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ENGINEERING
GENERAL BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION (G.B.C)
MODULE I
Nganga Gicheha
Dip: TechEdu. Dip: Bld Const. Hdip: Bld Const. BTech: Const Mgt.
MSc: const mgt
DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION (G.B.C)
1. Introduction
- History of building
- Building process
2. Preliminaries.
- Site investigation
- Site clearing
3. Setting out
- Tools
- Equipment
- Procedure
4. Leveling
- Methods of leveling
- Tools used
- Equipment
5. Foundation
- Tools &equipment
- Excavation
- De-watering
- Timbering to trench
6. Types of foundation
- Building code
- Types of foundation
- Underpinning
7. Wall construction
- Functional requirements
- Forms of wall construction
- Classification of walls
- Dimensional co-ordination
- Moisture prevention
- Opening in walls
- Termite control
8. Door frames
- Functional requirements
- Types of door frames
- Methods of installation
9. Window frames
- Functional requirements
- Materials of window frames
- Methods of installation
10. Fire places, flues and chimneys
- General principles of design of fire places
- Terminologies for fire places and flues construction
11. Ground floors
- Functional requirements
- Procedure of construction
HISTORY OF BUILDING
Introduction
Building construction is the art of providing shelter to human being. It is the oldest industry
which started with the existence of man. This is because man had to protect himself from
atmospheric inconveniences such as rain, wind, sunshine, snow etc.
The first pre historic man who lived during Stone Age lived in caves which were either
excavated on stone or on firm grounds. The excavation tools being sharp stones or sharpened
pieces of wood.
As man continued to become more civilized there came to existence of constructed shelters such
as traditional grass thatched houses with mud walls e.g. maasai manyattas, the Eskimo igloos etc.
Today we have modern construction technology in building industry with very much diversified
fields such as:-
- Masonry /concreting
- Plumbing / drainage works
- Carpentry /joinery
- Painting
- Electrical works
- Air conditioning
- Gases installation
- Tilling
BUILDIND PROCESS
i) Inception
ii) Conception
iii) Selection of site
iv) Construction
Quality assurance
PRELIMINARIES
Site investigation
i) Site access
ii) Existing services
iii) Adjoining structure
iv) Soil conditions
Site clearance
Demolition methods
- Hand demolition
- Winch demolition
- Ball arm demolition
Hand demolition
Involves the progressive demolition of a structure by operatives using hand tools, Crane edge is
often used to lift out members once they have been released. The order of demolition is the
reverse to that of construction.
Involves demolition by swinging a heavy steel ball suspended from jib of a crane, Its limited for
building over 30m in height and should be supplemented by hand demolition in that pitched roof
as well as floors should be removed by hand.
Winch demolition
Steel ropes with a circumference of 38mm or more should be used for demolishing part of the
structure. Frequent inspection of these ropes is encouraged to make sure that their strength has
not been impaired by use. No persons should be standing between the winch and the building
being demolished. Nearer by distance equal to 75% of the distance between winch and structure
on either side of the rope
SITE PREPARATION
Introduction:
It involves the investigations that are carried out by an architect, a builder or a contractor. It
covers the soil characteristics, regulations required by the local authority concerned, the labour
force, equipments, tools, materials required and safety precautions to be observed during the
construction activities.
Site investigation
It’s the work carried out on the proposed site for putting up a building after the client has
selected the site.
a) Those carried out by an architect or somebody with building experience ( usually the
clients agent)
b) Those carried out by a builder or a contractor
i) Physical features on the site (land topography): the surface of the site should have a
gentle slope to facilitate natural drainage to prevent flooding.
ii) Vegetation: the trees should be planted to provide shades and protect the building
from being damaged by wind. The grass and flowers need to be provided to improve
the surrounding and stop soil erosion.
iii) Types of soil: an architect needs to know the characteristic of the soil so as to enable
him to design a suitable foundation for the house and material required.
iv) Service: an architect needs to know the availability of water, telephone, electricity
and road so as to be in a better position to advice the builder.
Investigation carried out by a builder
A builder would carry out his investigation for the purpose of:
i) Planning the offices, stores, workers hutments, car packing bays, latrines and water
points.
ii) Fencing the plot to keep away animals and an unauthorized people to minimize theft.
iii) Checking on the availability of the local skilled and unskilled labour to help the
builder in his estimates for the labour.
iv) Identifying suitable tools and equipments for the construction work.
v) Planning access roads: the access roads when being constructed should not interfere
with the existing building and protected trees.
Regulations and by laws which are set out in the Kenya building code, for site preparation must
be observed and met before the construction starts.
Types of soil
- Soil is the top most layer of the earth’s crust. It occurs in the form of particles of
mineral and vegetable matter.
- The stability of a foundation of a house depends very much on the type of soil it is to
be put on.
- Some soils are more expensive to build on than others. That is why it is important for
a builder to know the type of soil he intends to build a house on.
Common types
a) Clay soil: is composed of very fine particles. It breaks down easily under water. When
wet it sticks and expand. When dry it shrinks and cracks. This behavior of Clay soil
makes it unsuitable and expensive to build on.
b) Sandy soil: is composed of slightly larger particles than clay soil. Clean sand breaks
down completely when dry and individual are gritty to fingers. When cleaned and graded,
sand is used for building purposes. Putting up a house on a sandy soil is not as expensive
as it is on clay soil. This is because a house laid on a sandy soil may not be as deep as
that on clay soil.
c) Loam soil: is a mixture of sandy soil and clay soil with high content of humus. It is used
for dressing in readiness for flower beds or tree planting on site. It is also called vegetable
soil.
d) Silt: it is a finer variety of soil whose particles have smooth texture. It is relatively
impervious. Silt deposits may contain some organic matter. It dries quickly and can be
dusted off fingers when dry. The settlement on account of the loading may also be
significant.
The amount of investigation into soil conditions carried out on the site depends to a large extent
on the site and type of structure which is proposed. For small sites, the location and the depth of
the bore or trial holes should be such as to build up a profile of those soils which are likely to
affect the stability of the foundation. The depth of the trial hole will depend upon the type of
foundation proposed.
A good guide is that the depth investigation hole should extend at least 1.5 times the foundation
width below the foundation level.
Method of investigation
a) Trial holes
b) Shallow bore holes
c) Deep bore holes
Trial hole
- The hole is excavated by hand or mechanical excavator to the required depth which
allows good visual inspection.
- Hand auger or other hand tools are used when the hole is dug manually. The trial hole
is dug in order to determine the ground profile.
Ground level
Silt
Fine sand
Coarse sand
Safety on site
Protective devices: workers must be advised strongly to wear safety goggles, helmets, gloves,
and clothing’s to protect their bodies from injuries.
Tools and equipments: care must be taken when using the tools during trial holes preparation so
as to prevent injuries. The trial holes should be guarded to prevent people from falling in them.
SETTING OUT
This is the name given to measuring out the building and its parts on the site. The positioning of
the building is usually described as the setting out drawing which are produced by the architect.
The actual location can be indicated using the survey stations, road kerbs or related to permanent
objects.
The profile: a profile consists of posts and a board as shown in diagram 1. The advantage of
profiles is that the position of walls, trenches and their thicknesses can be relocated at any time.
To mark those positions a string is stretched across two profiles and using a level or plumb bob
the positions can be obtained (diagram 2)
NB/ profile should be placed at all corners and firmly placed on the ground. The pegs should be
kept vertical and boards kept horizontal. They should also be placed one metre away from trench
to avoid disturbance during excavation.
There several ways of obtaining a right angle. The most commonly used in building are:
1. Using the 3, 4, 5 method. The base line is marked 3 units long and then 4 units and 5
units one crossing the triangle so formed is 90º
2. Using the builder’s squire. This is a triangle made from timber with side lengths of
3metres or 2metres long. The triangle is placed in the corner and strings are stretched
both ways
A C 3 D B
Large square 5 4
Diagonal checks
GH
E Fig 1 F
Peg
Fig 2
Profiles
When pegging out has been cheeked, profiles are set up clear of the trench runs and the positions
of the ranging lines transferred to them. Figure3. Profiles consist of a horizontal boards fixed to
posts or pegs. The position of the wall and trench being marked on them (boards) by saw cuts or
nails. Profiles are placed at all corners and at the ends of cross walls figure 4. The positions of
walls can be obtained from lines strained between them. Figure5.
Profiles
Fig 3
Profiles
Trench
Fig 4
Alternative arrangement for corner profile
Foundation width
Lines
Drop bob
Level
Position of wall
Types of foundation
1) Strip foundation
These are suitable where there are continuous load bearing walls from the foundation.
The strip may either be made from concrete (mass or reinforced) or from masonry
construction e.g. brickwork. For mass concrete, the load is transmuted at an angle of
45º hence making the effective width of the strip is three times more the thickness of
the wall. The depth should be equal to this thickness as well. If it exceeds this the
foundation would have a tendency to crack along the line of shear unless
reinforcements are included.
Distribution bar
Main bar
Tendency to pull due to bending moment
Deep strip
4) Stepped foundation
These are done where the site is sloping for an economical solution. The strip is
stepped in series according to the land and fall and the lap between two sections of
the strip must be equal to the depth of the strip.
Where the step is substantial, the foundation is designed like column. The height of
the step should be such that a whole number of courses for the foundation walling fit
to avoid a fraction of a course.
Land fall
Whole number of wall course
Reinforced pad
Foundation
6) Combined foundation
This is where two or three pad foundations are combined so as to distribute the load
effectively. This may be due to may be site boundary where the load cannot be
transmitted to the neighbors plot, a second column inside the site may be combined
with the first one so as to ease the loading on it.
Foundation wall
Slab Foundation
Basement wall
Slab
PILES (foundation)
These are underground columns done so as to span between the bearing stratum and
the building so as to transfer the load. They are similar to those in underpinning but
they are done together with the building.
Piles are classified according to:
a) Mode of bearing load
b) Mode of placing load
a) Mode of bearing load
i) End bearing piles: these simply bears load by transferring it to the lower
end where the bearing stratum is.
Strong stratum
ii) Friction piles:these bears the load as a result of the frictional forces
created between the sides of the pile and the ground.
Load
Frictional force
b) Mode of placing
i) Displacement piles: this includes those piles that are driven into the
ground hence displacing the ground material in its way.
Driving force
Concrete
Reinforcement
Driven piles
This type of piles consists of rigid materials designed to be able to take the hammering often
done by mechanical means (and the design load). They are normally circular or hexagonal in
section so as to allow for easy penetration to the ground. The driving action is normally noisy
and causes a lot of vibration into the ground. This make it unsuitable in a heavy built up locality
where the vibration can easily destabilize existing foundation
Hammer
Supporting frame
Pile
Bored piles
These are typically replacement piles and involve casting or inserting piles in predrilled holes.
The process involves little vibration and so the more suitable in heavily built environment than
driven piles
Piles are designed to take certain load (i.e. bearing capacity) and since they should not be so
bulky so as to necessitate easy driving where more load is anticipated the piles are combined
(grouped)
Pile grouping
These grouping are joined at the top by means of a slab (pad) which intern supports the ground
beam on which the building rests.
These piles consist of a hollow tube made from either precast concrete or steel, driven into the
ground and then filled with cast in situ concrete. There are two basic types:
i) Open end tube Pile; the hollow tube is simply plugged by means of hammering and
once driven filled up.
Concrete/steel tube
ii) Closed end tube pile; the lower end in this case is closed by means of a steel cap and
again once driven, the hollow space is filled up say with reinforced concrete
Hollow tube
Steel cup
Structural stability
This concern the change in the soils caused by the imposed loading from the building
(dead & live loads) due to the variations in the soil, the nature of the soil must be
investigated before the design of a suitable foundation that would affect maximum
stability and to avoid overstressing the soil.
Bearing capacity
- This is the property of the soil dictating the maximum loading that it can take. This
measure is force per m². In determining this, soil sample is subjected to a load and the
point of failure determined. The bearing capacity is also a function of the
compactness of the soil.
- If the bearing capacity of the soil is known and the load imposed by the building also
known, the safe bearing area of the foundation can be worked out by using the
relationship
Strip foundation
BC = load
area
Maximum pressure
Minimum pressure
Maximum pressure
Distribution of pressure
The pressure distribution would more or less be uniform across any horizontal section and would
reduce as you go deeper since most of the loading is counteracted by the soil resistance. For strip
foundations, it would define a triangle at an angle of 45.
45º 45º
) 45º
Soils under the foundation are always subjected to shear stress due to resistant to the downward
force of the foundation. This is normally not uniformly distributed. Stress bulbs like those of
pressure can also be determined each bulb linking points of equal shear stress.
This is a measure of the soil strength. A point where the soils fail to support a load (imposed) due
to the safe bearing point or shear resistance bearing exceeded
At this point the soil shear resistance is not exceeded though considerable settlement takes place.
A point where the soils are loaded without any shear failure and settlement is within acceptable
limits.
PREPARATION FOR THE FOUNDATION
After site investigation it may be found that the top soil is soft and has poor bearing
capacity. It is usually economical to dig down to a layer of soil firm enough and of
good bearing capacity on which to lay foundation.
Before the start of any foundation trench work on the site the outlines of the
foundation concrete and the foundation wall has to be set out. After the setting out is
done and the diagonals checked for accuracy, work on trench excavation can began.
For small jobs work for excavation is done manually to a layer of good bearing
capacity. A width of at least 600mm is required for a man to be able to work in.
The sides of the trench should be trimmed vertically by hand and supported for the
safety of the people who will work in them. This is done so as to get a straight,
vertical and a fair finished face of the sides.
Terminology
Walling: horizontal timber member which supports the polling boards between struts,
sizes vary from 75mm × 75mm to 225mm × 75mm
Struts: horizontal member holding the poling board apart, usually placed 1.8m to2m
depending on the type of soil and to allow for working space.
The base of foundation concrete should rest of a firm and level base for it to distribute
the loads uniformly on to the adjoining soil below.
Transfer of datum to the bottom of trench
The practice usually is to fix level pegs in the trench one at each corner of the
building. The use of a gauge rod together with a spirit level may only be used easy in
shallow trenches while in deep trenches other methods such as the use of water levels
or dumpy levels may be adopted.
The first peg is driven into the bottom of the foundation and with the aid of water
level (water filled in a clear hose pipe) and a gouge rod; the peg is driven down until
the required height of the foundation is attained. One end of the hose pipe is held
level with top of the site datum which is at the same level with the proposed floor
level. The other end is held level with the height of the foundation wall up to damp
proof course. The heights of the courses are marked on the gouge rod.
Water level
Datum peg
Gauge rod
Establishing levels
After the first peg has been driven to the required level, the levels for the other pegs
can be transferred from the established one. This may be done by the use of a long
leveling board and a spirit level.
Level peg
Trench bottom
NB: care must be taken to reverse the leveling board each time you work from peg to
peg so as to minimize errors in leveling.
Bottoming
This is referred to as the leveling of the bottom of the trench. It is done by cutting the
high positions, filling the low areas and compacting the loose earth as may be found
necessary after establishing the level pegs. Preparation of the bottom is done to ensure
that the foundation rests on an even firm bed.
1) Leveling: any of the methods of leveling the bottom trench may be used ( hose
leveling, spirit level with board )
2) Pegging: for deep strip foundation, it is necessary to transfer the level of the site
datum to some other pegs at corners and along the foundation trench. These level
pegs are also placed at junctions of wall. The pegs will help in obtaining the
leveled top of the mass concrete in the foundation trench. The desired level of
concrete can be obtained by transferring levels from these pegs to the top of
concrete by using a gauge rod and a straight edge.
3) Wetting: before the mixed concrete is poured into the foundation trench, during
dry and hot season, the trench must be wetted to minimize rapid loss of water
from the concrete to dry soil. This rapid loss of water would weaken the
foundation.
4) Placing the concrete: concrete should be poured into the foundation trench
carefully in uniform layers not exceeding 300mm. these layers should be
thoroughly compacted and leveled until the required thickness is achieved in
order to avoid segregation and air pockets forming in the concrete, it should be
poured at low heights.
When pouring manually the concrete should be lowered to the bottom in mortar
pans (karais) and buckets. At no time should the concrete be poured from a height
greater than 1.5m. The poured concrete should be cured for not less than three
days by wetting the top twice a day.
GROUND WATER CONTROL
Ground water is that which is held either temporally or permanently in the soils within or above
the water table
Water affects the stability of the soil and the extent of this effect depends on the soils
characteristics especially on the particle size. It lubricates the particles hence causing the soil to
move or give way when subjected to a force e.g. foundation loading.
Excavation in water logged soils creates a deference in the hydrostatic pressure and hence the
tendency for water to flow into the excavated area. This is due to the imbalanced caused when
the soil (previous resistance) is removed.
This means that if the ground is to be excavated, ways have to be devised to keep off this water
so that construction works (basements or foundations) can be done effectively.
i. The amount of the hydrostatic pressure (which depends on whether its within the
water table , temporally submerged or above the water table)
ii. Depends on the depth of excavation
iii. Depends on the type of soils
a. Sheet piling: this is used to form a barrier or cutoff wall to the flow of ground water. It
can be of permanent nature being designed to act as a retaining wall or it can just be
temporally enclosure of excavation works. This method requires driving and hence
causes noise and vibration hence making it unsuitable in some situations e.g. near
existing foundation.
Area to be excavated
Disadvantage
Final structure
excavated ground
Return
Freezing tube
Temporary exclusion
a. Sump technique: this involves sinking a sump next to the area being excavated which is
at a lower level than the excavation. Due to this, water from the excavation and
surrounding ground drains into the sump from where it is pumped out. Note several
pumps may be used in any particular case.
Sumps can either be open or jetted into the ground. The later have an advantage over the
earlier in that it retain the stability of the surrounding soils where as in the open type the
sump sides becomes unstable due to the passage of water.
Pump pump
Drain pipe
Intake strainer
Jetted sump open sump
b. Electro- osmosis: this method utilizes the fact that water molecules are Di-polar or have a
slightly positive and slightly negative ends affected by the distribution of electrons within
the distribution of electrons within the molecule structure. This means that these
molecules can be attracted by either a cathode or an anode (i.e. electrodes). A cathode in
the form of a well point is inserted into the ground and this attracts the +ve end of the
water molecules hence causing water to flow towards the sump where it’s pumped out.
c. Well point system: this system aims at lowering the water table so as to allow for
construction to take place. Well points are sunk at various suitable places around the site
being worked on decreasing in depth as you move away from the site. These points are
then connected to pumps which continually draw out the water as it creeps back and
hence maintain the water table at a low level. Since the water pumped out is that which
creeps in, the method is not suitable to cohesive soils which does not allow for creeping.
Header connected to pipe
Riser pipe
Well point
Tanking
This is the action of transferring the loading of an existing foundation to a deeper depth. It may
become necessary due to:
Methods of underpinning
1) Wall underpinning
This is done by excavating alongside the excising wall in bays not exceeding 1.5m in
length and going as deep as the suitable bearing subsoil level.
When the level is reached, the new bearing foundation strip is casted with steel
dowels embedded at the end so as to provide continuity with the concrete in the next
bay. Adjacent bays must not be casted together as this can destabilize the existing
foundation.
The new foundation walling is built on this strip and this too must be toothed at the
end so as to bond with the walling in the next bay.
The total number and length of bays would depend on:
a) Subsoil conditions (encountered)
b) The total length of the wall to be underpinned
c) The loading on foundation
d) Width of the existing foundation
3 2
Wall to be underpinned
5 4
2 4 1 3 5 1
In the above typical schedule, the bay marked the same number are done together in order from
1to5 GL
Timbering
Existing foundation
Existing foundation
RC beam
Hydraulic jack
New foundation
Mega pile
Wall position
This spacing of the piles would depend on the imposed load, soil bearing capacity and
the strength of the existing foundation.
Existing foundation
Pile needle
SITE LAYOUT
This shows how building materials, stores, workers, dormitories, site offices etc are physically
located on site.
WALLS
Functional requirements
Classification of walls
a. Bearing characteristics
This classifies them according to whether they form a part of the buildings load bearing
structure or not. And divides them into two categories
i. Load bearing walls: these helps in the transfer of the load from above axially into
the foundation. Load bearing walls have to be structurally designed so as to offer
necessary compression strength. All load bearing walls should have a foundation
underneath
ii. Non load bearing wall: these are sometimes termed as separation walls since they
have no structural significances, and only serve the purpose of defining space.
They carry their own self weight and as such they are regarded as live load in
structural calculations. Special characteristics may however be impacted in them
e.g. acoustic and thermal properties so as to isolate a space in such areas.
Partitions (non-load bearing) walls should be light weight so as to minimize their
self weight.
Roof load
under compression
Ground resistance
b. Position walls
Walls can be classified according to where they occur in a building
i. External walls: these are those forming the outside envelope of a building and
since they are the walls exposed to the element of weather, they should be hard
wearing (durable), have good thermal properties (to keep off or stop heat building
up in the building), be able to keep off noise and also they should have good
aesthetic values (appearance).
In small buildings these are also load bearing in nature i.e. helps to carry the load,
but in larger structures (framed) they may simply take the form of an infill
between structural elements i.e. columns.
Column
External wall
Beam
ii. Internal walls: these are walls built in the interior of the building or within the
external envelope. The most properties of these walls include;
a). built in light weight units.
b). have good acoustic properties so as to separate adjacent spaces acoustically.
c). they should resist the spread of fire.
Room 1 Room 2
iii. Parapet walls: these are walls which occur at the roof of building and are
normally short (not more than 1.2m) so as to have structural stability. Due to their
position they should be able to withstand the elements of weather and should have
coping to stop the penetration of rain from the top.
Coping
1.2m
Fillet
Concrete roof
iv. Boundary wall: these are walls occurring at the boarder of two adjacent
properties. They are normally self standing and carry their own self weight. They
should be equipped with a foundation for structural stability. Since they are
continuous they are affected by differential movements due to settlement or
ground movement e.g. land slide. They therefore should have movement joint
spaced at a max distance of 30m. Columns spaced at suitable distance (say 3 –
4.5m) are mostly used to offer lateral stability.
v. Apron walls. These are walls which are suspended from the top or sides i.e. those
used in the septic tanks. Such walls are best done in RC since the reinforcing
details are used to suspend {support) the wall from above.
Apron wall
vi. Can
Spread of dampness is prevented by damp proof course (D.P.C) or damp proof membrane
(D.P.M) layer of non – absolvent material
Functional requirements
- Must remain intact and have longer life as the structure itself
- Thin enough to resist imposed loads
- Tough enough not to be torn
- Be impervious
Materials
1. Mastic asphalt
2. Slates
3. Bituminous felt
- Cross joints must be left open and free from mortar to avoid percolation of moisture through
capillary attraction
Dampness
Prevention
- Top of walls must be finished with impervious material e.g. engineering bricks
MOISTURE PREVENTION IN BUILDINGS
Moisture may enter into the building through one of the following ways:
1. From the adjusting ground – rain water from the adjusting ground is absolved through
capillary action into the building. The moisture can be prevented by inserting a damp
proof course in the wall and a damp proof membrane in floor.
Floor screed
Moisture hardcore
GL DPM
Concrete foundation
2. Rain water beating against the wall – water from the external walls can be prevented by
construction of: i) cavity walls.
ii) By providing a cill at the bottom of the windows.
Floor slab
GL hardcore
DPM
Concrete foundation
Window opening
Cill
Floor screed
Moisture hardcore
GL DPM
Concrete foundation
Preventing moisture from entering the building through the window opening
Coping – for the walls which are constructed beyond the roof level, a coping should be
provided to prevent dump entering from above. The coping should be provided with a
throat to shed off the rain water. Under the coping, a DPC is inserted. The top of the
coping is finished with a slope (weathered).
Slope (weathered
Coping
Throat throat
External wall
Preventing moisture from above the wall
Cavity walls
- Wall constructed in two leaves with a space (cavity) between them. Its purpose is to
prevent rain penetrating internal surface. Bridged in any way as long it provide
moisture movement
Advantages
- Able to withstand driving rain in all situations from penetrating
- Gives good thermal insulation
- No need for external rendering
- Cheaper and attractive materials
- Higher sound insulation
Disadvantage
- High standard of design/workmanship
- Vertical D.P.C to all openings
- Slightly costly
Curtain walling
- Cladding walling with thin sheets consists of transoms and mullion panels
- Its non load bearing
Advantages
- Light in weight
- Economical related to size of building
- Give greater floor area (relatively thin)
- Quick assembly
- Freedom to architectural
Disadvantage
- Less resistance to fire (light weight)
- Regular cleansing
- Carefully design of jointing
- Poor resistance to heat loss/ air bone sound
Choice of curtain walling (aspects)
Arches
- Wedge shaped bricks called voussoirs. Support each other and carry load over
openings
Types
- Soldier arches: row of bricks
- Rough arches: ordinary uncut bricks
- Ganged arches: true arches cut bricks
Centers
- Temporary structures (timber) to support arches until are sufficient set to support
them self. Centers depend upon
a) Weight to be supported
b) Span
c) Width of the soffit
The term system building refers to a method of building in which the component parts of the
building fabric are wholly factory produced and site assembled.
Closed system building: this term refers to a system in which the components parts will not
normally fit with components of other systems. It is usually related to a specific building type
such as houses or schools or to restricted range of types. Usually limited to one development
Open system building: (component building) like system building, this is a method of building
in which the component parts of the building fabric are factory produced and site assembled.
These components may however be used freely in conjunction with parts of the fabric
constructed on traditional lines. Such as brick work, block work, roof tiling e.t.c. (components
are interchangeable) this interchangeability could well be the result of the acceptance of
dimensional coordination.
- Most of the work is in sections (i.e. walls, floors, roofs constructions) it is time
consuming.
- Requires skilled labour (i.e. masons, carpenters, plumber’s e.t.c.)
- Quality is difficult to control on site e.g. aesthetics, workmanship, strength e.t.c.
Dimensional co-ordination
Modular grid
This shows the space allotted to each component, these being smaller than the space with a ±
tolerance to allow for variations that may appear during manufacture
NB/ the modular grid does not give the size of the component but allots space for it
Terms used
1). Dimensional co-ordination: is the application of arrange of related dimensions to the sizing
of a building components and assemblies and the building incorporating them.
2). Modular co-ordination: dimensional co-ordination using the international basic modular of
100mm. multi-producer sub module and a modular reference system
3). Module: this is a convenient unit of size used as an increment unit of dimensional co-
ordination or coefficient in dimensional coordination
5). Multi module: multiple of number usually 300, 600, and 1200
7). Modula grid: this is a reference grid in which the distance between consecutive parallel lines
is the international basic module or multiple there of
The increment of pattern of change of dimension within a system is important since it determines
the form to which a group of component can be produced in a range of sizes appropriate to the
particular components in each case the designer should use the largest increment available.
Compatible with function in use and economy in manufacture
All the theoretical sizes and basic sizes are stated before any deduction is made for fixing or
manufacturing tolerances and jointing
FIRE PLACES
Definitions
- Hearth - pit
- Breast - gather in
- Stack - man tie
- Jambs - throat
- Fire back- gather over
- Hood - surround
- Fire place: a framed opening in a chimney or frame in a free standing position to
hold an open fire
- Flue: passage for gasses, smoke, flame or air
- Chimney: the structure enclosing a flue which continues up above the roof level in a
stack
- Primary air: air which feeds the fire bad containing the oxygen necessary for
combustion
- Secondary air: air heated up by fire (lighter than cool air) rising up the flue (draught)
carrying with it the products of combustion
Classification of chimneys
i) Residential or domestic
ii) Commercial or intermediate (for hospitals, schools, community centers e.t.c.)
iii) Industrial chimneys: determined by the height (over 20m high)
Primary function of chimney
The development of adequate draft to ensure maximum combustion efficiency and also the
transmission of gasses produced by combustion to a height at which they may be released
without objections effects
Draft: Is the difference in pressure which is available for producing a flow of flue gases up
through the stack. Available draft is affected by;
Design
Fire places must be designed so that its room’s occupants maintain a max amount of heat either
directly by convention and radiation or indirectly by convention and conduction.
Therefore there must be sufficient air available for combustion and for efficiency removal of the
combustion gasses
Kenya building code requirements for the design and construction of fire places
Construction of chimney
i. To be of solid material min thickness 100mm. material applicable are bricks, concrete
and stones
ii. Where the roof is covered with combustible materials e.g. shingles, thatch, dried reeds
e.t.c. the chimney stack for this wall above the roof should not be less than 215mm
iii. Chimney to be properly projected
iv. Domestic chimneys of less than 215mm to be rendered
v. Combustible materials to be not less than 225mm from the flue or the opening
vi. Metal fastening attached to combustible material to be at least 50mm from the flue or
fire place opening
vii. For stability purpose min width of chimney = 1/6 its height
viii. A flue communicating with a habitable room should not communicate with other
room
Flue design
Vertical height of flue from the entry to the outlet to be within 3.65 – 4.25m this ensures
adequate difference in weight between the internal gasses and external air. The entry is restricted
so as to increase the velocity of air which makes the air rise up. Further restriction at the terminal
is desirable if downward drought has to be eliminated. Min cross section dimension of a flue is
175mm diameter
Air tightness: this is important since it ensures the strength of the drought and eliminates escape
of smoke
Position in zones outlet: to be positioned in zones where there is no high wind pressure
Chimney
Flue
Rendering
Breast
Gathering
Throat
Jamb
Fire back
Concrete hearth
DOORS
Definition
A door is amusing part of a building and will be subjected to constant use and often abuse
throughout its life
Functions
The function of a door is to give access to a house, room or passage
Functional requirements
The door must be carefully designed and made from good material. It must also be
remembered that condition of temperature and humidity will often be different in rooms
or spaces on each side of the door, which will produce tendency for the door to warp or
twist. The material and design must counteract this.
a. Durability; proper maintenance allied to the choice of good material with good
design workmanship will ensure satisfactory durability throughout the life of the
building. Timber doors need special consideration in particular external doors and
regular painting or clear treatment is necessary.
b. Weather protection; with external doors it concerns the exclusion of air and water.
The top and bottom of the door is particularly vulnerableand special precautions in
the form of throttling and provision of weather bars should be taken. Outward
opening doors should wherever possible be set back into the opening. Where possible
the edges for the meeting stiles of doors hung in pairs should be rebated. Doors
should as far as possible be drought proof and the use of same form of weather
stripping at the rebate is a wise precaution
c. Sound and thermal insulation; with regard to thermal insulation the loss of heat
through a closed door is minimal. For good sound insulation doors must be solid with
tight seals at all edges. The passage of sound between the doors and frame must be
restricted. Where the specification requirements are high for both sound and thermal
insulation the two sets of door with an intervening space or vestibule will be
necessary.
d. Fire resistance; precautions in respect of an outbreak of fire fall into three categories
i. Structural fire precaution; concerned with restricting the spread of fire within
the building
ii. Means of escape is to enable the occupants to leave the building in safety
iii. To restrict the movement of smoke throughout a public building
e. Strength and stability; the strength of the door is dependent on its method of
construction. In terms of stability a door is called upon to resist a number of stresses
that will vary according to its use and position. Normal closing and opening, barging,
slamming, bumping from articles being carried through and even kicking are to be
expected. In addition to these factors the door must withstand stresses due to the
variation in humidity that occur through changes in weather condition and artificial
conditions within the building
Classification of doors
Doors can be classified as internal or external. The reason for this is that external doors are
subjected to weather while internal doors are not. The entrance door of a house in an external
door, while the doors to rooms or passage are internal doors,a door opening must be large
enough for people to walk through with ease and to allow the passage of goods and equipment.
Therefore external doors are normally slightly bigger than the internal door
Types of doors
1. a). Flush door;it has a plain face which is easy to clean and decorate it is also free of
molding which collect dust. It can be faced with hardwood, plywood or plastic laminate.
Three of the more commonly used constructional methods are a;
i. Laminated solid timber core
ii. Solid core
iii. Timber railed
In every case the frame work is covered with plywood on both faces and a hard wood
edging strip 69mm thick on both long edges to protect the plywood
The strongest form of flush door is the solid core, often made up of longitudinal
laminations of precision planned timber butt jointed with resin based adhesive under
pressure. It has excellent fire check and sound reducing qualities
Half solid flush door is cheaper and lighter. It is made up of a timber frame in corpora
ting horizontal rail not more than 63mm apart and the whole forming a 50% solid timber
core. In its strength it can satisfactorily accommodate standard ironmongery
Timber railed door is even lighter. It consists of horizontal rails not more than 125mm
apart. Used extensively in local authority and private housing where stringent cost limit
per rail. It is possibly faced with hard board.
b). fire check flush door; these doors provide an effective barrier to passage of fire for the
time designated by their type, but to achieve this they must be used in conjunction with
correct frame. Two types are designed by BS 459, half hour type door are hung using one
pair of hinges where as one hour type door requires one and a half pair of hinges.
2. Match boarded doors; can be used as external or internal door they are constructed in
three forms
The ledged and braced door are for external use, however the framed, ledged and braced
doors are stronger and widely used as external doors possibly made of cedar
2. Paneled door; paneled doors are usually described by the number of panels which they
contain and which may vary from one to six. These doors are stronger than flush doors
and match boarded doors without frames. They can be used for external as well as
internal. They consist of stile and rails framed around panel of timber or plywood. They
are framed by joining the members where they intersect by dowels or mortise and tenon
Door frames
The function of a door frame is to provide a fixing and support for doors. A door frame consists
of three members i.e. two upright posts (jambs) which are secured at top by a cross piece called
head. Head usually projects 50 – 100mm beyond the post and these projections are called horns.
They assist in making the frame secure
Section sizes
Post on which the doors are hung must be large enough to enable the frame to remain rigid. The
section piece must be related to the weight and the size of the door they have to carry.
i. Basic door frame; the simplest type of door frame consisting two jambs and head.
A C
X X
C C-C
Rebate
Doorstop A-A X- X
ii. Ceiling height frame; this is a door frame with fanlight
Fanlight
Transom
In order to keep the frame rigid and square digging operation, transport or setting on the wall all
ordinary door frames bracing with square strips which are usually 18 x 50mm are cut into the
rebate while the horns protect the frame during transport
Ironmonger
Hinges, locks, door handles, fasteners, fixing e.t.c. which are used for doors and windows are
generally described as hardware or ironmongery.
Hinges; are used for hanging doors and window casements in their frames. Normally three
hinges are used for each door. Hinges are available in a very wide range, small and type. The
cheapest and most commonly used hinge is braced steel butt hinge
Fixing and fasteners; door frames and window frames are normally built into block or brick
wall. “L” shaped built in lug are used to secure frames into wall. The shorter arm of “L” shaped
lug is screwed to the back of the frame. When the door is placed to the wall horizontal openings
have to be chiseled for the longer arm. When the door is set to the right position the opening are
to be filled again with mortar. Fixing can also be made of hoop iron or nails. The frame should
be fixed into the walls with three lugs to each jamb. It avoids any unnecessary force on the
frame. The hinges of the door must be fixed at the same height to the frame as the lugs are fixed
Jamb
Wall
Framed door
12mm thick plaster with plastic emulsion paint
215
A 1640
FRONT ELEVATION
20 x100mm swd skirting
Flush door B
B
2190 x 900mm solid Core flush door
A
A
200mm thick solid conc block wall 200mm thick solid conc block wall
Section A – A