effect of back and front
tension in cold rolling of sheet can be discussed with this equation..
Roll Speed
7.5 m/s
7.5 m/s 7.5 m/s

7.5 m/s
A: ENTRY PLANE
10 m/s 4 m/s B: NEUTRALPLANE

8 6 12
5 m/s m/s m/s m/s
C: EXIT PLANE
C
B
A e1 R e2 e
z z
R
z
F F R
F
r Case: I BT Case II r Case: III FT
r
Case:I Neutral plane is Case II: Note the neutral Case: III Note the neutral plane
At the centre (Normal) plane shifted towards the shifted away from roll axis
roll axis.
With back tension, BT, Roll separating force decreases. But, e2 increases. Thus,
torque increases. Anisotropy decreases. With front tension, Roll separating
force decreases.
" e" decreases. Torque also decreases . Anisotropy increases. .
Influences of draught and friction on changing the stress

status in cold rolling of strip & sheet
R3 Y
R1 R2
X X
Entry plane e3
Exit plane
Y3 e2 F
Y2 e1
Roll Axis
Y1
X3 X2 X1

NP3 NP2 NP1
Imp. Message: Both increase in  and draught shift (FT Cos  increases) the neutral plane away
from roll axis and thus eccentricity of "R" is pushed towards roll axis. Forward velocity
increases in these cases.(Similar to Front Tension)
schematic of influences
of "" and in "  draught " on force and eccentricity "e".
Some Important Rolling Mills Mannessmann Mill For Seamless Pipe
Skew Roll with its axis inclined to the bottom skew roll
Plug Balls in race
Mandrel
Hot Solid ingot
Skew V Rest / Guide

Roll
SKEW ROLLING - MANNESSMANN MILL ROLLING FOR SEAMLESS TUBE REDUCING (AXES ARE
INCLINED) [Re: Mech. Metallurgy, Dieter].
Plug Mandrel
Hot Solid ingot
Mandrel Rod
SKEW ROLLING - MANNESSMANN MILL ROLLING FOR SEAMLESS TUBE EXPANDING (AXES ARE INCLINED)
As above. Used for pipe expansion also. Smaller ingots mean impurities are less (segregation is
less). Pipes are better in strength. [Ref: Mech. Metallurgy, Dieter]
.Both rotational & longitudinal movement of work piece are ensured, due to skewed axes and rolling.
. Area is reduced. 3. Mandrel is supported by balls (to reduce friction) and V rests or guide as shown
above
PLUG ROLLING MILL FOR FURTHER REDUCTION IN
WALL THICKNESS FOR TUBE DRAWING
Hot tube from Mannessman Grooved Roll
rolling
Plug Mandrel
Balls in race
Run Out Table

Run Out Table
As in the case of Mannessmann Mill, mandrel support is ensured by balls retained in a race
(inner wall of tube is made co-axial w.r.t tube), cylindrical balls resting on work table ensure
the horizontality of the tube exiting as well entering. [Ref: Mechanical Metallurgy, Dieter]
Reeling Mill for Checking Ovality
Hot tube from Plug Mill

Reeling Roll (Note the inclined axis)
Run Out
Table
OTHER TYPES OF ROLLING PROCESSES
Work
Roll Work
Roll
Back up Roll
1 2 3 4
1. Two high, 2. Two high reversing, 3. Three high, 4.
Four high, 5. Cluster & 6. 20 High Mills (Sendzir mill)
5 6 Back up Rolls
Back up
Rolls
Work Work Roll
Roll
Back up
Rolls
Back up Rolls
For preventing both angular and vertical spring
back., for low thin sheets rolling, 20 high mill is
used.
Ref: Mechanical Metallurgy,Dieter]
SECTION ROLLINSG (UNIVERSAL ROLLING)
ROLL SHAFT ROLL SHAFT SECTION

SECTION
(MASTER)
(MASTER)
ROLL
ROLL
EDGE ROLL EDGE ROLL EDGE ROLL EDGE ROLL
I Section.,
E.g.: Rail ROLLSHAFT
ROLL
SHAFT Structural
Part/Preform SECTION
SECTION (MASTER)
ROLL SHAFT (MASTER) ROLL SHAFT for drop ROLL
ROLL forgings
CONCEPT IN ROLL PASS DESIGN (Merchant Mill)
If d/h is made small, then, Y becomes small vide the SIEBEL Equation (Friction hill eqn:- shown below). This
concept is made use of in roll pass design. In a grooved roll, diamond shape is passed to obtain ellipse, ellipse
in major axis is rolled to obtain circle. Merchant Mill follows this route for producing bars.
Stress Variation - characterizing


 Friction Hill. When d/h is very low,
low axial stress will be obtained.
Y
0 Y
X F X
F
X X X X
d
H0 d H
0
Siebel Equation,
vide:
Y = F
[1+1/3()(d/h)]
I Pass Output of I Pass II Pass Output of II Pass
Use repeater and turn I pass bar to change the axis
Repeaters are used., since load now becomes less, X is also less. Several passes can be
contained in one roll called "IN MILL TRAIN".
Some Important Defects in Rolling
1. All the demerits of hot working & cold working are applicable to hot & cold rolling. A. Scale loss, b.
decarburisation, c. material loss, d. hot shortness & cold shortness, due sulfur &phosphor, e. differential cooling
leading to thermal residual stresses, f. rolled in oxide on parts as well on rolls leading to scores, scratch mark
necessitating grinding, g. fibres, h. discontinuous fibre opening up in subsequent rolling, i. Non homogeneity with
higher thickness.
DEFECTS DUE TO FRICTION HILL AND ROLL CAMPERING
Stress Variation - characterizing Friction Hill. When

friction is zero, ideal flow stress parallel to x-axis will be
obtained. (As shown by dotted line)
Elastically deflected top roll
- Friction hill
Y Y = F [1+1/3()(d/h)]
X F
W/P with crown effect
X 0 X
Elastically deflected bottom roll
Edge
buckling
Zipper
breaks
Fig.1 during Fig. 2 After

Fig. 3 After
Rolling Rolling Fig. 4 After
Rolling
Rolling
INFLUENCE OF CROWN EFFECT ON EDGE CRACKING DEFECT DURING ROLLING
Elastically deflected top roll
W/P with crown effect
Elastically deflected bottom

roll
Roll Cambering & Crown Effect
Work Piece
Work Piece EDGE., Spread more, length is less Tensile Residual Stress
Compressive
CORE., Spread less., length more Residual
Stress
EDGE., Spread more, length is less Tensile Residual Stress
During rolling, IN CORE, spread is less & length is After Rolling, residual stress pattern
more; IN EDGES, spread is more and length is less
Final Work Piece

EDGE
CRACK
WORK PIECE WITH EDGE CRACKINGS
After Rolling, residual stress pattern leads to formation of

edge cracking
Work Piece
Elastically deflected Flow is constrained
W/P with Free flow in core is
top roll crown effect Flow is constrained not constrained
Elastically deflected On Severe Deformation Rolling, Differential flow is
bottom roll encountered in edge and core
Roll Cambering & Crown Effect
Constrained flow
Work Piece Flow is constrained
Free flow in core is
Free flow In core not constrained
Cracks Originate
Flow is constrained
Constrained flow
Rolling Direction
Work Piece
Central Split
Plan View of the Central Splitting Defect Central Split
Central Split Defect in Rolling

INFLUENCE OF SEVERE REDUCTION IN ALLEGATOR DEFECT
DURING ROLLING OF FLATS
H H
HOT FLAT
Peripheral crack due to heavy reduction
Peripheral crack due to heavy

reduction, opened up subsequently
Extrusion Process
DIE.
Punch.
Extrude.
Def.Zone.
A push through process which makes use of tri-axial compressive stresses

to produce solid and hollow sections with minimal form error at hot working
temperature. Yield per push is more. Cold extrusions done at normally room
temperature rival the machining route.
Highly cornered by tool load and temperature.
Types of Hot Extrusion. ( a. Solid forward, b. Hollow forward, c.
Solid backward, d. Hollow backward, e. Side Solid Rod, f. Side
Hollow
Types of Cold Extrusion Processes. (a) Forward Rod, (b) Forward Tube, (c) Forward
can, (d) Backward Rod, (e) Backward tube, (f) BACKWARD CAN (g) Side rod, (h) Side
tube. 1. Initial stage, 2. Final Stage
EXTRUSION OF METALS & MATERIALS
CLASSIFICATION BASED
ON TEMPERATURE CHARACTERESTICS
HOT
Usually Depending upon the parameters that have influence on hot working;
EXTRUSION
long , , Z, F, scale formation, & complexity of shape
OF METALS
length
&
COLD MATERIALS .BASIC PROCESSES: SOLID FORWARD, SOLID BACKWARD,
HOLLOWFORWARD, HOLLOW BACKWARD, SIDE.
Usually short .COMBINATION PROCESSES:COMBINATION OF BASIC PROCESSES,
length JOINING OF DISSIMILAR METALS. [REF: CIRP DEFN.NOS:
5100 TO 5700 SERIES VOL, 5]
RT to 1500C
WARM P 1
R LOG PLOT 8
Long & short O
2
length C
E
S 3 150 to 3000C
S 4 5
P
Dynamic Strain A
6
Aging R
A 7
M Forming Temperature
E
T Beyond 3000C
Volume Dilation E 1. Tool Stress, 2. Flow
R Stress, 3. Lubricant
S
Pinning Efficacy, 4. Ductility, 5.
down atoms., Scale Loss, 6. Tolerance, 7.
dislocation Properties, 8. Fuel Energy
Warm Extrusion competes with hot and cold extrusion today since it combines the merits of cold &hot working.
Apart from the parameters cited above, the strain rate sensitive index &  are powerful tools to arrive at the warm
working temperature range.
.
The Hot extrusion Process & Piping Defect
Press Frame Wedge withdrawn

Press frame one side
Dead Wedge view
metal Press Frame one side view
Container Hot extrude
Hot
Die Note the Shear
Shear contaminated Hot extrude
Ram Piston Billet
Die
scale in the
Pressure Disc Run out rear end
Shrink table
Run out
Schematic ringof hot extrusion process (direct extrusion) in
table
horizontal hydraulic extrusion press
Once the extrusion is completed, the wedge is
Hot steel billet is rolled over glass mat (lubrication), charged into
withdrawn, die and the assemble along with extrude
container. A pressure disc (dia less than container bore dia) is
and rear end (in the container) is moved to the right
made to push the hot billet through die orifice (die butted
on run out table. The shear swings into cutting the
against container through wedge) and the extrude runs over the
extrude. The scalp is removed and sent for recycling.
run out table rollers. Hard scale formed in skin is left in the
A scavenging operation is done in the container,
container to avoid the so called piping defect in extrudes.
fresh billet is charged process repeats.
Rear end of extrude concentrated Front homogeneous

Typical piping defect with piping defect Extrude free from scale
on the cross section
Axial cone or funnel defect (left) and cup and cone fracture of extrude due to differential flow during extrusion (due to
friction on wall of tools.
SCIENTIFIC PARAMETERS INFLUENCING HOT EXTRUSION
LOAD
HEAT
.STRESSING OF TOOLS .THERMAL STRESSES ON TOOLS
INCREASES. .INCLUSION OF OXIDES OR MATTERS PRODUCED BY BURNING
.DISTORTION OF WORK PIECE OF LUBRICANTS LEADING TO FORMATION OF SHELL OR
INCREASES. PIPING DEFECT
.DEFORMATION EFFICIENCY .EXTRUSION DEFECT (METAL SEPERATION IN CORE).
DECREASES .SNAKE SKIN DEFECT.
.INDIRECTLY REFLECTS HEAT IN . BLISTERS (GAS POCKETS).
DEFORMATIONAZONE & ITS .LONGITUDINAL CRACK OR SCORES BY W/P TOOL WELD.
ATTENDANT PROBLEMS .LARGE VARIATION IN STRUCTURE ALONG LENGTH & CROSS
.RESTRICTS THE AMOUNT OF SECTION.
YIELD PER PUSH (THE MAIN .EXTREME VARIATION IN MECHANICAL PROPERTIES.
FEATURE GETS DEFEATED) .GRAIN GROWTH DURING POST EXTRUSION.
.INCIPIENT MELTING.
"R" Influenced by Temperature,
Load & Strain Rate. Temperature Distribution by heat
conduction losses in hot extrusion.
I
R= D Limit due
A0/ Limit due E to partial III II I
LOAD
A1 to Press A
melting Extrude
L
E Load/Tool (Hot Short) Extrn. Tool Dead Zone
X Stress
T
 I. Deformation Zone,  , II & III. Billet Zones,  ,
R extrude zone, 
A 0 Billet Temp. Melt. Point
T
I
O
VARIABLES IN EXTRUSION : VELOCITY
MANAGEMENT
1.Heat Due to forming,
 & = 2VD2tan/d3
 2. Temp. of Extrudate,
3. Temp. due to friction & shear, 
4. Heat loss to tools = f(s)
1
2 
3
START FINISH START FINISH
Linearized Velocity  of Billet

with Motor Pump
V Control
mm/s
START FINISH START FINISH
Aimed Ideal Velocity Front End of Billet
Ensuring Isothermal Extrusion by controlling the velocity of ram

HEAT MANAGEMENT BY COMPENSATION FOR HEAT RISE
I. TAPERED HEATING OF BILLET

  
FINISH BILLET WITH START START

Steam TAPERED HEATING FINISH
Cooled INTIAL BILLET
NEAR ISOTHERMAL
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
II. COOLING OF CONTAINER/DIE/EXTRUDE TO ENSURE HEAT EXTRACTION AND THUS TO

ENSURE NEAR ISOTHERMAL EXTRUSION
III. APPLY LUBRICATION LIKE GRAPHITE, MOS2 SO THAT  IS DECREASED. THUS RISE
IS DECREASED. THIS CAN ALSO BE AUGMENTED BY INDIRECT EXTRUSION
I. a. Velocity is intentionally impeded so that, strain rate is reduced - through PUMP CONTROL
MAIN HYDRAULIC BILLET EXTRUDE

CYLINDER
P.R.V
OIL TANK
VARIABLE
DIPLACEMENT
PUMP
Thermal Sensor
OIL TANK PUMP Emf Tranformed into

CONTROL Mechanical Movement
ACTUATOR
The temperature sensor (thermo-couple) senses the temp. of billet. Sensor (solenoid)
is actuated if emf variation crosses set limit. This i tnurn activates the pump control
actuator. This results in varying the angle of the variable displacement pump, whereby
the flow rate is varied (reduced). VELOCITY OF SLIDE IS NOW DECREASED AND
HENCE THE STRAIN RATE.
.
Ensuring Isothermal condition by velocity management –pump control
HEAT CONTROL BY VELOCITY MANAGEMENT..contd
I. b. Velocity is intentionally impeded so that, strain rate is reduced - through AREA

MANAGEMENT
ONE OF THE FOUR DIES
LONG EXTRUDES LONG EXTRUDES
GANG DIE WITH IDENTICAL CROSS SECTION ASSEMBLED IN SCRAMBELD WAY

AND SURMOUNTED BY SHRINK RING
GANG DIE: Increasing the number of dies increases productivity, increases heat
extraction through extrudes, increases resistance to flow & hence velocity is
decreased & strain rate is decreased, heat rise in billet decreases, forces are also
balanced.(die life increases).
HEAT CONTROL BY VELOCITY MANAGEMENT..contd
I. c . Velocity is intentionally impeded so that, strain rate is

reduced - through DIE/CONTAINER RELATIONSHIP
THE PART
CIRCUMSCRIBING
CIRCLE
recommended value is:

du  (0.85) (dc)
du
features are:1. exit velocity is intentionally reduced, by decreasing the extrusion ratio, 2. time for
cooling for extrude is increased, 3. thus, heat extraction by extrudes increases, 4. heat rise in the
billet zones decreases.
DIE
BILLET
DC du
EXTRUDE
features are:1. exit velocity is intentionally reduced, by decreasing the extrusion ratio, 2. time for cooling for
extrude is increased, 3. thus, heat extraction by extrudes increases, 4. heat rise in the billet zones decreases.
HEAT MANAGEMENT BY COMPENSATION FOR HEAT RISE
IV. BY PROPER DIE LAND SELECTION ON THE DIES.
DIE RING SHRINK RING

(Scrambled)
DIE APERTURE
INNER SURFACE
OUTER SURFACE
FEATURES ARE:
1.Outer surface cools faster because of larger surface area. Provide less land for outer surface
and longer land for inner surface which cools slower to ensure faster heat extraction.
2. For thin sections, mass flow per unit time is less. Thus effective heat extraction is implicit.
Provide less land length for thin sections and for thick sections, provide longer land.
3. SCRAMBLED DIE CONFIGURATION NOT ONLY RELIEVES THE NOTCH EFFECT ON DIES, BUT
ALSO FACILITATES IMPLEMENTATION OF SUGGESTED LAND DESIGN DISCUSSED.
.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF EXTRUSION
1. WITH RESPECT TO MACHINING

Grinding Finish Material Saved
Material
Saved
D0 D1
D0 d
D1
Stepped Solid Part With Material Saving

Stepped & Hollow Part With Substantial Material Saving
EXTRUDED PART
RP1 RP TYPICAL PERTHOGRAPH

2 EXTRUDED PART
RP3 RP
4
R,
m
{RP1+RP2+…RP5}/5 = Ra = average roughness
Length of the part
Energy Saving (matl:s, machining:s, chip losses s), improved

surface properties, & increased fatigue life are the special features.
Notch effect is reduced due to lower RP & Ra, post machining by
grinding is also avoided.
SOME INTERSTING APPLICATIONS OF EXTRUSION
Special Merits of Extrusion (CONVERSION COST)
FINISH ROLLING OF SHEET

PRIMARY HOT ROLLING
STRAIGHTENING SHEET SHEAR TO SIZE
container Die Unit

Press
Slide
Bending Die
Cut Sheet
Punch Extrudate
Hot Billet
Press FINAL STRUCTURAL PART (COLD)
Bed PRIMARY HOT EXTRUSION
PRESSBRAKE BENDING FINAL STRUCTURAL HOT PART
CONVERSION COST IS REDUCED BECAUSE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PROCESSES ARE ACHIEVED IN ONE
PUSH.
.
SOME INTERSTING APPLICATIONS OF EXTRUSION
APPLICATION OF EXTRUSION STARTS FROM TITLE.

EACH SECTION CAN BE HOT EXTRUDED WITH
WELL-DEFINED ACCURACY.
.
EXAMPLE OF WATCH CASE PRODUCTION
Another example of production of watch case by hot

extrusion
- competes with sheet metal production route.
Cold Rolled Strips Product Scrap

having undergone
primary and secondary
processes
cold rolled sheet is sheared to obtain strips. strips are fed into cutting dies where at considerable
scrap losses are encountered as shown above. hot extrusion ensures efficient conversion cost.
Special Merits of Extrusion for Consistent form
Extrusion is used for Preforms to drop forging

EXTRUDATE
FLASH
DIE
BILLET AT ROOM
TEMPERATURE
Starting Material
DIE
Hot forged
EXTRUDATE part
Drop forging with land & gutter

Preform for forging
Since production of preform is consistent, error in drop forged part is minimised
SOME INTERSTING APPLICATIONS OF
EXTRUSION
Fibre Orientation
Starting Material by extrusion Drop forged Single Point CrankShaft

(cold extrusion) with desirable fibre monitoring
Starting Material by extrusion Drop forged (pierced) BOX Spanner

(cold extrusion) (hexagonal)
EXTRUSION TECHNIQUES FOR PREFORM PRODUCTION

IN DROP FORGING OF PARTS (a few examples)
Special Merits of Extrusion
Form & Dimension Error w.r.t SECTION ROLLING
Grooved Rolls
SECTION ROLLING., SIDE & END VIEWS
"a" IDEAL ROUND PIECE REQUIRED
"b" FORM ERROR AFTER ROLLING

WITH OVALITY
BY EXTRUSION Punch
"b" w/o ovality
"a"
Shrink Ring
FORWARD EXTRUSION
EXTRUDATE
Container & Die
DUE TO CONSTRAINED DEFORMATION, WELL-DEFINED PARTS WITH LEAST FORM

ERROR ARE ASSURED BY EXTRUSION EVEN IN "HOT EXTRUSION".
Powder Processing
Green Sintering in a
Compaction reducing & inert
in a double action atmosphere to
tool ensure
metallurgical
bond
Process involves green compaction of metal powder to ensure mechanical

bonding followed by de-waxing the binder and sintering at nearly 70 to 80%
of the melting point of the material to ensure metallurgical bonding.
The sintered part is further worked/sized to obtain net shaped part.
Anti-friction, less weight to volume, dampening and insulation properties
are the salient features.
More than 492 parts are substituted in automobiles by p/m parts
with respect to wrought parts.
A versatile techno-economical process is combining the cold forming route.
Starting powder compaction by triple Resident mean preform density
action followed by proper dewaxing with least thinning should be
and sintering at recommended high. Plastic flow constants , na
temperature and time in a reducing should be low, Ka should be
and inert atmosphere. high,  should be low.
For successful
cold extrusion of
sintered p/m
Extrusion parameters such as die preforms free from Aspect ratio in terms of h0/dd
included angle = 2  = 900, larger cracks with should not be greater than 1.5 as
extrusion reduction beyond enhanced it may bring down the critical
(logeA0/A1) 0.8 and well lubricated properties in transition density. If higher h0/d0
die should be attempted. terms of is aimed, triple action
microstructures, compaction is mandatory
mechanical
properties.
Preform nosing at one end should be Starting resident mean preform

done to suit the die angle and strain in density should be above the
extrusion to avoid the transverse and critical transition density vide
longitudinal cracks FLD
Six corner parameters cornering the success of cold extrusion of

sintered powder metallurgical preforms.
COLD EXTRUSION OF SINTERED POWDER METALLURGICAL (p/m) PREFORMS
.Why Cold Extrusion of Sintered P/M Preforms.

.
About Green Compaction - Methods and Limitations to examine the influence of Cold extrusion to
control these limitations.
About Plastic Properties Ka and na -the apparent values of flow constants in flow equation f = K.n
-to identify the safe fail limit for cold extrudability.
.About thinning curves and estimating the Plastic Constants.
.About avoiding the cracks during Cold Extrusion with special preform geometry.
.Interaction of extrusion reduction and properties of density.
WHY COLD EXTRUSION OF SINTERED POWDER METALLURGICAL PREFORMS
Techno-economically-viable process and cost effective., Due to Tri-Axial

Compressive Stresses in Deformation Zone, pore closure is effective. Densification
and Uniformity of Densification are increased., Heat involved is minimal (except
sintering) & thus environmentally friendly. Cost due to hot extrusion is saved., Other
merits of P/M working are inherent in the process., Post sintering, coining can be
eliminated due to accuracy in form, dimensions, less scale losses microstructures
ABOUT PLASTIC PROPERTIES OF Ka AND na USED IN STANDARD FLOW EQUATION f = K.n,
THE HOLLOMMON LUDWIK EQUATION
The plastic properties of porous materials are modified as apparent values of Ka and na to account for both
densification and metal matrix hardening. These values for various mean preform densities are estimated by
standard compression test.
The plot of Ka and na against sintered preform mean densities will provide inference related to safe-fail limit of
cold extrudability in terms of selecting the critical starting mean preform density to avoid any cracks while
extruding.
na value approaching the "n" value of fully dense material characterizes the sound extrudability. Having less
porosity, these preforms will not pose crack problems while being cold extruded.
What is Hollommon Ludwig Equation?
The Flow Properties of fully dense material at cold work temperature is defined by the constitutive equation
" f = K.n "
where:
f = Flow Stress or True Stress, N/mm2, K = Strength Coefficient, N/mm2 - the value of flow stress at unit plastic
strain,  = Plastic Strain or True Strain (ln h0/h1), n = Strain Hardening Exponent of the material
n = strain hardening exponent
f, MPa f, MPa
K = strength
Eqn to the curve is: coefficient
" f = K.n "
 [- ] =1
Typical Flow Curve Log Plot of Flow Curve
Very briefly, the test set-up and methodology concerned with the determination of the above
mentioned properties are discussed in the following sections. This fundamental data is extremely
useful for inferring wealth of information of formability of both fully dense and porous materials. Thus
due attention is devoted to this aspect.
Compression Test Set-Up for Estimating True-Stress -True Strain Curves (Flow Curves) as well estimation of
coefficient of friction by ring compression test.
Testing M/C LVDT Core &

Coil Y X F
Load Cell
X, (Time, sec)
Std. Specimen C.F.A
X-Y
PLOTTER
Y Typical F-X Diagram A0. H0 = Volume = V = Constant.

V1 = V0 = A1 . H1., Thus, A1 = V0/H1
F F1 = F1/A1 and 1 = ln.H0/H1
O H0 H1
R F0 F
C F1
E Typical Flow Curve
TIME, SEC

F,
N/mm2
n K
0.02True Strain,   =1
Slope = n of the Flow equation = F = K. n., K = Value of F at  = 1(unity). F = K. n., Taking log on both sides, log 
= n log  + log K which is of the form: Y + mX + C If  = 1, log  = log 1 = 0., log F = log K and thus, F = K, MPa.
About stage wise upsetting, densification curves to estimate the plastic flow
constants & FLD of Cold Extrudability of sintered p/m preforms of metallic
materials
H0
H1
H2
H3
d d d d
0 1 2 3
For a resident preform density = 0m1, the stage wise compression is shown above. The strain can be calculated as
loge H0/H1, , loge H0/H2 and so on. The physical volume dimensions can be inferred using Height and diameter after
each stage upsetting. Since voids closure are predominant in p/m compression, volume constancy concept can
not be used for estimating the instant height (which is required for obtaining instant area and thence instant flow
stress, F). Instead weight constancy concept is made use of. Then V0. 0 = Vi. I is valid. For estimating VI, the I
should be known. For this purpose, the densification curves for various resident preform densities should be
available as shown below.
Resident Density, in % Increasing 0m
90%
85%
80%
75%
Interpolation for an unknown density
70%
65%
60%
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
True Strain, , [ - ], = loge H0/H1
FAILURE ZONE SAFE ZONE
I Densification Metal matrix I
n dominates over hardening n
c metal matrix dominates over c
r na r
hardening Densification
e e
a a
s s
e e
Ka
i i
n n
Critical Transition
density discriminating na
na Ka
safe fail limit.
Ka
Check: na value
approaching " n"
of wrought
equivalent can
be observed
here
55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%
Resident Preform Density (% of theoretical density)
Typical log - log plot of Ka and na against resident sintered p/m preform
densities. (FLD for cold extrusion of sintered p/m preforms).
Green Compaction of P/M Materials by Triple Action Method
Slide Guide CL Press Slide T Slot
Back up Plate/shear
plate Press Slide (ISO Colour
Clamp Bolts Code)
Clamp Plate Top Clamp Nut
Platen
Clamp
Top Hollow Punch
Nut
Floating Clamp
Core Rod Compacting Bolt
Die
Clamp
Bottom Green Ring
Hollow Compact
Punch
Die Plate
Spring for
floating the
die unit
Press Bed
Bed made hollow for provision of
ejector and also to reduce weight of T Slot
press
Floating - Punch - Die Set Up For Compacting Steel Powder in a 500 kN Hydraulic Press For Tubular
Green Compacts. [Source: DST Sponsored Project with Prof. P. Venugopal as Principal Investigator
& Dr. S.S. Bhattacharya as Co-Principal Investigator -2001]
SCHEMATIC TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF COMPACTION METHODS ON THE DENSITY
GRADIENT OF COMPACTS
punch
SINTERED d
d
D e e
A n n
I s 0M 0M
compact E i s
t GREEN i
y
B t
A LENGTH OF B y
SINGLE ACTION
COMPACT LENGTH OF
A B
COMPACT
Density Gradient Along Length in Density Gradient Along Length in Double Action
Single Action Compaction Compaction
d
Floating Container e 0M
n
s
i
High Density
t
y A LENGTH OF B
Lower Density
COMPACT
Density Variation along Length with Triple Action Compaction
ABOUT CRACK FORMATION IN COLD EXTRUSION OF SINTERED P/M PREFORMS
Though tri-axial compressive stresses are guaranteed in extrusion, moderate tensile

stresses arising out in the deformation zone due to stretching with larger included angle
and residual tensile stresses arising out of frictional constraints (when the extrude exits the
die plane) could lead to crack formation.
Preform
Compressive stress
arising out of friction on Possible tensile stress
die tensile
die arising out of larger shear
unit stress
angle
Die Land
Extrude
MESSAGE: Die included angle "2", starting mean preform density, friction on die shoulder have strong say ON
THE ONSET OF TENSILE STRESSES AND HENCE CRACK FORMATION
THREE METHODS OF ARRESTING CRACKS DURING COLD EXTRUSION OF SINTERED P/M PREFORMS
punch Container punch New Preform

Die P/M Preform Die
Unit Deformation Zone Unit Partially Extruded
Counter Punch Piece
Method 1. Augmented Technique. Counter Method 2. Push Through Technique. The partially
Pressure increases more compressive stresses extruded p/m extrude is extruded with another fresh
in deformation zone but tool stresses will preform to create more compressive stresses in the
increase. deformation zone to avoid cracks. But again, the tool
stresses will increase.
punch
Special Nosing to suit the die geometry,
Die Unit which will arrest crack formation. Tool
stresses are low.
Method 3. With nosing of preform geometry. End face is subjected to no deformation and hence no
tensile stresses and hence crack formation is arrested. Tool Stress is lower.
Preform
TENSILE STRESS
DIE
UNIT
Die Land
Transverse Cracks occur due to tensile

residual stresses or due large
stretching in the deformation zone
An exploded view of illustration related to formation of cracks during cold

extruding a sintered p/m preforms
ENHANCED UNIFORM PROPERTIES IN TERMS OF DENSITY BY COLD EXTRUSION
D
0
nosing of preform
Cold Extruded P/M geometry to ensure
Sintered Preform Part
arresting cracks
OM
D D
E
E N
N S
I
density is uniform in extruded
S T portion & mean density is also increased due to
Y
I triaxial compressive stresses in the deformation
T zone
Y
LENGTH OF LENGTH OF COLD

PREFORM EXTRUDE
Effect of Cold Extrusion in controlling the gradient of density of starting preforms and
elevating the density of extrudes.
Drop Forging
Drop forging is finishing process while

hot forging refers to both primary &
secondary
processes.
Both are normally done at
hot working temperature.
Handling wide range of materials, weight,
size are
the special features.
Applications start from AVIATION
Upset Forging in
to AGRICULTURE Industries.
hammer or press
Upset Forging.
DROP FORGING
TYPES OF FORGING PROCESSES Basic Open Die Forging Processes
Punch with
Mandrel
a flat die
Fuller
In solid piercing, Die
volume of the slug Flat Die
separated is equal
Drawing Drawing out
to 1/3 of the hole Upsetting
out with a mandrel
created in parent can be full/partial/central
metal.
This means that,
2/3 of the
Fullering Die
impurities get
Swage
diffused into the Hammer
parent metal also.
In hollow piercing,
Rotary Swaging Plating
this defect is
overcome, since
the volume of slug Hollow Mandrel
Mandrel with
is not 1/3 of the Mandrel
round edge
hole in the parent
metal.
Solid Forge Piercring Punching out Hollow Piercing

Forging Processes for changing cross sectional area
(ESSENTIALLY PRE-FORMING TECHNIQUES TO EFFECT EFFICIENT DIE FILLING)
Punch Upper Die
Upper Die
Lower Die
Bending Die
Lower Die Without Elongation With elongation
BENDING IN THE DIE

Preformed Piece
Upper die
Lower Die
Crank
Production of a crank pin Twisting
Separating
Punch
Chisel Chisel
Anvil
Anvil Anvil
Cropping Necking Drawing out with a single shoulder
Chisel and with two shoulders
Punch with Sharp
Edge
Chisel
Anvil
Chiseling and Splitting Punching
Basic Open Die Forging Processes…contd

Drawing out Drg with saddle Plating
Section through roll forging

BASIC FORGING
TECHNIQUES FOR MASS
GATHERING Extrusion
Central Upsetting in
In die Forge Machine
Open
Rolling by hammer forging Upsetting
Techniques for mass distribution
Roll forging
Rod
Roll Forge
Pressing
MASS GATHERING AND Bending
FINISH FORGING Forge
Choke with Chokes without
Trimming
side draft draft
Production of front axle
SEPARATING PROCESSES FOR DROP FORGING - A FEW
TECHNIQUES
Thickness Reduction by chiselling and drawing out
Examples of Parting off processes. (a)

Shearing off from a profile section for the
production of wing nuts. (b) Cropping of
blanks for drop forging of spanner with least
scrap loss
SEPARATING PROCESSES AFTER DROP FORGING
Trimming Tools for forged parts. (a) Basic design, (b) Specific Example
MECHANISM OF CLOSED DIE DROP FORGING
The land & gutter design
Sequence is most commonly used.
Land ensures effective

filing of the die.
Gutter acts as a safety

device to avoid
excessive stressing of
the die.
Closed die design is

usually done in press
with isothermal
land condition - to enable
gutter
exact volume of stock to
be accommodated. Air
vent hole is a must.
Open die is used for

preforming only. The
finish forging is done in
a land and gutter design
die
Finish
Closed die design Land gutter Design Open Die design

Basics of drop forging processes
A VIEW OF THE MULTIPLE IMPRESSION DIE AND GUIDE
LINES FOR DIMENSIONING
HOT FORGING OF METALS
INTORODUCTION:
Hot forging of metal is the oldest technology in Metal Working. Scythe developed [Technical Museum, Munich, Germany] the
first of all an economical & suitable simple hammer for making martial weapons using wooden lift medium and wooden drum
rotated by impinging water. It was more an art than science. Even at that time, the number of blows per minute was given
focus to make the hammer forging compete with press forging. The conceptual schematic of this hammer is shown below:
THE FIRST & OLDEST SCYTHE HAMMER, BC
Height
Arrestor [based on Technical museum, Munich, Germany]
Lift Rod Lift Arm

Wheel Cup
Wooden Wheel
Wooden shaft
Cam
Tup Water
Work Dies
Fish
Anvil
Cap Well
Anvil
Few martial weapons
They produced
End View Height Foot Note:
Monk Lift Rod Arrestor
Wooden shaft carries cams. The wheel has cups to
Wheel Cups
Tup
receive the impinging water. The arm carrying lift rod
can be raised when the cam mates the lift rod. Height
arrestor can adjust the height. (Control of blow energy
Cam is thus varied). Once the cam leaves the contact (shaft
is rotating continuously) the lift rod carrying the die
drops by gravity to strike the job.
Front View
As can be seen from diagram, by and large, the first forgings belonged to
the laid in forging (the principles described in terms of SIEBEL equation -
enumerated in rolling) which required large axial stress and energy as
opposed to upset forging.
These large forces demanded many number of blows to finish a forged

part, gave rise to host of eccentric loading and mismatch defect.
They were primarily intended for open die forging, where accuracy was
not the major concern.
They were also used to make preforms prior to finish forging by drop
forging. Hammers were developed to meet closed tolerances by drop
forging with specific die impressions.
The most commonly used drop forging die is one with land and gutter.
Defects were also not ruled out in such types of die forgings too. The
following sections describe the common defects arising out of such
forgings.
Forging has the versatility in terms of forming few gms (wing nut) to
massive 250 tons shafts for power stations, assorted shapes, different
materials, wider applications ( from defense to agricultural areas)
compared to rolling & extrusion, replacing the assembly of parts by
welding, casting, machining.
Structurally sound, almost all the tools for forming and machine elements
are hot forged. In fact, its application in Metal Forming itself is significant.
Even though this is the oldest technology in forming, it is less capital

intensive, economical and environmentally friendly if warm forging is
resorted to.
A significant feature of forging is that, where three-dimensional

machining proves to be expensive, forging offers its candidature.
Thermo-Mechanical Forging, Iso-themal forging, Counter Blow Forging,

Orbital Forging, Liquid Forging are newer forging techniques which
ensure life cost and obviate the shape difficulty factor in forgings.
ORIGIN OF MISMATCH DEFECT
MOMENT ANALYSIS ON A DOUBLE STAND HAMMER
Crown with Drive Mechanism
Lift Medium
Head Strap
P3 P3
P3 P4
h
Stand PH Maximum
Moment Plane
PH Guide
Job
P2 P5
P1
P6 MOMENT DIAGRAM ON
Anvil Block LEFT STAND
Foot Note: Since, even in a symmetric forging, eccentric loading is possible, the moment analysis
on the frame/stands of the hammer is considered for this simulated condition. . The left stand is
subjected to severe moment compared to right stand. Since eccentric loading is also possible for
right side, the severe moment analysis is considered. Figure shows that, the accuracy on the job
is greatly affected by the severe moment occurring on the stand and guides. Hammer stand
design was therefore developed to overcome this deficiency. THE COMMON DEFECT CALLED
MISMATCH OCCURS DUE TO THIS SEVERE MOMENTS.
Ideal aimed piece Mismatch
Impression for
w/p
Land &
Gutter Flash
Upper half Flash

Flash
Dies closed Lower half

Dies opened Ideal aimed piece Mismatch
Effect of mismatch on hollow forging. Due to the offset of the centers, final drilling of the work piece becomes
difficult. Sometimes, there may be in sufficient wall thickness that, the piece may have to be rejected.
Edging is done in Possibility

station1, fullering in for eccentric
station 2 and finish Die Face Flash forging and
blow at the center attendant
with a hard blow mismatch
Preforging 1 Finish Forging Preforging 2
In a typical multiple impression die (commonly used die in drop forging) the heated rod is given 2 or 3 light blows in
edging, similarly in fullering and 1 or 2 hard blows in the finish impression. It is to be noted that, the pre-forgings
done at stations 1 and 2 will introduce eccentric forging and an offset. This will only compound the offset in finish
impression leading to mismatch. Preforgings are done for mass gathering. Finish forging is done at the center to
balance the resultant moments and forces. Yet, mismatch is possible due to reasons mentioned above. Example
shown is con-rod forging with land and gutter. Remedial measure is to make a preform by other forming process
and finish forge with single impression forging die. Error in preforms will be reduced and thus mismatch can be
kept low. (if finish forged in well-designed & guided hammer say design V or press).
PLEASE SEE THE RELEVANCE OF DEVELOPMENT OF HAMMER FOR ACCURACY
Development of hammers for accuracy.
Crown with
I. Better rigidity at planes of II. Better rigidity at planes of
Drive
high moments high moments; arching for
Mechanism
better feeding., Wanvil ., mass
Stand Stand low., since c/m is high .,
Class IV Forging became a
Design Change reality
Design Change
Crown with Drive Mechanism

Design Change by Design
one piece stand Change
By Stand
Stand cross
tie rods Please note the reduced
height of the hammer
Design
Change
III. As per type II., besides, hollow stand., mass ., ne IV. As per type III. Besides, stroke .,
since c/m ., Class IV Forging became a reality., cross drive stiffness ., N-1 ., H ., Anvil
tie rod ensures less lateral thrust and larger guide cap is introduced., replenishment
surface for limiting tup seizure cost decreases.
Design Change by Integral Stands, Crown and Anvil Base
Crown of the
Hammer
Head Lift Agent
Top Die Piece
Tup
Guide
HOLLOW
HOLLOW
L
E
F R
T I
G
S H
T T
A Arching
N S
D T
A
N
Anvil D
Botto
Cap WEDGE
m Die
Foot Note: V. ONE PIECE HAMMER: The latest hammer made as one piece comprising of the head
piece, stands and the anvil had been tested by photo elasticity technique for eccentric forging. The
results reveal that, Class "E" forging (Refer Forging Tolerance Data Sheets For "E" Quality Forging)
are possible with this hammer for form and dimensional accuracy. Class IV Forging application is
implicit in this hammer. [Mechanized for time control.] This hammer will offer its candidature for
minimizing the mismatch defect.
INCREASING DIE LIFE AND FACILITATING FLOW IN DROP FORGING WITH NON-
SYMMETRIC DIES. Rel.Velocit
Top Tool Velocity y
Matl.Velocity
Dies opened
Top Dies closed

Dies closed Die
Volume is Top
more Die
Top
Die Volume is Lower
less Die
Lower Lower
Die Die
Dies closed
Dies closed
Dies closed
Case-III
Case-I Case-II
Both dies have symmetric Non symmetric dies. Upper is Non symmetric die. Material
volume more, loweris less. gathered is more in top die w.r.to
Conventional/Traditional lower die.
Intentionally the mass gathered in the top die is made to be more. The relative velocity of the top die and flow of the
material is larger,  is less, flow is thus facilitated. Under filling can be avoided. Die wear on top die is decreased.
Though the heat rise of the top die is more due to conduction, the top die has time to up and make the next strike.
By this time, the top die would have cooled. Die softening of both top and bottom dies due to tempering are less.
Wear due to tempering & Wear due to chipping off
Wear due to retardation plastic deformation of (due to scale, &
stresses tool hardening)
w
e
a
r This slope should be as small as possible
i For increased die life of drop forge tools.
n

m
 106
Number of forgings produced
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF WEAR ON DIES IN DROP FORGINGS.[Ref: Compendium on Metal Forming

Processes, Vol.1,1973, Wagener,H.W., IIT Madras].
Sectional view
Parting
Line Sectional
view Plan view
Use the natural draft Two mirror imaged die impression for identical Multi part die. Merits are
of component parts. Not only productivity is increased , the as in case II
unbalanced couple are compensated.
SOME METHODS OF DIE DESIGN BY WHICH, DIE LIFE (DUE TO FORCES AND UN BALANCED COUPLE) AND
MISMATCH CAN BE AVOIDED. CONCEPTS ARE SHOWN IN THE ABOVE THREE EXAMPLES. SEE THE
CHANGES IN PARTING LINES OF CASES I & II. CASE II IS ALSO CALLED AS LOCKED DIES. EVEN THOUGH
PARTING LINES MAKE THE DIE MANUFACTURE DIFFICULT, (INITIAL INVESTMENT IS HIGH) BUT, IT HAS THE
ABOVE MENTIONED MERITS. NATURAL DRAFT ENSURES EASIER MANUFACTURE OF DIES BY AVOIDING
LOSS OF TOOL MATERIALS AND TIME.
ORIGIN OF DEFECT, FOLD OR LAP AND REMEDIAL MEASURES
punch
Horizontal flow is punch

largerthan upward
flow FOLD or LAP
Die Die
Initial Work piece
Sharp radii on punch make the Due to differential flow, metal wraps around
horizontal flow more than vertical itself. Pl. note on top the folding of metal in
flow resulting in differential flow in the gap between punch and die space.
wall
Split Parting Line
punch
punch
Die
Die
Due to sharp radii, metal
Due to differential flow, a As the dies close,
does not raise in
concave shape is formed in differentially flown metal
impressions equally.
both the dies as shown wraps over the metal.
COLD SHUT OR FOLDS IN DROP FORGING.

Occurs mainly because of sharp radii on dies
ORIGIN OF DEFECTS , INCUT & RESIDUAL FLASH
Area cut
Dies closed Trimmed forging
with in cut (Dimension is
Forging with Flash (orange) to Flash carries part low)
flash be trimmed of forging material
Area cut
Forging with Flash (orange) to
flash be trimmed Trimmed forging with
residual flash (Dimension is
Dies closed Flash (orange) high).
to be trimmed
Trim. Punch Forging
Flash Forging
Trim Die Flash

INFLUENCE OF PARTING LINE IN AVOIDING SEGGREGATION/CONCENTRATION OF FIBRE
Fibre Concentration. Failure can Fibre

occur here due to concentration of
fibre
Parting Line Straight

Initial Work piece
Fibre
Concentration,
where moments
are less
Parting Line Split Initial Work piece
Segregation of fibre after forging can lead to crack on the structural part, which is strained by
end moments as shown in above figure. Parting line has strong influence on the segregation
of such fibres. If the parting line is split as shown in the second figure, the flow is facilitated
both on top and bottom die halves, so that, the concentration of the fibre is avoided at places
where sever moments are likely to be encountered.
Parting Line is straight (easy) but PL is uneven & so
concentration of fibers at places where severe segregation/concentration
moment is likely to occur of fiber on the web
PL is uneven & so
segregation/concentration
of fiber on the corner
SEGREGATION & CONCENTRATION OF FIBERS DUE TO

CHOICE OF PARTING LINE
USE OF CONSISTENT PREFORMS BY OTHER FORMING PROCESSES CAN OBVIATE
MANY DEFECTS (WITH SUPERIOR PROPERTIES AND MATERIAL SAVING AND
INCREASED PRODUCTIVITY). WILL PAY OFF ONLY WHEN LARGE QUANTITIES ARE
ASSURED
Preform section by Preform section by Preform section by

hot extrusion for cutting or section side extrusion for 4
micrometer forging extrusion for double way valve
armed spanner
Bending
Bending of sheets is characterized

by moment.
Finds application from miniature clips to
Z ship building industry.
Serious problem with bending is the
SPRING BACK due to elastic stresses
above and below the neutral axis.
Correction can be attended to by resorting
to a simple die bending/coining/sizing
Z + dZ
BENDING OF SHEETS
Analysis of Moment, Free Bending Force, Unit Free Bending Force of sheets for
" v " and " u " bending characterization
Bend Angle "

"&
Bent Fibre
dy
tensile compressive
F = f (  ) y
N
R RI RU A
O b
S0 S0/2 S0/2
ANALYSIS:
Small moment, dM for the section shown at a distance of "y" from Neutral Axis,
thickness "dy", width " b " with flow stress, " F = f (  ) is given as:
dm = ( F ) ( b ) ( dy) ( y ) i.e. [ (stress) ( area) ( distance) ]………………………………( 1)
S0/2
M = Moment for the upper half = ( b)  ( F ) ( y ) ( dy) since " b " is a constant……( 2 )
0
M = {(FMEAN) ( b )} {( S02 )} / 8 and for both sides, M = { ( FMEAN) ( b) ( S02) } / 4………( 3 )
FB = Free Bending Force = Moment/ Radius = { ( FMEAN) ( b) ( S02) } / 4 ( RTOOL)…….( 4 )
( FMEAN ) = K. bn / n + 1 .,………………………………………………………………... …… ( 5 )

Where K & n are found from well known Hollomann Ludwik equation vide: F = K. n
Unit Free Bending, FB rationalized for width b = (FMEAN) (S02)} / 4 (RTOOL), Kgf/mm.,( 6)
RTOOL = RP in V Bending & RD in U Bending
Logarithmic Strain of Bending b is = loge { (1 + S0 ) / 2. RI ) } ….. ( 7 )
where, e = S0/2. RI
Based on [Ref: Hand Book of Metal Forming by Kurt Lange, Ed. In. Chief, Tata McGraw
Hill Publ. N.Y., 1985], the above analysis is furnished related to bending of sheets.
Since various widths of b of sheets have been investigated, the Unit Free Bending
Force concept is introduced. V bending is analogous to simply supported beam., the
radius of punch has strong influence for an optimal span length. U bending is
analogous to shallow drawing and radius of die has strong influence. The influence
mentioned refers to spring back by air bending. SOURCE: AICTE PROJECT: Prof. P.
Venugopal, IIT, Madras, Jan 2001.
Punch Punch
RP Sheet of 2
mm
thickness
S0 RD U Die
V Die
V BENDING U BENDING
FB = (FMEAN). (b. S02) / (4. RP) FB = (FMEAN) .( b. S02) / (2. Rd)
Design & Drawn : Prof. P. Venugopal, IIT Madras, May, 2001

V BENDING STUDIES OF SHEETS TO UNDERSTAND MECHANISM - SCHEMATIC OF EXPERIMENT
PRESS SLIDE
E.R.S.D
Pressure Plates (Load Sensor)
PUNCH BOLSTER
From LVDT
Punch Back Up Plate Amplifier
V Bend Punch with RP = 2, 5, 10, & RP

X-Y Plotter
15 mm
V Bend Die Sheet of 2 mm thick,

with RD = 2 mm 58 mm length
DIE BOLSTER
PRESS BED
Figure shows the SUB - PRESS EQUIPMENT designed and
evolved for investigations on sheet bending of various width
plastic properties of n = 0.08 to 0.56 (strain hardening exponent)
for understanding the kinematics of the process, spring back
correction by die bending (an economical approach). User
friendly three dimensional nomograms have been evolved to
estimate the free bending force, spring back and die bending
force to ensure zero spring back. Investigations have been
carried out for sintered powder metallurgical sheet materials
also.
Design &Drawn SOURCE: AICTE Sponsored Project: Prof. P.
Venugopal, IIT, Madras, Jan 2001.
Design & Drawn : Prof. P. Venugopal, IIT Madras, May, 2001

U BENDING STUDIES OF SHEETS TO UNDERSTAND MECHANISM -
SCHEMATIC OF EXPERIMENT
PRESS SLIDE
Pressure Plates E.R.S.D (Load Sensor)
PUNCH BOLSTER
Amplifier
Punch Back Up Plate
RP X-Y Plotter
U Bend Punch with RP = 2,mm
U Bend Die with RP = 2 mm
RD = 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 mm Sheet of 2 mm thick, 50 mm
length
DIE BOLSTER
PRESS BED
BED HOLE
INFERENCES ON V & U BENDING INVESTIGATIONS
A. Free Bending Force - Stroke Diagram

F
O
commencement of
R free bending
C force, FB
die bending (or)
E coining/bottomming
I
N
insertion &
K termination of
G moment
plastic
deformation
elastic
deformation
STROKE, IN, MM
B. Die Bending Force - Stroke Diagram IN PREFERRED NUMBERS
OF INCREASE IN FORCE
F Blue: 80 FB
O Insertion, 60 FB
R 40 FB
Red: Die
C bending 20 FB
E
16 FB
I
10 FB
N
K
G
STROKE, IN, MM
+ Optimal Die Bending Force
Spring for Zero Spring
Back, % Back, %
0
--
10 16 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

FB FB FB FB FB FB FB FB FB
Die Bending Force IN PREFERRED NUMBERS OF INCREASE

IN FB
C. Spring Back Evaluation with respect to Die Bending Force (AN

EASIER OPTION)
Deep Drawing
Deep drawing is a process in which, a sheet is plastically deformed to

produce a hollow like part by the application of tensile stress.
Circumference is reduced to punch circumference.
This can be possible by tangential compressive hoop’s stress.
This tangential hoop’s stress is responsible for wrinkle formation.
Blank holder pressure is thus necessary.
Finds its application from domestic utensils to automobile industries.
Most of the automobile body parts are made by deep drawing.
Press Ram
LVDT
Deep Drawn Cup of height "
Spacer rods
h" and ID : dp
Stripper pin mechanism
Die nose radius
Blank of dia: D0 & thick: S0

Blank Holder
Plate
Punch nose radius
Punch
Blank Holder
Rod Press Bed
Load Cell
Blank Holder Rod

Carrier Frequency
Cushion pad Amplifier
Cushion
cylinder
Piston rod
X-Y Plotter
Schematic of the setup for Deep Drawing. [Source: Design by Prof. P. Venugopal, IIT Madras, 1970]
The Set-Up is also called as SWIFT CUP FORMING TEST whose objectives are listed below:
(T)
Blank holder plate pBH
Flange of blank
Radial tensile stress Frictional Force Draw Die

(R).
Blank of dia D0 &
First Order
thickness S0
wrinkles
Drawn Cup of dia D & thickness S0 Increase b.h.p
Second Order
wrinkles.
Increase b.h.p.
Second Order wrinkles or pucker effect during a conical draw.

Remedy lies in decreasing the tangential compressive stress by any
means.
Typical Earing defect
Remedy lies in trimming or selecting a sheet with a high
isotropy number
DEFECTS IN DEEP DRAWING
Wrinkle
Worms or
stretcher strain
defect.
Orange
Peel defect
Cottrell. atm.

T T
Differential
grain size
e
Wrinkle formation Worms or stretcher strain Orange peel defect due

due to slenderness defect due to upper & lower to diffl. Grain size.
Increase b.h.p yield point phenomena. Use ASTM No: 6
Skin pass rolling
Coined w/p
overcoming
spring back
+ 
instead of
900
Coining
Punch
Coining Die
Defective drawn COINING OR SIZING Sized W/P
part with spring IN KNUCKLE JOINT
back error OR HYDRAULIC
PRESS
punch Lubricant Lubricant
Die
Case : I Lubricant between Case: II Lubricant at Case: III Lubricant only on the
punch & blank both interfaces interface between punch & die
F
O
R
C Case I
E
Ironing phenomena
Case II due to either low
I Case III clearance or
N thickening at edge
of blank. May or
Force w/o may not occur
k
IRONING
N
Punch Stroke, mm
The above Force Stroke Diagram indicates the aspect of where the lubricant should be employed to
avoid bottom tearing or wall tearing during deep drawing. Case III proves its merits from the above
diagram. This diagram enables identify the position of maximum force for selection of Mech. Presses.
DRAW BEADS FOR DEFECT FREE DEEP
DRAWING
Blank lay out for Rectangular/Square Cup Corners are

Draw drawn into a
circular cup.
Sides are bent & Flow is difficult
thus flow is
easier.
Draw beads are
provided in
these regions Draw beads
The four quadrants of the corners constitute a circular deep drawing, while the sides are bent
and pushed into the die to form a square or rectangular cup. Deep draw is characterized by
more resistance to flow than that of bending. To avoid the mismatch during draw, draw beads
are provided as shown to ensure defect free draw. Draw beads decreases the free flow &
increases the radial tension also so that, wrinkle formation can also be avoided.
R VALUE & ITS SIGNIFICANCES IN DEEP DRAWING
900 to Rolling Thickness " S "

Direction
450 to Rolling
Direction Width" w " Width" w "
 
Rolling
direction S
Sample sheet for testing "R" value Tensile Sample sheet for testing "R" value
Cold Rolled Sheets have usually preferred orientation of crystallites reflecting high an-
isotropic characteristics.
Thus, when a sheet is deep drawn, the radial strain and the circumferential strain do not match
giving rise to wavy defect called earing defect.
This mechanism is characterized by ISOTROPY NUMBER "R" Value in deep drawing.
R is defined as LogeS/W by a tensile test. Higher the R value better is the favorable condition
for deep drawing free from earing defect.
Such R values are estimated for rolling direction, 450 and 900 to rolling direction as indicated.
Then, a value called R = {R0 + 2R45 + R90}/4 is also found out.
Higher this value, better is drawing w/o earing. Planar isotropy, R = r max - r min should be low
& this will reflect the minimal an-isotropic condition and thus will indicate the candidature of
the sheet free from earing defect.
Cross rolling is expected to ensure this favorable aspect.
DEEP DRAWING, ASSOCIATED DEFECTS AND REMEDIAL MEASURES.
INTRODUCTION:
Deep drawing is a major sheet metal working process in the net shape forming process group.
Generally, a sheet metal of determined shape is drawn into a hollow like component by the application of
tensile principal stress by a punch (Z) through a shape forming die.
During this shape, the thickness is not expected to change. Circumference of blank is reduced by
tangential compressive principal stress (T) and cup like form is made by pulling the blank by radial
tensile principal stress (R).
When circumference is reduced to tangential compressive hoop' stress, buckling on the plane of blank
(wrinkles) can occur if the slenderness in terms of thickness to blank length is very small.
In the case of a pure circular deep drawing, if s0/D0 is less than 2%, wrinkles are likely to occur. To prevent
this, usually a blank holder plate with necessary normal pressure is provided to avoid the so-called
wrinkle defect.
Due to an-isotropy of the material, the strain in two principal directions may not be identical.
As a result, a defect called earing perpendicular plane of the blank can occur. This being a material defect
can be addressed by selecting material, which has usually large isotropic value.
Since, deep drawing is a tensile forming, strain achievable is limited.
Large forces acting on the base of the cup can lead to tearing of the base or on the wall.
These large forces arise due to 1. High drawing ratio, high b.h.p, (blank holder pressure), low clearance
between punch and die, sharp punch & die radii, high bending forces on the die, thickness reduction
between punch & die when the last segment (which has thickened due to (T) takes place as ironing.
Speed of draw is another parameter (which fails to match the draw and stretch rate of metal) responsible
for wall crack or base crack.
During the drawing of non-cylindrical cup like hemisphere, conical cups, the sidewall is not subjected to
sufficient blank holder pressure. Under these cases, second order wrinkles can occur (called pucker
defect).
Any method to reduce (T) will obviate the pucker defect. Increasing the b.h.p will increase the (R).
For Tresca Criterion, flow stress is constant. Thus, if radial stress increased, tangential stress will have to
decrease so that flow stress is constant and thus, the formation of pucker effect can be avoided.
This concept is made use of by draw beads, larger blank diameter etc. in non-rotation and non-axi
symmetric deep drawing also.
If lubrication between punch and blank is avoided, the frictional force which drags the cup acts in the
same direction of (Z) reduces the punch load/stress and bottom tearing can be avoided.
Under this situation the deep drawing becomes a friction aided

SCOPE OF THE WORK:
To familiarise with the tool aspects concerned with swift cup forming test vide the
above practical test,
To establish optimal Blank Holder Pressure (BHP), To estimate the Limiting

Drawability Ratio (LDR),
To register the force-stroke diagram and understand its significance,
To apply lubricants on the (a) punch and blank side (b) blank and die side, (c)
punch, blank and die side,
To understand the contribution of friction in Deep Drawing

EXPERIMENTAL:
Enclosed drawing shows schematic of the experimental set-up consisting of the punch,
draw die, blank holder plate, load sensor, stroke sensor, amplifier, x-y plotter.
Aluminum blanks of thickness 1.5 mm and diameter ranging from 60 mm to 120 mm are
centered on the blank holder plate and at these conditions pressing is done to observe the
onset of wrinkles.
The die cushion pressure for the various thicknesses to diameter ratios is varied till wrinkle
free cups are formed.
Thus the optimal blank holder pressure is established.
With this optimal blank holder pressure, for the given punch diameter, the blank diameter is
increased and pressed till the bottom tearing is encountered.
This identifies the LDR.
Lubrication is applied as mentioned in the aim and the force-stroke diagram is plotted.
Maximum forces are inferred under the above conditions and the conditions under which
minimum force is encountered is established.
This condition is observed when the lubricant is applied on the blank and die faces only
SUMMARY/INFERENCES:
The experimental study enables familiarisation with the important deep drawing
investigations.
The optimal BHP, LDR, and the contribution of friction aiding Deep Drawing (frictional force
acts in the direction of the punch movement) are observed.
The defects like wrinkles, earing, orange peel defect, stretcher strain defects are understood
by these tests.
Cracks on wall, base are also identified for their sources.
The position of stroke at which the maximum force occurs is observed and is found to be
material dependent.
This information is essential for selection of appropriate mechanical presses whose forces
are stroke dependent.
The versatility of this test set-up is discussed for various materials for their Deep Drawing
qualities.
n HAS A SAY ON THE POSITION AT WHICH MAXIMUM FORCE OCCURS [Ref: KURT LANGE, Hand
Book of Metal Forming, McGraw Hill Publ. N.Y., 1985]
Ideal stress for deep drawing is given by equation:
FMEAN. Ln. where  = D0/Dp.,
Do and dp are the blank dia and punch dia resply.
A plot of variation of FMEAN and Ln. against punch stroke during deep drawing is
shown below. As the metal work hardens, the stress increases and as the D0
decreases to dp, ln  decreases with punch stroke. The cross product of these two
quantities assumes a high value at a certain percentage of stroke, where at the
maximum draw force is expected.
This position is very important for selecting appropriate mechanical presses like
crank or eccentric ones for compatibility of force kinematics. It is essential to know
the compatibility to avoid press stalling or tearing of the cup where the force
required by the process is less than that delivered by the press.
Both stress and  variation reflect the strain hardening characteristics of the
material. Thus, n has a strong influence in selecting the machine tool for deep
drawing.
P
R Force
E for the
S Press
FMEAN S
Ln. F
O
R
Ln.
and C
E
FMEAN
Force
Press for deep
Force drawing
Press stroke, h
M.D.C. B.D.C.
Punch stroke, mm
Position of Maximum Force is decided by the cross product of mean flow stress and strain
hardening exponent
Cutting
Characterized by 1/3 shear

(very little plastic deformation)
and 2/3 fracture
BLANKING & PIERCING
BLANKING
punch
sheet
Die Die
Blanked out
PIERCING piece
punch
Pierced
piece
sheet
Die
Die
If this part is useful, it is

called piercing
If this part is
useful, it is called
blanking
Blank is first bent, sheared over the
1/3rd S0 - clean cutting edges for 1/3rd thickness.
shear Thickness now reduced. Stress
rd
2/3 S0 fracture increases, fracture gets initiated. If
fracture lines from punch and die sides
Blank of thickness"S0" meet, total separation occurs. 2/3rd of
made out of blanking thickness is characterized by fractured
surface.
Impingement
Remedy
ring
Blank of thickness Shear Zone Counter

S0 made out of fine punch
blanking with clean
edge Fine Blanking with impingement ring,
master punch & counter punch
With the triple action force, the shear zone is augmented with compressive
stresses. Even if micro cracks are formed, they get dynamically closed due
Impingement ring to the hydrostatic mean compressive stresses. The separated piece is
clean sheared for the entire thickness.
In conventional blanking, post forming such as grinding and
polishing/buffing are required to eliminate the fractured surface.
Miscellaneous cutting operations
Sheet Notching at corners A box is made by bending the

OPEN CUT skelp
PLAN VIEW Feed Stop
Feed Direction
Sheet Notching Feed Stop

Notching performed for making box, for feed stop, for balancing unbalanced couple.
Sheet Open Cut Skelp is bent over
LANCING
Feed Direction Stage 1 Stage 2
Feed
Stop
Sheet
Small hole is pierced

PROGRESSIVE CUTTING TO MAKE WASHER
Bigger hole is blanked
Feed Direction Stage 1

&2
Sheet
PLAN VIEW
COMPOUND TOOL TO MAKE WASHER

Feed Direction
PLAN VIEW Sheet Feed Stop
Blanking (and Forming)
Blanked & drawn w/p
Stage 1
&2
Blanking and Forming
COMBINATION TOOL FOR BOTH CUTTING AND FORMING

SUMMARY OF DEFECTS
IN FORMING
SUMMARY OF DEFECTS IN FORMING
GROUPING OF FAILURES IN FORMING
I. Depending upon state of stress
Tension Shear Tension & Compression

Compression
Processes
BULK SHEET BULK, SHEET AND DEEP DRAWING,

FORMING FORMING SHEAR FORMING BENDING, ROD DRAWING
FAILURES
High Tool Stresses, Limitation on strain, 1/3 shear, 2/3 Material failure due to
Tool failure, Form instability proponed fracture, distortion instability, orange peel
error due to high & thus pre-matured of sheet due to earing, wrinkles, pucker
forces, depletion of fracture on parts. spring back. defect, worms, cup & cone
lubricant, tool pick- Adv.: In pure Adv.: In off set fracture, violent spring
up, tool galling, tension like stretch shear, favorable back.
Adv.: Crack closure, forming, spring monitoring of fibre
crack less in formed back is less for end use.
parts
2. Depending upon Temperature
COLD Excessive Cold working can lead to strain hardening & consequent
FORMING cracking, un favorable residual tensile residual stress, cold shortness due to
presence of phosphor, excessive an isotropy, alarming tool stresses in bulk
forming, excessive deformation work can convert to heat & possibly foul
with dynamic strain aging
Scale loss and pitting, hot shortness due to sulfur, stick friction increases
HOT & die wear and under filling are attendant defects, chemical non
FORMING homogeneity and differential and grain sizes increase, microstructure
changes, laminations, rolled in oxides, seams, folds, laps, high order of
dimensional error, inclusions of burn out lubricants, gas pockets, blisters,
different types of cracks in various deformation processes.
Limitation on tool stresses due to proper selection of compatible lubricants

WARM
and host of its attendant failures.
FORMING
3. Strain Rate Effect
High strain rate increases adiabatic heating leading to DSA,

retardation stresses, tool failure, cracking on hot extrudes, hot
shortness & cold shortness.
Decreased strain rate causes higher heat loss to dies, die wear
increases, increased stick friction, under filling.
High strain rate forming should be addressed to Safety, Technical

know how, Administrative hazels, People, Legal complications &
Economic viability (STAPLE).
Strain rate sensitivity index discriminates hot, warm & cold

working. Strain rate characterizes the strain rate sensitivity index.
DEFECTS IN DEEP DRAWING
1. Differential grain sizes lead to orange peel defect due to differential

Material Properties strains vide hall petch equation. 2. Earing defect iscaused due to
anisotropic properties. i.e. R value is low., strains in different axes are not
identical. 3. Dynamic Strain aging (or) upper and lower yield point
phenomena leads to worms defect/stretcher strain/luder bands because of
differential strains for the applied stress.
Remedies 1.Grain size ASTM NO: 5 to 6 is preferred. 2. Random rolling of sheets or

annealing. 3. Skin pass rolling
1. Wrinkles on flange, 2. Wrinkles/Pucker defect on sidewall, 3.

Process Parameters
Thinning, 4.tearing (both at base as well on wall), tool galling in
stainless steel
1. Optimal blank holder pressure (OBHP)., Increase radial tension by BHP or

draw bead. , If design permits, increase blank diameter.,
With redrawing, resort to rubber pad forming., 2. Increase the friction on
punch side or resort to edge pressure drawing (change of stress from tension
Remedies to compression). 3. Use Aluminium bronze punch and use polythene sheet as
lubricant on die blank interface, 4. Check the speed of draw, 5. Die radius: 8 to
10 times thickness "S", punch nose radius 3 to 5 times S, clearance between
punch & die per side 1.2 S.
DEFECTS IN BLANKING
1. 1/3 of thickness is clean (shear), 2/3 thickness is fractured. 2. Blanks

are distorted due to bending.
Process Parameters
1. Grinding and buffing 2. Resort to fine blanking with impingement

ring & counter pressure in which, the shear zone is reinforced with
augmented compressive stresses. 3. For minimizing distortion, reduce
Remedies
the cutting forces by various methods. Partial cutting, shear angle on
punch or die, stepped punch, progressive tool cutting etc.
DEFECTS IN BENDING OF SHEETS
1.Common defect is spring back because of elastic stresses

Process just above and below neutral plane - both in V and U bending.
Parameters
Remedies 1. Economical approach is to resort to die bending or coining

[Ref: P. Venugopal, AICTE Sponsored Project Report, and Jan
2001 on Bending of V and U to overcome spring back]. 2. Tool
correction to over bend, 3. In U Bending, use counter pressure.
punch
Bent w/p
die Counter
punch
Left: Die bending with increased force of free bending, Right: Die
bending with counter pressure to avoid spring back.
DEFECTS IN ROLLING
Ingot impurities have strong influence. Any slag inclusion

undetected will give rise to lamination defect, structure and
Material Properties properties across cross section are not so good because of
cooling effect, unfavorable residual stresses set in due differential
cooling, rolled in oxides are perennial problem in hot rolled parts.
Blisters due to entrapped gas, seams/fins (discussed in forging)
are also other defects..
The friction hill formation in the deformation zone (vide SIBEL

EQUATION) gives rise to roll spring back, which in turn results in
Process Parameters non flatness of rolled parts. This root cause is chiefly responsible
for varieties of defects in rolling such as edge cracks, edge
buckling, zipper breaks, central split, alligator defect - which are
discussed in detail in rolling chapter
Inclusion free ingots, smaller ingots, correct controlled

Remedies deformation, temperature, speed of rolling would keep the defects
cited above to a minimum. Roll crowning in hot rolling and use of
back and front tension will be remedial approaches for the defects
arising out of friction hill formation.
DEFECTS IN HOT EXTRUSION
Ingot impurities have strong influence. Any slag inclusion undetected will
give rise to lamination defect, structure and properties across cross section
Material Properties are not so good because of cooling effect, unfavorable residual stresses set
in due differential cooling, oxides are perennial problem in hot extruded
parts. Piping /shell defect occurs due to this. Hard scales getting stuck to
tools can give rise to longitudinal crack. Depletion of lubricants under severe
stresses can cause tool galling, tool failure besides cracks on extrudes. In
brief, the demerits of hot working are inherent in the hot extrusion. Grains on
skin can coarsen during subsequent heat treatment. Exit temperature of
extrudes causes the so-called snake skin/fir tree/transverse cracks.
Speed, temperature and deformation are chief sources for the fluctuation
in temperature of the billet. Isothermal extrusion is preferred to adiabatic
Process extrusion to ensure larger deformation per push. This is defeated by the
Parameters process parameters such as speed, deformation, specific heat of the
material, friction, die container relationship, velocity of the exiting extrude.
Inclusion free ingots, smaller ingots, correct controlled deformation,

temperature, speed of extrusion would keep the defects cited above to a
minimum. Heat management and velocity management are very important
Remedies to overcome many defects cited above. Area management, velocity control
using hydraulic motor - pump control, gang dies are common methods by
which, the isothermal extrusion is ensured to avoid defects. Most of these
are dealt in the extrusion chapter.
DEFECTS IN DROP FORGING
Characterized (characterizing) by Composition, thermal properties, force,

furnace, tool, machine, work sequence and treatment - which have influence
on scale, production accuracy, wear, energy and guidance, slug alterations,
inter stage influence, trimming, heat treatment and de scaling.
The above give rise to defects in:
Length, breadth, dia thickness variations, shape variation, positional error,
poor surfaces, thermal error, strength of the forged parts.
Parameters Folds/laps/cold shut, mismatch, fins or seams, cracks, incut, residual flash,
under filling, excessive die wear are the common defects arising out of
process parameters.
Velocity of forming has very strong influence in increasing strain rate,
retardation stresses, and subsequent tool failure.
Good control over chemical composition, furnace control, ( if possible resort

to warm forging), proper production sequence to delegate the work and force,
good guidance on the machine/tools, disciplining the slug preparations,
(consistency in preforms), minimizing the mismatch for minimal trimming
Remedies
error, proper parting line, radii and fillets on tools to overcome the defect
folds, reduce the friction by increasing the relative velocity, providing lobes
in dies to avoid fins or seams, provide adequate match plane area on die
surfaces to avoid the harmful effect of retardation stress.
The difference is the way, work piece axis is positioned to the plane of die. If it
is vertical, it is upset forging and if it is parallel, it is lain in forging. Upset
UPSET AND LAID forging is easier compared to laid in forging vide SIEBEL equation, (Z =F {1 +
IN FORGINGS 1/3. .l/h}). Errors are more in laid in gorging than upset forging since forces
and moments are larger. Counter blow hammer is the answer to this defect.
Folds, buckling and peripheral cracks are the common defects in upset forging.
Coning and horizontal forging machine are the remedial approaches to avoid
these defects.
Final
DIE PLANE Diameter
Peripheral
cracks
Slug - Coning Finish
Pre-forge1 Finish Pre-forge2 l//d upset
forge
Laid-in-forging Upset forging
Remedy UPPER DIE

fin fin
LOWER DIE Finished job with rolled over

Fin gets rolled fins/seams
Provide lobe on both dies to over job
avoid fins
DEFECTS IN COLD FORGING/EXTRUSION
It is generally said that "DEFORMATION IS ASSURED IN

COLD EXTRUSION DUE TO THE THREE PRINCIPAL
COMPRESSIVE STRESSES, BUT, THE PROCESS IS LIMITED
Parameters BY ALARMING TOOL STRESSES". Thus failures are more
towards the tooling than the product. Non-spheroidized
annealing will limit the ductility. Very high order of friction
COLD EXTRUSION between work piece and tool accentuates the tool stresses.
Lubricant plays an important role. Flash crack due to
Punch depletion of lubricant is a common defect. Formation of dead
zone vide SIEBEL EQUATION limits the extent of shape
change and diffuses the heterogeneous material into the
already homogeneously deformed material. Funnel effect
due to differential flow (friction) is another defect commonly
encountered. Static and forced drifting of the punch leads to
Container
Shrink Ring positional error and sometimes can lead to tool failure.
& Die
Transverse and longitudinal cracks due to tensile residual
stresses are other common defects due high friction in
Forward rod extrusion
deformation zone. SERIOUS PRODUCT ERRORS ARE 1.
FORM ERROR, 2. POSITION ERROR, 3. SEVERE
DIMENSIONAL ERROR DUE TO LARGE SCALE ELASTIC
DEFORMATION OF THE TOOLS.
Tool Related Limitation on carbon content of steel is 0.45% since, tool
Defects stresses can not withstand stress beyond 2000 N/mm2.
Carbide punches are required for high carbon steel cold
COLD
extrusion (expensive & justified only very large sizes are
EXTRUSION
assured). Punch failure includes 1. Shattering due to
Punch carbide precipates, over loading, two billets getting
extruded, forced drifting, poor radii and fillets on
transition zones of punch body, un balanced thrust of the
machine, poor heat treatment of punch. Die failure
invariably occurs due to improper shrink ring fitting.
In can extrusion shown below, punch is under severest
Container &
condition compared to other basic extrusion processes.
Shrink Ring
Die Slenderness, heavy reductions, thin wall, thin base can
shoot up the punch stress. Lubricant depletion and flash
crack at punch face & attendant crack are common
possibilities. Non compatible lubricant can lead to tool
Forward Hollow Extrusion
pick up and tool galling (wear).
On ejector side, spring back of spring back of the die
causes implosion on extrude and thus, ejector rod can
buckle or fail.
PUNCHES & DIES ARE PRONE TO FREQUENT TO
FAILURE.
Remedies Any method to reduce the main principal stress Z will
obviate many of the tool failure. For example, adiabatic
COLD extrusion will soften the work piece, phosphate
EXTRUSION coating in steel and oxalic coating in stainless steel
will reduce friction. Selection of M1 or M2 steels with
Punch
three tempering can ensure correct hardness and
Can toughness. If Z is reduced, R is reduced. Then die
Extrudate
elastic expansion is decreased. Implosion is reduced.
Ejector failure can be avoided. Use of non-rotation
symmetric billet can reduce punch stress. Good
polishing of die and tool are n/c to reduce notch effect.
While the above approaches are economical, coating
of punches and dies by PVD or nitriding can also form
solutions. But they are expensive.
In can extrusion, the difficulties can be over come by
resorting to extruding a can (with in limits) by forward
Container hollow extrusion.
& Die The failures & remedial measures related to cold
extrusion of porous materials are discussed in
Backward extrusion extrusion chapter
DEFECTS IN COLD HEADING
Cold heading is characterized (specifically with respect to

fastener production) by enlarging the cross section of bar
Parameters at one end or two ends or at the middle. Accordingly, they
can be termed as end upset forging and central upset
Initial Heading forging. The machines that are used for bolts are called bolt
W/P Punch
masters and that used for nuts are called nut formers.
L0 Several thousands of varieties of bolts and nuts are formed
Final
L1
under cold forging condition.
W/P
The parameters that characterize the process are: upset
ratio "s = l0/dd" signifying the buckling defect, strain "eL =
(L0 - L1)/L0, signifying the limiting strain without peripheral
Heading die gripping the crack, L = ln(L0/L!) signifying the limit on tool stresses. In
work initial piece addition to this coning operations are done to obtain larger
heading. Here, the cone angle has strong influence on the
fold or lap formation on the headed part. The difficulty in
taper and maintaining the co-axiality between bar and
coning tool gives rise to static and forced drifting which
results in such folds or laps. Adjacent figures illustrate the
Peripheral cracks heading operations and nut forming sequence from bar
due to excessive stock.
Buckling
strain, eL
Nut forming in nut
former with transfer
mechanism.
Final heading
Second
Cone blow
First cone Sequence to achieve
Initial
blow large heading
Starting bar stock w/p
Recommended Sequence to achieve uniform properties at each

section of high tensile fastener
4. Heading and
1. Rolled wire extrude
First piercing
3. Extrude
2.Upset
 the wire
=
L U
N
2nd piercing with transfer
(A1/A
fingers
0)
Courtesy: Kurt Lange, Hand Book of Metal Forming, 1985
Enclosed upsetting for nut The above figure illustrates the proper sequence in the manufacture of
shape high tensile fastener. Each section of the bolt tested for UTS shows
homogeneous properties because the strain imparted is properly planned.
Thank you for your patient hearing and wish you good
luck, 19th October, 2001.
Prof. Dr. P. Venugopal, Professor & Head, Metal Forming Laboratory,

Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Madras, Chennai - 600 036/INDIA
Email:pvenu@iitm.ac.in
Telephone: 91-44-4458599 (Office)
91- 445 9599 (Residence)
Copy right
© Prof. P. Venugopal

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WARM GREETINGS TO

YOU DEAR AUDIENCE

0. Cast Part to wrought Part & Special features.

Initial Casting defects 1.Heterogeneous grain size, 2. Chemical non-

CAST STRUCTURE IS TRANSFORMED INTO WROUGHT STRUCTURE

Columnar Dendritic Coarse cast

Plastically deformed Randomly Fragmentation &

Seggregarted Chemical Well dispersed

Dynamic Welded fiber to ensure

Structural Integrity + Compositional Integrity + Mechanical Integrity

Mechanical Integrity in Such a fiber line should not By resorting to a machining

1By the application of applied stresses and temperature, the

3By the application of mechanical stresses, the brittle second phase

Thread cutting decrease the length of fiber, life of the

Some techniques which cause failure of

By resorting to thread rolling (a

Cold deformed piece

Length of the part

Surface undulations get annihilated. Superior accuracy and increased

Hooker Punch Pressure

Die Back up plate

Machining Volume before & after is constant

Reference: Detroit Ford Company, USA.

Conversely, the efficiency by forming route is the highest

More Work due to V

Crack Closure &

3.1 COLD WORK Forming before heating

Excessive strain hardening leads to cracking.

3.2 HOT WORK Forming After heating to HOT WORKING TEMPERATURE

Demerits of cold work and hot work are overcome.

INCREASED STRAIN RATE CAUSES

DECREASED STRAIN RATE CAUSE

1.In H.W, higher heat loss to the dies occurs.

0.01 Strain Rate, per sec 1000

Prof. Dr. P. Venugopal, Professor & Head, Metal Forming Laboratory,

Primary principal stress is tensile. The other two

1.2 Primary Process

Pinning down atoms.,

1. Tool Stress, 2. Flow Stress, 3. Lubricant Efficacy, 4. Ductility, 5. Scale

Typical transverse crack in hot extrusion due to high exit velocity

Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications

Dies CIRP.303: Forming of hot Discs or blanks used as

Sketch Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications

Shaped parts - small to medium

Sketch Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications

CIRP. 5121: Forming by axial Regular/ irregular

Sketch Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications

FORMING PROCESSES PERFORMED IN PRESSES & HAMMERS. 01

Sketch Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications

CIRP.2360: Forming a design on Forming ribs to increase

Sketch Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications

CIRP.2340: Forming by pulling a

CIRP.2351: Forming by reducing

Sketch Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications

punch Sizing CIRP.2350: Finish forming

Sketch Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications

CIRP.2323, 2325: Forming of Structural shapes such as

FORMING PROCESSES PERFORMED IN PRESSES & HAMMERS. 02

Sketch Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications

Rotary DIN 8583, 1969: Forming Nosing of ends of tubes,

Sketch Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications

Sketch Operation Definition or Description Uses or Applications

Shrink Container &