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TRANSMISSION LINES

“ A good transmission line is a bad antenna;


a bad transmission line is a good antenna.”
Definition
• A transmission line is a metallic conductor system that
is used to transfer electrical energy from one point to
another.
• A transmission line is a material medium or structure
that forms a path for directing the transmission of
energy from one place to another, such as
electromagnetic waves or acoustic waves, as well as
electric power transmission.
• Transmission lines are impedance matching circuits
designed to deliver radio frequency power from the
transmitter to the antenna and maximum signal from
the antenna to the receiver.
Basic Kinds of Waves
Longitudinal Wave
• In longitudinal waves the displacement of the
medium is parallel to the propagation of the
wave.
Transverse Wave
• In transverse waves the displacement of the
medium is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
Types of Transmission Lines
PARALLEL WIRE / BALANCED LINE/
DIFFERENTIAL LINE

Open-Wire
Transmission Line
Twin Lead or Ribbon Cable

Twisted-Pair Cable
Drain wire - a bare
conductor wound
inside the cable jacket
and in continuous
contact with the shield.
The drain wire makes
terminating the shield
easy.

Cable shielding uses either a braided, spiral design or metal-coated


Mylar or foil shield. The shielding wraps around each conductor to
mitigate noise by 85% to 100%, depending on the configuration.
Maximum shielding:
a. braided shield - 90%
b. Spiral shields - 98%
c. Metal-coated Mylar - 100%
Definition:
Balanced lines are made up of two parallel
conductors spaced from one another by a
distance of ½ inch up to several inches. The two
conductors carry current; one conductor carries
the signal and the other is the return.
metallic circuit currents - currents flow in
opposite directions
longitudinal circuit currents - currents flow in
the same directions
UTP - unshielded twisted pair
low cost
used extensively for local-area networks (LANs)
and telephone connections
 does not offer as high bandwidth or as good
protection from interference as coaxial or fiber
optic cables
 less expensive and easier to work with.
STP - Shielded Twisted Pair
Commonly used type of copper telephone wiring in which
each of the two copper wires that are twisted together are
coated with an insulating coating that functions as a
ground for the wires.
The extra covering in shielded twisted pair wiring protects
the transmission line from electromagnetic interference
leaking into or out of the cable.
used in Ethernet networks, especially fast data rate
Ethernets
Characteristics of UTP and STP
COAXIAL LINE / UNBALANCED LINE /
SINGLE-ENDED LINE
Bayonet Neill–Concelman
The RG numbering system of coaxial cable
(coax) refers to the fact that the RF (Radio
Frequency) signal is guided down the center
conductor of the cable system. The RG
numbering system dates to WWII United
States military specifications and has no real
contemporary significance other than type
designators. Each RG number does, however,
specify impedance, core conductor gauge
(AWG) and type, outside diameter (OD), and
other physical attributes of the cable.
Definition:
• Coaxial Cable is consists of a solid center
conductor surrounded by a plastic insulator.
Over the insulator is a second conductor, a
tubular braid or shield made of fine wires.
One wire is at ground potential, the other wire
is at signal potential.
Problem:
The input power to a coaxial cable is 10 W. If the
reflected power is 10dB down on the incident
power, what is the output power to the load?
Behavior of Transmission Lines
• At low frequencies:
– resistive
– ideal
– no loss
– no reactance

• At high frequencies:
– becomes complex
– there are RLCG in the circuit
American Wire Gauge Chart
Fill in the blank…..
1. The smaller the diameter of the wire, the
____________ is the resistance.

2. The longer the transmission line, the


____________ is the resistance.
Losses in Transmission Lines
1. Conductor Heating Loss
also called I2R loss and power loss
increases with frequency because of Skin Effect
- a phenomenon wherein as the operating
frequency goes higher, the tendency of the current is to
travel on the surface or near the surface of the conductor.
The electric current flows mainly at the "skin" of the
conductor, between the outer surface and a level called
the skin depth. The skin effect causes the effective
resistance of the conductor to increase at higher
frequencies where the skin depth is smaller, thus
reducing the effective cross-section of the conductor.
Solutions to Skin Effect
• Increase the diameter of the conductor
• Let the conductor be plated with silver
• Use multi-stranded wire
2. Dielectric Heating
It is very observable for solid dielectric
lines, but for air dielectric it remains negligible.
It increases with frequency because of gradually
worsening properties with increasing frequency
for any given dielectric medium.
3. Radiation Loss
It occurs because a transmission line may act
as an antenna if the separation of the conductors is
an appreciable fraction of a wavelength. The loss
increases with frequency for any given transmission
line, eventually ending the life’s usefulness at some
high frequency. It can be reduced by properly
shielding the cable.
4. Coupling Loss
It occurs whenever a connection is made to or from a
transmission line or when two separate pieces of transmission
lines are connected together. Mechanical connections are
discontinuities which tend to heat up, radiate energy and
dissipate heat.

Types of Coupling Loss


• Lateral misalignment
• Gap displacement
• Angular misalignment
• Imperfect surface finished
Types of Coupling Loss

• Lateral Misalignment

• Gap Displacement
Types of Coupling Loss

• Angular Misalignment
5. Corona or Spark
It is a luminous discharge that occurs between
two conductors of transmission line when the
difference of potential between them exceeds the
breakdown voltage of the dielectric. One corona has
occurred, the transmission line may be destroyed.
General Equivalent Circuit of
Transmission Lines

The transmission line model represents the transmission line as an infinite series of two-
port elementary components, each representing an infinitesimally short segment of the transmission
line:
• The distributed resistance of the conductors is represented by a series resistor (expressed in ohms
per unit length).
• The distributed inductance (due to the magnetic field around the wires, self-inductance, etc.) is
represented by a series inductor (henries per unit length).
• The capacitance between the two conductors is represented by a shunt capacitor C (farads per unit
length).
• The conductance of the dielectric material separating the two conductors is represented by a shunt
resistor between the signal wire and the return wire (siemens per unit length).
The following are the line constants that can be derived
from the circuit:

A. Primary Line Constants


-Resistance
-Inductance
-Capacitance
-Conductance

B. Secondary Line Constants


-Propagation Constant
-Attenuation Constant
-Phase Constant
The Telegrapher's Equations (or just telegraph
equations) are pairs of coupled, linear differential
equations that describe the voltage and current on an
electrical transmission line with distance and time. The
equations come from Oliver Heaviside who in the
1880s developed the transmission line model. The
model demonstrates that the electromagnetic waves
can be reflected on the wire, and that wave patterns
can appear along the line. The theory applies to
transmission lines of all frequencies including high-
frequency transmission lines (such as telegraph wires
and radio frequency conductors), audio frequency
(such as telephone lines), low frequency (such as
power lines) and direct current.
Reference for Derivations
http://www.math.umbc.edu/~jbell/pde_notes/0
7_Telegrapher%20Equation.pdf

http://jugandi.com/ebooks/eXe_Transmission_Li
nes/Transmission%20Lines/telegraphers_equati
on.html
For Parallel Wire Line

s r

d d
Where: s = spacing between conductor
r = radius of the conductor
• Inductance ( L ), H/m
𝝁 𝒔
𝑳 = 𝐥𝐧
𝝅 𝒓
where: μ = permeability
μ = μR x μo
μo= 4π x 10 -7 H/m
μo = 1.257 x 10 -6 H/m

• Permeability -measure of the superiority of a


material over a vacuum as a path for magnetic
lines of force
• Capacitance ( C ), F/m
𝝅𝜺
𝑪= 𝒔
𝐥𝐧
𝒓
where: ε = permittivity
ε = εR x εo
ε o = 1/36π x 10 -9 F/m
ε o = 8.854 x 10 -12 F/m

• Permittivity –ability to concentrate magnetic lines of


force; pertains to the dielectric constant
• Resistance ( R ), Ω/m
𝟏
𝑹=
𝝅𝒓𝜹𝝈𝒄

where: δ = skin depth of the cable


𝝈c = conductivity of the conductor
• Conductance ( G ), mho/m
𝝅𝝈
𝑮=
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉−𝟏 𝒔
𝟐𝒓
where: 𝝈 = conductivity of the dielectric
For Coaxial Lines

Where: a = radius of the inner conductor


b = radius of the outer conductor

b
a

h h h
• Inductance ( L ), H/m
𝝁
𝑳=
𝒃
𝝅 𝐥𝐧
𝒂

• Capacitance ( C ), F/m
𝟐𝝅𝜺
𝑪=
𝒃
𝐥𝐧
𝒂
• Resistance ( R ), Ω/m
𝟏
𝑹=
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐𝝅𝜹𝝈𝒄 +
𝒂 𝒃
• Conductance ( G ), mho/m
𝟐𝝅𝝈
𝑮=
𝒃
𝐥𝐧
𝒂
Velocity Factor ( Vf )
It is the velocity reduction ratio of the
electromagnetic waves that depends on the nature
of the medium through which they travel.
𝑽𝒄
𝑽=
𝒌
Where: V = velocity in the medium
Vc= velocity of light in a vacuum
k = dielectric constant of the medium
𝟏
𝑽𝒇 =
𝒌
Where: Vf= velocity factor
Material Dielectric Constant (k)
Vacuum 1.0
Air 1.0006
Teflon 2.1
Polyethylene(PE) 2.27
Polystyrene 2.5
Paper, Paraffined 2.5
Rubber 3.0
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 3.3
Mica 5.0
Glass 7.5
Problem:
A particular metallic cable is consists of
polystyrene dielectric. Give three (3) inferences.
Characteristic Impedance (Zo)
It is also called surge impedance and
intrinsic impedance. It is the opposition to the
transfer of energy which is considered the
dominant characteristic of a cable which
emanates from its physical structure. It is the
impedance measured at the input of the line
when its length is infinite.
Note:
1. A line terminated in its Zo is called non-
resonant, resistive or flat line.

2. The V and I of a lossless line are constant in


phase.

3. The V and I of a line with loss are reduced


exponentially.
• Zo of a Transmission Line
𝒁
𝒁𝒐 =
𝒀

𝑹 + 𝒋ῳ𝑳
𝒁𝒐 =
𝑮 + 𝒋ῳ𝑪
Where: Z = series impedance
Y = shunt admittance

At Radio Frequency At Audio Frequency


ῳ L >> R R >> ῳ L
ῳ C >> G G >> ῳ C
Problem:
A balanced transmission line has the following
parameters: R = 25 Ω/m, L = 6 mH/m,
G = 0.5 µS/m and C = 10 nF/m. Calculate the
characteristic impedance at a frequency of 3
kHz. Find the nature of the line.
Problem:
What is the inductance per foot of a cable that
has a capacitance of 80 pF/ft and a surge
impedance of 100 ohms?
Problem:
A particular cable has a capacitance of 50 pF/ft
and a characteristic impedance of 70 ohms.
What is the impedance of an infinite long
section of such cable?
Zo based on Physical Dimension

• Geometry of the conductor


• Size of the conductor
• Spacing of the conductor
• Dielectric constant of the insulator
• For Parallel Wire Line
𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝟐𝒔
s 𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝒌 𝒅

𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝒔
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝒌 𝒓
d d
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒔
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐧
𝒌 𝒓
Where: Zo = char. Impedance, ( Ω )
k = dielectric constant
s = separation of conductors from center to center
d= diameter of the conductor
r = radius of the conductor
Problem:
The spacing between a two-wire open air
unterminated transmission line is 12 inches and
the diameter of the conductor is 0.25 in. Find
the Zo at the following line length:
a. 10 ft
b. at infinite long section of the line
Problem:
A ribbon cable is consists of #12 AWG (81 mils).
The distance between wire centers is 0.5 in,
what is the Zo of the line?

Note: 1 mil = 0.001 in


Problem:

For an air-dielectric two-wire line, what is the


minimum characteristic impedance?
• For Coaxial Line
𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝑫
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝒌 𝒅

𝟔𝟎 𝑫
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐧
𝒌 𝒅
Where: Zo = char. Impedance , ohms
K = dielectric constant h h

D = inside diameter of the outer conductor


d = diameter of the inside conductor
Problem:
A piece of Teflon dielectric coaxial cable has a
60Ω-Zo and a nominal capacitance of 50 pF/m. If
the diameter of the inner conductor is 0.6mm
and the insulation thickness is 0.15mm, find the
nominal inductance per meter and the outer
diameter of the grounded conductor.
Problem:
A 100 W transmitter is connected via a 50 ohm,
100ft long coaxial cable to an antenna. The
inner conductor outer diameter is 0.18 in.
Determine the outside diameter of the second
conductor if the skin depth is 0.06 in.
Propagation Constant ( δ )
Propagation constant is a secondary line constant which determines the variation of
current and voltage with distance along a transmission line and is found to vary
exponentially.

𝑰 = 𝑰𝒔 𝒆−𝜹𝒙

𝑽 = 𝑽𝒔 𝒆−𝜹𝒙

Where: δ = propagation constant


x = distance
Is = magnitude of the current
Vs = magnitude of the voltage
s = sending end or input

The propagation coefficient also depends on the primary line constants


and the angular velocity of the signal.

𝜹= 𝑹 + 𝒋ῳ𝑳 (𝑮 + 𝒋ῳ𝑪)
This is also a complex quantity and can be written as:

𝜹 =∝ +𝒋𝜷

Where: α = attenuation constant (dB/uL, Neper/uL)


It determines how V and I decreases with distance along
the line

1 dB = 0.115 Neper
1 Neper = 8.686 dB

β = phase shift / phase delay constant (˚/uL, rad/uL)


It determines the phase angle of the V or I variation with
distance
@ special condition : for lossless line

If :L/R=C/G
Therefore : C = LG / R
𝛿= 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿 (𝐺 + 𝑗ῳ𝐶)

𝑗ῳ𝐿𝐺
𝛿= 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿 (𝐺 + )
𝑅

𝑅𝐺 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿𝐺
𝛿= 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿 ( )
𝑅

𝐺
𝛿= 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿 (𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿)
𝑅

𝐺
𝛿 = 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿
𝑅
But : G/R = C/L
𝐶
𝛿 = 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿
𝐿
𝑪
𝜹=𝑹 + 𝒋ῳ 𝑳𝑪
𝑳

𝜹 = 𝜶 + 𝒋𝜷

Therefore:
𝑪
𝜶=𝑹
𝑳

𝜷 = ῳ 𝑳𝑪
Speed of Propagation ( V )

At any condition:

𝑫
𝑽=
𝑻
𝑫
𝑽=
𝑳𝑪

V =λf

V=ῳ/β

For lossless line:


V = ῳ / β but β = ῳ √LC

𝟏
𝑽=
𝑳𝑪
For λ:
λ=V/f
= (ῳ /β) / f
= ῳ / (βf) = 2πf / βf

𝟐𝝅
𝝀=
𝜷

𝟑𝟔𝟎˚
𝝀=
𝜷
Problem:
1. One meter is one wavelength at what
frequency?

2. A transmission line has a Zo of 100 ohms and a


line velocity of 2.1x 108 m/s. If the operating
frequency is 3 Mc, what is the phase delay
constant and wavelength of the line? Find the L
and C of the line.

3. How many 500 kHz waves can be on a 5 km


transmission line simultaneously?
Delay Lines
Delay lines are transmission lines designed to
intentionally introduce a time delay in the path of an
electromagnetic wave. It is a function of the inductance
(provides opposition to changes in current) and capacitance
( charge and discharge times).

td = L C

where: td = time delay (s)


L = inductance (H)
C = capacitance (F)

For coaxial cable: td = 1.016 k

Where: k = dielectric constant of the cable


Three things that may happen when the signal
reaches the load:

1. All signals that go to the load is totally absorbed


by the load.

2. Only portion or part of a signal is absorbed by


the load.

3. No signal is absorbed by the load (total


reflection) the line is shorted ( ZL = 0 ), or the line
is open (ZL = ∞); or perfectly unmatched.
The value of mismatched signal flowing
through the line can be known by:

1. Reflection Coefficient (Γ)


2. Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
Reflection Coefficient (Γ)
Reflection Coefficient is the relationship of the reflected
signal to that of the incident signal. It has magnitude and
direction.

𝜞 = ‫𝜽 < ׀𝜞׀‬
Mathematically,
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍
𝜞=
𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍

In terms of power:
𝑃−
𝛤𝑃 = +
𝑃
In terms of voltage:
𝑉−
𝛤𝑉 = +
𝑉
In terms of current:
𝐼−
𝛤𝐼 = +
𝐼
But: V =IZ

𝑉− 𝐼−𝑍 𝐼−
𝛤𝑉 = = = = 𝛤𝐼
𝑉+ 𝐼+𝑍 𝐼+

Therefore:
𝜞𝑽 = 𝜞𝑰

But:
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑍
𝑉− 2
𝑃− 𝑉− 2
𝛤𝑃 = = 2
𝑍
= = (𝛤𝑉 )2
𝑃+ 𝑉+ 𝑉+
𝑍
Therefore:
𝜞𝑽 = 𝜞𝑷
Note:
𝐼𝐿
𝑉+ = 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 𝛿𝑆
2

𝐼𝐿
𝑉− = 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 −𝛿𝑆
2

𝐼𝐿
𝐼+ = 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 𝛿𝑆
2𝑍𝑜


−𝐼𝐿
𝐼 = 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 −𝛿𝑆
2𝑍𝑜
Where:
IL = load current (A )
ZL = load impedance ( Ω )
Zo = characteristic impedance ( Ω )
δ = propagation constant
S = physical length
𝐼𝐿 −𝛿𝑆
𝑉− 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 𝑒
𝛤= += 2
𝑉 𝐼𝐿 𝛿𝑆
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑒
2

𝒁𝑳 − 𝒁𝒐
𝜞=
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝒐 𝒆𝟐𝜹𝑺

Note: evaluate the Γ at the load because we


start the measurement at the load; S = 0

𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜
𝛤=
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 2𝛿0

𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜
𝛤𝑉 = = 𝛤𝐼
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜

𝟐 𝒁𝑳 −𝒁𝒐 2
𝜞𝑷 = 𝜞𝑽 = 𝒁𝑳 +𝒁𝒐

RANGE: -1 ≤ Γ ≤ 1
Through the direction of Γ, the nature of the line can be
known.

𝜞 = ‫𝜽 < ׀𝜞׀‬

𝜃 = 0˚, 180˚ = 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝜃 = 90˚ = 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝜃 = −90˚ = 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝑄 − 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 − 𝐼𝐼 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝑄 − 𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 − 𝐼𝑉 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒


= 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Special case: lossless line

1. Matched line : ZL= Zo


Γ=0
there is no reflection

2. Short- circuited line: ZL = 0


Γ = -1 = 1 < 180˚
there is total reflection
3. Open – circuited line: ZL =∞

∞−𝑍𝑜 ∞
𝛤= = ∞ = indeterminate
∞+𝑍𝑜

𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 1
𝛤= . 𝑍
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝐿

𝑍𝑜
1− 𝑍
𝐿
𝛤=
𝑍𝑜
1+ 𝑍
𝐿

𝑍𝑜
1− ∞
𝛤=
𝑍𝑜
1+ ∞

Γ = 1 ; 1 < 0˚ there is total reflection


𝑺𝑾𝑹 − 𝟏
‫= ׀𝜞׀‬
𝑺𝑾𝑹 + 𝟏

𝒁𝑳 − 𝒁𝒐
𝜞=
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝒐

If the load is mismatched there will be maximum


and minimum voltage:

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝜞=
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
Problem:

A transmitter operating at 100 MHz


with 100 W output is connected to a
100 ohms RG-8A/U coaxial cable.
The antenna has a resistance of 275
ohms. Find the reflection coefficient.
Problem:

A transmitter delivers 50 W into a 120 ohm


lossless line that is terminated with an antenna
that has an impedance of 50 ohms. How much
power actually reaches the antenna?
Standing Waves
Standing Wave is an interference pattern
resulted from ZL not being equal to Zo,
thereby, some power is absorbed and the rest
are reflected, then creating two sets of
travelling waves going in opposite directions
(about 180˚ out of phase). The first set of
travelling waves (V and I) travels toward the
load, and the reflected set (V and I) travels
back to the generator. In general, standing
wave is the interference of 2 waves going in
opposite directions.
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
It is the measure of mismatch between the load and the line.
The higher the SWR, the greater the mismatch. It is a scalar quantity.

𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑰𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑽𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
Conditions:
1. SWR = 1 at Zo = ZL

𝑍𝑜
2. SWR = 𝑅 if Zo> RL
𝐿

𝑅
3. SWR = 𝑍𝑜𝐿 if Zo< RL

Note:
 SWR >1 for # 2 and # 3, that is when the line is terminated in a
purely resistive load.
4. SWR = ∞ , when the load is purely reactive

Mathematically,
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = = 𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = = 𝐼𝑆𝑊𝑅
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
1
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸+ + 𝐸− +
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = = .1𝐸
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐸+ − 𝐸− 𝐸+

𝑬−
𝟏+ +
𝑺𝑾𝑹 = 𝑬
𝑬−
𝟏− +
𝑬

𝟏+ 𝜞
𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝟏− 𝜞

RANGE: ∞ ≥ 𝑺𝑾𝑹 ≥ 𝟏
RANGE: ∞ ≥ 𝑺𝑾𝑹 ≥ 𝟏

SWR = 0
there is no signal flowing along the line

SWR = 1
ideal value theoretically
Special cases: lossless line

1. Matched line : ZL = Zo
Γ = 0 ; there is no reflection

1+ 𝛤 1+0
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = =
1− 𝛤 1−0

SWR = 1

2. Short- circuited line : ZL = 0


Γ = -1 = 1 < 180˚ ; there is total reflection

1+1 2
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = =
1−1 0

SWR = ∞
3.Open – circuited line: ZL =∞
Γ = 1 ; 1 < 0˚ there is total reflection

1+1 2
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = =
1−1 0

SWR = ∞
4. ZLis purely resistive and maximum
ZL = Rmax

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸+ + 𝐸−
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼+ − 𝐼−
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝒁𝒐

Rmax≥ 𝒁𝒐
5. If ZL is purely resistive and minimum

ZL= Rmin

𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐸+ − 𝐸−
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = =
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼+ + 𝐼−

𝒁𝒐
𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏

Rmin≤ 𝒁𝒐

6. If ZL = RL
𝑹𝑳
𝑺𝑾𝑹 = if 𝑹𝑳 ≥ Zo
𝒁𝒐

𝒁𝒐
𝑺𝑾𝑹 = if 𝑹𝑳 ≤ Zo
𝑹𝑳
Problem:

1. A transmission line for which the attenuation


constant is zero and the phase shift constant is 0.1
rad/m and characteristic impedance is 100 ohms, is
operated at 5MHz with load impedance equal to 200
ohms. Find the SWR.

2. A transmission line with Zo= 150 Ω is terminated in a


purely resistive load. It is found by measurements
that the minimum and maximum voltage upon it is
3µV and 5µV respectively. What is the value of the
load resistance?
Voltage and Current Standing Waves on a Transmission Line that is
Terminated in an Open Circuit

Characteristics:
a. The incident voltage is reflected back just as if it were to continue; no phase
reversal.
b. The incident current is reflected back 180 degrees from how it would have
continued.
c. The sum of the incident voltage and reflected voltage is maximum at the open
end.
d. The sum of the incident current and reflected current is minimum at the open
end.
Voltage and Current Standing Waves on a Transmission
Line that is Terminated in a Short Circuit

Characteristics:
a. The incident voltage is reflected back 180 degrees from how it would have
continued.
b. The incident current is reflected back just as if it were to continue; no phase
reversal.
c. The sum of the incident voltage and reflected voltage is minimum at the shoted
end.
d. The sum of the incident current and reflected current is maximum at the
shorted end.
Two Types of Transmission Line Length

1. Physical Length ( S )
It is also called mechanical length (unit: in, m, cm,
etc.)

2. Electrical Length ( ˚ƪ )

˚ƪ = β S

˚ƪ = xS
𝑣

2𝜋𝑓
˚ƪ = xS
𝑣
Problem:

1. Compare the electrical length of a 10m


transmission line at 1kHz and 6 GHz.

2. What length of an air-dielectric coaxial cable


would be required to obtain a 75 electrical
length at 1 GHz?
Position of the first maximum voltage from the load (Smax)

(used in terms of unit length)

(used in terms of degrees)

Where: θ = direction of reflection coefficient


β = phase delay constant

Position of the first minimum voltage from the load (Smin)

(used in terms of unit length)

(used in terms of degrees)


Rules:

1. βSmax and βSmin should always be positive


and less than 180˚ for the first position.

2. If Smax1 and Smin1 is greater than or equal


to 0.5λ, subtract 0.5λ.

3. The θ in Smax1 should always be a positive


θ. If θ in Smax1 is a negative angle, add 360˚.
Remember:

If the line is purely resistive and RL>Zo, Vmax


appears first and if RL<Zo, Vmin appears first that
Vmax.

If the line is purely inductive or inductive, Smax


appears first than Smin.

If the line is purely capacitive or capacitive, Smin


appears first than Smax.
Problem:
1. The 120 Ω transmission line is connected to
the 150 – j 75 Ω load. If the βs is 130 degrees,
find the SWR and Smax1 and Smin1.

2. An antenna connected to a transmission line


having a characteristic impedance of 200 Ω
produces an SWR = 3.0 with a voltage
minimum at 0.15λ from the load. What is the
reflection coefficient at the load?
Magnitude of the Input Power

𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑷𝒔+ 𝟏 − 𝜞𝒔 𝟐

𝟒𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑺
𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑷𝒔+ 𝟐
𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑺 + 𝟏

Magnitude of the Output Power

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝑳 + 𝟏 − 𝜞𝑳 𝟐

𝟒𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑳
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝑳 + 𝟐
𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑳 + 𝟏

Where: ‫׀‬Pin‫ = ׀‬magnitude of the input power


‫׀‬Pout‫ = ׀‬magnitude of the output power
‫׀‬Ps +‫ = ׀‬power at the source
‫׀‬PL+‫ = ׀‬power at the load
SWRs = SWR at the source
SWRL = SWR at the load
‫׀‬Γs‫ = ׀‬reflection coefficient at the source
‫׀‬ΓL‫ = ׀‬reflection coefficient at the load
Total Loss of a Line (TL dB)

𝑷𝒊𝒏
𝑻𝑳𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕

𝟒𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑺
𝑷𝒔+ 𝟐
𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑺 + 𝟏
𝑻𝑳𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝟒𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑳
𝑷𝑳 + 𝟐
𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑳 + 𝟏

Considering the loss due to the length of the line:


(SWRs < SWRL)

𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑳 𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑳 + 𝟏
𝑻𝑳𝒅𝑩 =∝ 𝑺 − 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 + 𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝑺𝑾𝑹𝒔 𝑺𝑾𝑹𝒔 + 𝟏
Special case:

1. Matched Lossy Line: SWRs = SWRL


𝑇𝐿𝑑𝐵 =∝ 𝑆 − 10 log 1 + 20 log 1

𝑇𝐿𝑑𝐵 =∝ 𝑆

2. Unmatched Lossy Line: SWRs > SWRL


𝑆𝑊𝑅𝐿 − 1 𝑆𝑊𝑅𝑠 + 1
𝑇𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 10 log
𝑆𝑊𝑅𝐿 + 1 𝑆𝑊𝑅𝑠 − 1
Problem:

1. A 12W source produces an SWR of 2.5 while


the load was observed to have a Vmax and
Vmin of 3V and 0.75V respectively. The coaxial
line connected to the load produces an
attenuation of 0.02 dB/m. Find the following:

a. total loss of a 3m line.


b. magnitude of the input power
c. magnitude of the output power
Attenuation Constant in dB/100ft

𝑹𝒕
∝𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟓 𝒅𝑩/𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒕
𝒁𝒐

For Coaxial Line:


𝟏 𝟏
𝑹𝒕 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏 + 𝒇
𝒅 𝑫

Where: D = inside diameter of the outer conductor (in)


d = diameter of the inner conductor (in)
f = operating frequency (MHz)

for Two-wire Line:


𝒇
𝑹𝒕 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟐
𝒅

Where: d = diameter of the conductor (in)


f = operating frequency (MHz)
Problem:

1. Two wires of 500 Ω - Zo is to be constructed


out of a No. 14 AWG ( 71 mils). What is the
attenuation of the line at 0.8 GHz per 100 ft
length?

2. A transmitter is operating on a frequency 108


MHz. The antenna transmission line consists
of a 75Ω air-dielectric coaxial cable 160 ft
long. The coaxial inner conductor diameter is
0.15 in. Find the attenuation of the line in
dB/160 ft.
Input Impedance (Zin)

Mathematically,
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒋𝒁𝒐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝑺
𝒁𝒊𝒏 = 𝒁𝒐
𝒁𝒐 + 𝒋𝒁𝑳 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝑺

If ZL is unknown:
𝒁𝒊𝒏 + 𝒋𝒁𝒐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝑺
𝒁𝑳 = 𝒁𝒐
𝒁𝒐 + 𝒋𝒁𝒊𝒏 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝑺

Special cases: lossless condition

1. Matched Line: ZL = Zo

𝑍𝑜 + 𝑗𝑍𝑜 tan 𝛽𝑆
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝑜
𝑍𝑜 + 𝑗𝑍𝑜 tan 𝛽𝑆

𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝑜 = 𝑍𝐿
2. Short-circuited Line: ZL = 0

𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝑠𝑐 = 𝑗𝑍𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽𝑆

3. Open-circuited Line: ZL = ∞

𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝑜𝑐 = −𝑗𝑍𝑜 cot 𝛽𝑆


𝑍𝑜 = 𝑍𝑠𝑐 𝑍𝑜𝑐
4.
𝜆
line ( β S = 90˚ )
4
𝑍𝑜2
𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝜆 =
4 𝑍𝐿
5.
𝜆
line ( β S = 180˚ )
2

𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝜆 = 𝑍𝐿
2
Problem:

1. Calculate the length of a short-circuited 100-Ω line necessary to


simulate an inductance of 5 nH at 500 MHz.

2. Find the Zo of a 0.05λ section of a transmission line that simulates


an inductance of 5nH when short circuited and a capacitance of
0.9 pF when open-circuited at 1.5 GHz.

3. To find the Zo of a transmission line, measurements are made with:


a. the far end open circuited and
b. the far end short circuited,

the corresponding readings being:


a. Roc =10 Ω and Xc = 60 Ω, capacitive
b. Rsc =25 Ω and XL =250Ω,inductive

What is the Zo of the line?


Transmission Line Input Impedance Summary
Transmission Line Impedance Matching

1. Quarter-wave Transformer Matching


It is a quarter-wave section of a transmission line used to match
transmission lines to purely resistive loads whose resistance is not equal to the
characteristic impedance of the line.

Impedance Transformation:
RL = Zo : 1:1 turns ratio transformer
RL > Zo : step-down transformer
RL < Zo : step-up transformer
𝒁′𝒐 = 𝒁𝒐 𝒁𝑳

Where: Z’o = char. Imp. of a λ/4 transformer

Zo = char. Imp.of a transmission line being


matched

ZL = load impedance
2. Shorted Stub Impedance Matching
It is a one-half wavelength or shorter piece of additional
transmission line that is placed across the primary line as close to the load
as possible to tune out the reactive component of the load. Shorted stubs
are preferred than open stubs because open stubs have a tendency to
radiate, especially at the higher frequencies.

Process:
1. Locate a point as close to the load as possible where the conductive
component of the input impedance is equal to the characteristic
admittance of the transmission line:

Yin = G – jB, where G = 1 / Zo

2. Attach the shorted stub to the point on the transmission line


identified in step 1.
3. Depending on whether the reactive component at the point
identified in step 1 is inductive or capacitive, the stub length is
adjusted accordingly:

Yin = Go – jB + jBstub
Yin = Go ( if B = Bstub )

3. Directional Coupler
It is a coupling unit that is used to measure the power being delivered to a
load or an antenna through a transmission line. This is done by a
sampling technique, in which a known fraction of the power (only of the
forward wave and not of the reflected wave) is measured, so that the
total may be calculated.
4. Baluns
It is a simple form of transmission line
transformer designed to convert
between balanced and unbalanced
transmission parallel line.
5. Slotted Line
It is a piece of coaxial line with a long
narrow longitudinal slot in the outer
conductor that permits convenient and
accurate measurement of the position
and size of the first voltage maximum
from the load.
6. Smith Chart
It was invented by Philip Smith in 1939 to
show how the complex impedance of a
transmission line varies along its length.
Finding the Input Impedance using the Smith Chart

1. Normalize the load impedance (z = ZL / Zo) then


plot.
2. Draw the impedance circle. You may also read
the SWR along the purely resistive line.
3. Trace the length of the line and intersect the
location to the normalize impedance circle to get
the normalized input impedance (zi).
4. Find the actual input impedance (Zi = Zo x zi)
Problem

Determine the input impedance and SWR for


a transline 1.1 λ long with a characteristic
impedance of 100 Ω and a load impedance
50 + j50 Ω.
Quarter-Wave Transformer Matching using the
Smith Chart
1. Normalize the load impedance (z = ZL / Zo)
then plot.
2. Draw the impedance circle. You may also read
the SWR along the purely resistive line.
3. Extend the point to the outermost scale.
4. Get the distance of the point on the outermost
scale to the nearest X=0 line. This is the
distance of the transformer from the load.
5. Find the actual input impedance : Zi = Zo x zi
(note: zi = SWR)
6. Find the Zo of the transformer: Zo(λ/4) = √ZoZi
Problem
A 200 Ω coaxial line is terminated to a 240
+j160 Ω antenna. Determine the SWR,
reflection coefficient and Zo of the quarter-
wave transformer and the distance the
transformer must be placed from the load to
match the line to the load.
Stub Matching using the Smith Chart
1. Normalize the load impedance (z = ZL / Zo) then plot.
2. Use admittance rather than impedance because stubs are
shunted across the load. The circles and arcs are now used for
conductance and susceptance.
3. Normalize the admittance (y) by rotating the impedance plot 180
degrees.
4. Intersect “y” to R=1 ( call this y’); y’=1 ± j
5. The distance between y and y’ is the distance from the load that
the stub must be placed.
6. Get the reciprocal of y’ with R=0; call this stub admittance (ys); ys
=0∓j
7. Move around the outside circle of the Smith chart (the circle
where R=0) to the ys point. This is the shorted stub length.
8. Move around the outside circle of the Smith chart (the circle
where X=0) to the ys point. This is the open stub length.
Problem

• The 50 Ω coaxial line is to be terminated to a


load with 35 + j35 Ω. A stub matching is to
used to match the line to the load. Find the
distance a shorted stub must be placed from
the load and the length of the stub.
Special Kinds of Transmission Lines

1. Microstrip Transmission Line


Microstrip transmission line is a kind of "high grade"
printed circuit construction, consisting of a track of copper or
other conductor on an insulating substrate. There is a
"backplane" on the other side of the insulating substrate,
formed from similar conductor.
Where: Zo = characteristic impedance (Ω)
εr = dielectric constant
w = width of copper trace
t = thickness of copper trace
h = distance between copper trace and the ground plane
Stripline
Stripline is simply a flat conductor sandwiched between two ground planes. It is more
difficult to manufacture than microstrip but is less likely to radiate, thus losses are
lower.

Where: Zo = characteristic impedance (Ω)


εr = dielectric constant
d = dielectric thickness
w = width of conducting copper trace
t = thickness of conducting copper trace
h = distance between copper trace and the ground plane

ln
d

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