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Open-Wire
Transmission Line
Twin Lead or Ribbon Cable
Twisted-Pair Cable
Drain wire - a bare
conductor wound
inside the cable jacket
and in continuous
contact with the shield.
The drain wire makes
terminating the shield
easy.
• At high frequencies:
– becomes complex
– there are RLCG in the circuit
American Wire Gauge Chart
Fill in the blank…..
1. The smaller the diameter of the wire, the
____________ is the resistance.
• Lateral Misalignment
• Gap Displacement
Types of Coupling Loss
• Angular Misalignment
5. Corona or Spark
It is a luminous discharge that occurs between
two conductors of transmission line when the
difference of potential between them exceeds the
breakdown voltage of the dielectric. One corona has
occurred, the transmission line may be destroyed.
General Equivalent Circuit of
Transmission Lines
The transmission line model represents the transmission line as an infinite series of two-
port elementary components, each representing an infinitesimally short segment of the transmission
line:
• The distributed resistance of the conductors is represented by a series resistor (expressed in ohms
per unit length).
• The distributed inductance (due to the magnetic field around the wires, self-inductance, etc.) is
represented by a series inductor (henries per unit length).
• The capacitance between the two conductors is represented by a shunt capacitor C (farads per unit
length).
• The conductance of the dielectric material separating the two conductors is represented by a shunt
resistor between the signal wire and the return wire (siemens per unit length).
The following are the line constants that can be derived
from the circuit:
http://jugandi.com/ebooks/eXe_Transmission_Li
nes/Transmission%20Lines/telegraphers_equati
on.html
For Parallel Wire Line
s r
d d
Where: s = spacing between conductor
r = radius of the conductor
• Inductance ( L ), H/m
𝝁 𝒔
𝑳 = 𝐥𝐧
𝝅 𝒓
where: μ = permeability
μ = μR x μo
μo= 4π x 10 -7 H/m
μo = 1.257 x 10 -6 H/m
b
a
h h h
• Inductance ( L ), H/m
𝝁
𝑳=
𝒃
𝝅 𝐥𝐧
𝒂
• Capacitance ( C ), F/m
𝟐𝝅𝜺
𝑪=
𝒃
𝐥𝐧
𝒂
• Resistance ( R ), Ω/m
𝟏
𝑹=
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐𝝅𝜹𝝈𝒄 +
𝒂 𝒃
• Conductance ( G ), mho/m
𝟐𝝅𝝈
𝑮=
𝒃
𝐥𝐧
𝒂
Velocity Factor ( Vf )
It is the velocity reduction ratio of the
electromagnetic waves that depends on the nature
of the medium through which they travel.
𝑽𝒄
𝑽=
𝒌
Where: V = velocity in the medium
Vc= velocity of light in a vacuum
k = dielectric constant of the medium
𝟏
𝑽𝒇 =
𝒌
Where: Vf= velocity factor
Material Dielectric Constant (k)
Vacuum 1.0
Air 1.0006
Teflon 2.1
Polyethylene(PE) 2.27
Polystyrene 2.5
Paper, Paraffined 2.5
Rubber 3.0
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 3.3
Mica 5.0
Glass 7.5
Problem:
A particular metallic cable is consists of
polystyrene dielectric. Give three (3) inferences.
Characteristic Impedance (Zo)
It is also called surge impedance and
intrinsic impedance. It is the opposition to the
transfer of energy which is considered the
dominant characteristic of a cable which
emanates from its physical structure. It is the
impedance measured at the input of the line
when its length is infinite.
Note:
1. A line terminated in its Zo is called non-
resonant, resistive or flat line.
𝑹 + 𝒋ῳ𝑳
𝒁𝒐 =
𝑮 + 𝒋ῳ𝑪
Where: Z = series impedance
Y = shunt admittance
𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝒔
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝒌 𝒓
d d
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒔
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐧
𝒌 𝒓
Where: Zo = char. Impedance, ( Ω )
k = dielectric constant
s = separation of conductors from center to center
d= diameter of the conductor
r = radius of the conductor
Problem:
The spacing between a two-wire open air
unterminated transmission line is 12 inches and
the diameter of the conductor is 0.25 in. Find
the Zo at the following line length:
a. 10 ft
b. at infinite long section of the line
Problem:
A ribbon cable is consists of #12 AWG (81 mils).
The distance between wire centers is 0.5 in,
what is the Zo of the line?
𝟔𝟎 𝑫
𝒁𝒐 = 𝐥𝐧
𝒌 𝒅
Where: Zo = char. Impedance , ohms
K = dielectric constant h h
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒔 𝒆−𝜹𝒙
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒔 𝒆−𝜹𝒙
𝜹= 𝑹 + 𝒋ῳ𝑳 (𝑮 + 𝒋ῳ𝑪)
This is also a complex quantity and can be written as:
𝜹 =∝ +𝒋𝜷
1 dB = 0.115 Neper
1 Neper = 8.686 dB
If :L/R=C/G
Therefore : C = LG / R
𝛿= 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿 (𝐺 + 𝑗ῳ𝐶)
𝑗ῳ𝐿𝐺
𝛿= 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿 (𝐺 + )
𝑅
𝑅𝐺 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿𝐺
𝛿= 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿 ( )
𝑅
𝐺
𝛿= 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿 (𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿)
𝑅
𝐺
𝛿 = 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿
𝑅
But : G/R = C/L
𝐶
𝛿 = 𝑅 + 𝑗ῳ𝐿
𝐿
𝑪
𝜹=𝑹 + 𝒋ῳ 𝑳𝑪
𝑳
𝜹 = 𝜶 + 𝒋𝜷
Therefore:
𝑪
𝜶=𝑹
𝑳
𝜷 = ῳ 𝑳𝑪
Speed of Propagation ( V )
At any condition:
𝑫
𝑽=
𝑻
𝑫
𝑽=
𝑳𝑪
V =λf
V=ῳ/β
𝟏
𝑽=
𝑳𝑪
For λ:
λ=V/f
= (ῳ /β) / f
= ῳ / (βf) = 2πf / βf
𝟐𝝅
𝝀=
𝜷
𝟑𝟔𝟎˚
𝝀=
𝜷
Problem:
1. One meter is one wavelength at what
frequency?
td = L C
𝜞 = 𝜽 < ׀𝜞׀
Mathematically,
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍
𝜞=
𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍
In terms of power:
𝑃−
𝛤𝑃 = +
𝑃
In terms of voltage:
𝑉−
𝛤𝑉 = +
𝑉
In terms of current:
𝐼−
𝛤𝐼 = +
𝐼
But: V =IZ
𝑉− 𝐼−𝑍 𝐼−
𝛤𝑉 = = = = 𝛤𝐼
𝑉+ 𝐼+𝑍 𝐼+
Therefore:
𝜞𝑽 = 𝜞𝑰
But:
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑍
𝑉− 2
𝑃− 𝑉− 2
𝛤𝑃 = = 2
𝑍
= = (𝛤𝑉 )2
𝑃+ 𝑉+ 𝑉+
𝑍
Therefore:
𝜞𝑽 = 𝜞𝑷
Note:
𝐼𝐿
𝑉+ = 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 𝛿𝑆
2
𝐼𝐿
𝑉− = 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 −𝛿𝑆
2
𝐼𝐿
𝐼+ = 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 𝛿𝑆
2𝑍𝑜
−
−𝐼𝐿
𝐼 = 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 −𝛿𝑆
2𝑍𝑜
Where:
IL = load current (A )
ZL = load impedance ( Ω )
Zo = characteristic impedance ( Ω )
δ = propagation constant
S = physical length
𝐼𝐿 −𝛿𝑆
𝑉− 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 𝑒
𝛤= += 2
𝑉 𝐼𝐿 𝛿𝑆
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑒
2
𝒁𝑳 − 𝒁𝒐
𝜞=
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝒐 𝒆𝟐𝜹𝑺
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜
𝛤=
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝑒 2𝛿0
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜
𝛤𝑉 = = 𝛤𝐼
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜
𝟐 𝒁𝑳 −𝒁𝒐 2
𝜞𝑷 = 𝜞𝑽 = 𝒁𝑳 +𝒁𝒐
RANGE: -1 ≤ Γ ≤ 1
Through the direction of Γ, the nature of the line can be
known.
𝜞 = 𝜽 < ׀𝜞׀
∞−𝑍𝑜 ∞
𝛤= = ∞ = indeterminate
∞+𝑍𝑜
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 1
𝛤= . 𝑍
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 𝐿
𝑍𝑜
1− 𝑍
𝐿
𝛤=
𝑍𝑜
1+ 𝑍
𝐿
𝑍𝑜
1− ∞
𝛤=
𝑍𝑜
1+ ∞
𝒁𝑳 − 𝒁𝒐
𝜞=
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝒐
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝜞=
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
Problem:
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑰𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑽𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
Conditions:
1. SWR = 1 at Zo = ZL
𝑍𝑜
2. SWR = 𝑅 if Zo> RL
𝐿
𝑅
3. SWR = 𝑍𝑜𝐿 if Zo< RL
Note:
SWR >1 for # 2 and # 3, that is when the line is terminated in a
purely resistive load.
4. SWR = ∞ , when the load is purely reactive
Mathematically,
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = = 𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = = 𝐼𝑆𝑊𝑅
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
1
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸+ + 𝐸− +
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = = .1𝐸
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐸+ − 𝐸− 𝐸+
𝑬−
𝟏+ +
𝑺𝑾𝑹 = 𝑬
𝑬−
𝟏− +
𝑬
𝟏+ 𝜞
𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝟏− 𝜞
RANGE: ∞ ≥ 𝑺𝑾𝑹 ≥ 𝟏
RANGE: ∞ ≥ 𝑺𝑾𝑹 ≥ 𝟏
SWR = 0
there is no signal flowing along the line
SWR = 1
ideal value theoretically
Special cases: lossless line
1. Matched line : ZL = Zo
Γ = 0 ; there is no reflection
1+ 𝛤 1+0
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = =
1− 𝛤 1−0
SWR = 1
1+1 2
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = =
1−1 0
SWR = ∞
3.Open – circuited line: ZL =∞
Γ = 1 ; 1 < 0˚ there is total reflection
1+1 2
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = =
1−1 0
SWR = ∞
4. ZLis purely resistive and maximum
ZL = Rmax
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸+ + 𝐸−
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼+ − 𝐼−
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝒁𝒐
Rmax≥ 𝒁𝒐
5. If ZL is purely resistive and minimum
ZL= Rmin
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐸+ − 𝐸−
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = =
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼+ + 𝐼−
𝒁𝒐
𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏
Rmin≤ 𝒁𝒐
6. If ZL = RL
𝑹𝑳
𝑺𝑾𝑹 = if 𝑹𝑳 ≥ Zo
𝒁𝒐
𝒁𝒐
𝑺𝑾𝑹 = if 𝑹𝑳 ≤ Zo
𝑹𝑳
Problem:
Characteristics:
a. The incident voltage is reflected back just as if it were to continue; no phase
reversal.
b. The incident current is reflected back 180 degrees from how it would have
continued.
c. The sum of the incident voltage and reflected voltage is maximum at the open
end.
d. The sum of the incident current and reflected current is minimum at the open
end.
Voltage and Current Standing Waves on a Transmission
Line that is Terminated in a Short Circuit
Characteristics:
a. The incident voltage is reflected back 180 degrees from how it would have
continued.
b. The incident current is reflected back just as if it were to continue; no phase
reversal.
c. The sum of the incident voltage and reflected voltage is minimum at the shoted
end.
d. The sum of the incident current and reflected current is maximum at the
shorted end.
Two Types of Transmission Line Length
1. Physical Length ( S )
It is also called mechanical length (unit: in, m, cm,
etc.)
2. Electrical Length ( ˚ƪ )
˚ƪ = β S
ῳ
˚ƪ = xS
𝑣
2𝜋𝑓
˚ƪ = xS
𝑣
Problem:
𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑷𝒔+ 𝟏 − 𝜞𝒔 𝟐
𝟒𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑺
𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑷𝒔+ 𝟐
𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑺 + 𝟏
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝑳 + 𝟏 − 𝜞𝑳 𝟐
𝟒𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑳
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝑳 + 𝟐
𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑳 + 𝟏
𝑷𝒊𝒏
𝑻𝑳𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝟒𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑺
𝑷𝒔+ 𝟐
𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑺 + 𝟏
𝑻𝑳𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝟒𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑳
𝑷𝑳 + 𝟐
𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑳 + 𝟏
𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑳 𝑺𝑾𝑹𝑳 + 𝟏
𝑻𝑳𝒅𝑩 =∝ 𝑺 − 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 + 𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝑺𝑾𝑹𝒔 𝑺𝑾𝑹𝒔 + 𝟏
Special case:
𝑇𝐿𝑑𝐵 =∝ 𝑆
𝑹𝒕
∝𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟓 𝒅𝑩/𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒕
𝒁𝒐
Mathematically,
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒋𝒁𝒐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝑺
𝒁𝒊𝒏 = 𝒁𝒐
𝒁𝒐 + 𝒋𝒁𝑳 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝑺
If ZL is unknown:
𝒁𝒊𝒏 + 𝒋𝒁𝒐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝑺
𝒁𝑳 = 𝒁𝒐
𝒁𝒐 + 𝒋𝒁𝒊𝒏 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝑺
1. Matched Line: ZL = Zo
𝑍𝑜 + 𝑗𝑍𝑜 tan 𝛽𝑆
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝑜
𝑍𝑜 + 𝑗𝑍𝑜 tan 𝛽𝑆
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝑜 = 𝑍𝐿
2. Short-circuited Line: ZL = 0
3. Open-circuited Line: ZL = ∞
𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝜆 = 𝑍𝐿
2
Problem:
Impedance Transformation:
RL = Zo : 1:1 turns ratio transformer
RL > Zo : step-down transformer
RL < Zo : step-up transformer
𝒁′𝒐 = 𝒁𝒐 𝒁𝑳
ZL = load impedance
2. Shorted Stub Impedance Matching
It is a one-half wavelength or shorter piece of additional
transmission line that is placed across the primary line as close to the load
as possible to tune out the reactive component of the load. Shorted stubs
are preferred than open stubs because open stubs have a tendency to
radiate, especially at the higher frequencies.
Process:
1. Locate a point as close to the load as possible where the conductive
component of the input impedance is equal to the characteristic
admittance of the transmission line:
Yin = Go – jB + jBstub
Yin = Go ( if B = Bstub )
3. Directional Coupler
It is a coupling unit that is used to measure the power being delivered to a
load or an antenna through a transmission line. This is done by a
sampling technique, in which a known fraction of the power (only of the
forward wave and not of the reflected wave) is measured, so that the
total may be calculated.
4. Baluns
It is a simple form of transmission line
transformer designed to convert
between balanced and unbalanced
transmission parallel line.
5. Slotted Line
It is a piece of coaxial line with a long
narrow longitudinal slot in the outer
conductor that permits convenient and
accurate measurement of the position
and size of the first voltage maximum
from the load.
6. Smith Chart
It was invented by Philip Smith in 1939 to
show how the complex impedance of a
transmission line varies along its length.
Finding the Input Impedance using the Smith Chart
ln
d