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FLOW ACROSS TUBE BANKS

• Cross-flow over tube banks is commonly encountered in


practice in heat transfer equipment, e.g., heat
exchangers.
• In such equipment, one fluid moves through the tubes
while the other moves over the tubes in a perpendicular
direction.
• Flow through the tubes can be analyzed by considering
flow through a single tube, and multiplying the results by
the number of tubes.
• For flow over the tubes, the tubes affect the flow pattern
and turbulence level downstream, and thus heat transfer
to or from them altered.
• Typical arrangement: in-line or staggered in the direction
of flow.
• The outer tube diameter D is the characteristic length.
• The arrangement of the tubes is characterized by the
transverse pitch ST, longitudinal pitch SL, and the
diagonal pitch SD between tube centers.
1
Diagonal
pitch

Arrangement of the
tubes in in-line and
staggered tube
banks (A1, AT, and
AD are flow areas at
indicated locations,
and L is the length of
the tubes).

2
All properties except Prs are to
be evaluated at the arithmetic
mean temperature.
Correlations in Table 7-2
The average Nusselt number relations in Table 7–2 are for tube banks
with more than 16 rows. Those relations can also be used for tube
banks with NL < 16 provided that they are modified as
NL < 16

where F is a correction factor whose values are given in Table 7–3.


For ReD > 1000, the correction factor is independent of Reynolds number.
Log mean
temperature
difference
Exit temperature

Heat transfer
rate
3
4
Pressure drop

• f is the friction factor and


c is the correction factor.
• The correction factor c
given is used to account
for the effects of deviation
from square arrangement
(in-line) and from
equilateral arrangement
(staggered).

5
FLOW ACROSS BANKS OF TUBES
• Tube arrangements in bank SL SD
SL D
v,T∞ D v,T∞
ST ST A1
A1
A2

Aligned Staggered
• Grimison correlation
NuD = C1 ReDm, max NL ≥ 10 , Pr = 0.7
2000 ≤ ReD , max ≤ 40,000
C1 and m are listed in Table 7.5
ReD , max = ρvmaxD , vmax =ST v
μ ST - D
NuD = 1.13 C1 ReDm, max Pr1/3 NL ≥ 10 , Pr ≥ 0.7
2000 ≤ ReD , max ≤ 40,000
All properties are evaluated at film temperature
• If NL < 10
NuD = C2 NuD NL ≥ 10
C2 is given Table 7.6

• Zukauskas correlation
NuD = C ReDm, max Pr0.36 (Pr/Prs)1/4
NL ≥ 20 C and m are listed in Table 7.7 . All properties
0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 500 except Prs are evaluated at the arithmetic
1000 ≤ ReD , max ≤ 2 x 106 mean of the fluid inlet and outlet temperature

• If NL < 20
NuD = C2 NuD NL ≥ 20
C2 is given Table 7.8
• Since the fluid may experienced a large change in temperature as
it moves through the tube bank, the heat transfer rate could be
significantly over predicted by using ΔT = Ts - T∞

• From of ΔT is shown to be a log-mean temperature difference


ΔT = (Ts - Ti) - (Ts – To)
ln Ts – Ti
Ts – To

Ti = temperature of the fluid enters the bank


To = temperature of the fluid leaves the bank

Ts – To = exp - πDNh
Ts – Ti ρVNTSTCP

N = total number of tubes in the bank


NT = total number of tubes in the transverse plane
• The heat transfer rate per unit length of the tubes:

q’ = N(hπDΔT1m)

• Pressure drop:

ΔP = NLx ρV2max f
2
14
15
16
17
18
PROBLEM 7.88

A tube bank uses an aligned arrangement of 30mm diameter


tubes with ST = SL = 60mm and a tube length of 1m. There are
10 tube rows in the flow direction (NL = 10) and 7 tubes per row
(N7 = 7). Air with upstream conditions of T∞ = 27°c and V = 15
m/s is in cross flow over the tubes while a tube wall temp. of
100°c is maintained by steam condensation inside the tubes.
Determine the temp. of air leaving the tube bank, the pressure
drop across the bank and the fan power requirement.
Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications
Fourth Edition in SI Units
Yunus A. Cengel, Afshin J. Ghajar
McGraw-Hill, 2011

Chapter 8
INTERNAL FORCED
CONVECTION

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
FLOW CONDITIONS FOR INTERNAL FLOW

• For an internal flow, it must be concerned with the existence of


entrance and fully developed regions.

• Consider laminar flow in a circular tube, fluid enters the tube with a
uniform velocity

• When the fluid makes contact with the tube surface, viscous effects
become important. Boundary layer develops with increasing x
• Boundary layer development occurs at the expense of a shrinking
flow region and concludes with boundary layer merger at the
centerline

• The distance from the entrance at which this condition is achieved is


hydrodynamic entry length, xfd , h

• The fully developed velocity profile is parabolic for laminar flow in a


circular tube. For turbulent flow, the profile is flatter.
• The Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube is defined as
ρumD umD um = mean velocity
ReD = = D = tube diameter
μ ν
• In a fully developed flow, the critical Reynolds number is:
* Laminar ≤ 2300
ReD , C ≈ 2300 * Critical = 2300
* Turbulent 2300 ≤ ReD ≤ 10,000

• Hydrodynamic entry length:


– Laminar flow: x fd ,h / D  0.05 Re D
Fully developed
– Turbulent flow: 10 ≤ xfd , h ≤ 60 turbulent flow:
D
x fd ,h / D  10
• Mean velocity, um
m= um Ac m = mass flowrate

ρ = fluid density 4m
m um = mean velocity
Re D =
π Dμ
um = Ac = cross-sectional area of tube
Ac Ac = πD2/4
VELOCITY PROFILE IN A PIPE
• For laminar flow, constant property fluid in the fully developed
region of a circular tube (pipe):

1  dp  2  r
2
u( r ) = −  o r 1 −   
4  dx    ro  
 

ro2 dp m
um = − um =
8 dx Ac

u( r )  r
2
= 2 1 −   
um   ro  
 

The maximum velocity is at r = 0, the centerline where u(0) = 2 um


Pressure Gradient and Friction Factor in Fully
Development Flow
• Friction factor, f :
f = - (dp/dx)D
ρum2/2
• Friction coefficient, Cf :
Cf = τs = f
ρum2/2 4
• For fully develop laminar flow :
f = 64
ReD
• Pressure gradient :
dp = - 64 ρum2
dx ReD 2D
• For fully developed turbulent flow
f = 0.316 ReD-1/4 ReD ≤ 2 x 104
f = 0.184 ReD-1/5 ReD ≥ 2 x 104
f = (0.790 ln ReD – 1.64)-2 3000 ≤ ReD ≤ 5 x 106

• Pressure drop, ΔP for fully developed flow


ΔP = - ∫P1P2 dp = f ρum2 ∫x1x2 dx = f ρum2 (x2 – x1)
2D 2D L

Power, P = (ΔP ) V , V = m/ρ


Moody Diagram
THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS

• If a fluid enters the tube at a uniform temp. that is less than the
surface temp. , convection heat transfer occurs and thermal
boundary layer develop.
• If the tube surface condition is fixed (Ts is constant) or a uniform
heat flux (qs” is constant), a thermally fully developed condition is
reached.
• Thermal entry length: We can write Newton’s Law of cooling
inside a tube by considering a mean
– Laminar flow: xfd , t = 0.05 ReDPr temp. Tm instead of T∞

D q"x = h(TS − Tm )
– Turbulent flow: 10 ≤ xfd , t ≤ 60
D
The Energy Balance

Considering perfect gas, or incompressible liquid:


c p dTm
dqconv = m ➢Ts > Tm, heat is transferred to the
fluid and Tm increases with x
By integrating:
c p (Tm,o − Tm,i )
qconv = m ➢Ts < Tm, heat is transferred from
the fluid and Tm decreases with x

❖ qconv is related to mean temperatures at inlet and outlet.


Combining equations:
dTm qs" P P where P = surface perimeter
= = h(Ts − Tm ) = pD for circular tube,
dx mc p mc p = width for flat plate
Constant Surface Heat Flux

qconv = qs" A = qs" ( P  L)

qs" = const
Integrating equation:

qs" P
Tm ( x) = Tm,i + x
mc p
where P = surface perimeter
= pD for circular tube,
= width for flat plate
Constant Surface Temperature (Ts= constant)
dTm d (T ) P
=− = hT Ts-Tm=T
dx dx c p
m
Integrating from x to any downstream location:
Ts − Tm ( x)  Px 
= exp − h
Ts − Tm,i  mc p 
 
For the entire length of the tube:

Ts − Tm,o To  PL 
= = exp  − h
Ts − Tm,i Ti  mc p 
 
To − Ti
qconv = h As Tlm Tlm =
ln( To / Ti )
As is the tube surface area, As = PL = pDL
Uniform External Temperature

➢ For heat transfer between fluid flowing over a tube and fluid passing through
the tube, replace Ts by T and h by U
To T − Tm,o  U As 
= = exp  −  q = U As ΔTlm
 
Ti T − Tm,i  mc p 
ΔTlm
ΔTo T∞ Tm ,o 1
q=
= = exp - Rtot
ΔTi T∞ Tm ,i mc p Rtot
Summary (8.1-8.3)
• We discussed fully developed flow conditions for cases involving
internal flows, and we defined mean velocities and temperatures
• We wrote Newton’s law of cooling using the mean temperature,
instead of T "
q = h(TS − Tm )
• Based on an overall energy balance, we obtained an alternative
expression to calculate convection heat transfer as a function of mean
temperatures at inlet and outlet.
c p (Tm,o − Tm,i )
qconv = m
• We obtained relations to express the variation of Tm with length, for
cases involving constant heat flux and constant wall temperature

qs" P Ts − Tm,o To  PL 


Tm ( x) = Tm,i + x = = exp  − h
mc p Ts − Tm,i Ti  mc p 
 
Summary (8.1-8.3)
• We used these definitions, to obtain appropriate versions of Newton’s
law of cooling, for internal flows, for cases involving constant wall
temperature and constant surrounding fluid temperature

qconv = h As Tlm q = U As Tlm

To − Ti
Tlm =
ln( To / Ti )
• We can combine equations (8.13-8.16) with (8.9) to obtain values of
the heat transfer coefficient (see solution of Example 8.3)
➢ In the rest of the chapter we will focus on obtaining values of the heat
transfer coefficient h, needed to solve the above equations
Heat Transfer Correlations for Internal Flow

Knowledge of heat transfer coefficient is needed for calculations


shown in previous slides.
➢ Correlations exist for various problems involving internal flow,
including laminar and turbulent flow in circular and non-circular
tubes and in annular flow.
➢ For laminar flow we can derive h dependence theoretically
➢ For turbulent flow we use empirical correlations
➢ Recall from Chapters 6 and 7 general functional dependence

Nu = f (Re, Pr)
Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
1. Fully Developed Region

• For cases involving uniform heat flux:

hD
NuD  = 4.36 qs" = const
k

• For cases involving constant surface temperature:

Nu D = 3.66 Ts = const
Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
2. Entry Region: Velocity and Temperature are functions of x

For constant surface temperature condition:


• Thermal Entry Length case
0.0668( D / L) Re D Pr
Nu D = 3.66 +
1 + 0.04[( D / L) Re D Pr]2 / 3

• Combined Entry Length case (Temperature and velocity profiles develop


simultaneously)

0.14 Ts = const
 
1/ 3
 Re Pr  0.48  Pr  16,700
Nu D = 1.86 D   
 L/ D   s  0.0044 

 9.75
s
All properties, except s evaluated at average value of mean temperature
Tm,i − Tm,o
Tm =
2
Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
• For a smooth surface and fully turbulent conditions the Dittus –
Boelter equation may be used for small to moderate temperature
differences Ts-Tm:
0.7  Pr  160 n=0.4 for heating (Ts>Tm)
NuD = 0.023 Re 4D/ 5 Pr n Re D  10,000 and 0.3 for cooling (Ts<Tm)
L / D  10

• For large property variations, Sieder and Tate equation:

0.14 0.7  Pr  16,700


1/ 3   
NuD = 0.027 Re D Pr 
4/5
 Re D  10,000
 s  L / D  10

All properties, except s evaluated at average value of mean temperature


Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
For large Reynolds number range, Gnielinski correlation:

( f / 8)(Re D − 1000) Pr 0.5  Pr  2000


NuD =
1 + 12.7( f / 8)1 / 2 (Pr 2 / 3 − 1) 3000  Re D  5 106

Friction factors may be obtained from Moody diagram etc.

For fully developed turbulent flow in smooth circular tubes with constant
surface heat flux, Skupinski correlation:

0.827
3.6 × 10 3 ≤ Re D ≤ 9.05 × 10 5
NuD = 4.82 + 0.0185PeD q"s = cons tan t
10 2 ≤ PeD ≤ 10 4

For fully developed turbulent flow in smooth circular tubes with constant
surface heat temperature, Seban and Shimazaki correlation:
0.8
NuD = 5.0 + 0.025PeD q"s = cons tant PeD ≥ 100
Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications
Fourth Edition in SI Units
Yunus A. Cengel, Afshin J. Ghajar
McGraw-Hill, 2011

Chapter 8
INTERNAL FORCED
CONVECTION

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Objectives
• Obtain average velocity from a knowledge of velocity profile,
and average temperature from a knowledge of temperature
profile in internal flow.
• Have a visual understanding of different flow regions in
internal flow, and calculate hydrodynamic and thermal entry
lengths.
• Analyze heating and cooling of a fluid flowing in a tube under
constant surface temperature and constant surface heat flux
conditions, and work with the logarithmic mean temperature
difference.
• Obtain analytic relations for the velocity profile, pressure
drop, friction factor, and Nusselt number in fully developed
laminar flow.
• Determine the friction factor and Nusselt number in fully
developed turbulent flow using empirical relations, and
calculate the heat transfer rate.
58
GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
Rate of heat transfer The thermal conditions at the surface
can be approximated to be
• constant surface temperature
Surface heat flux (Ts= const) or
• constant surface heat flux (qs = const).
hx is the local heat transfer coefficient. The constant surface temperature
condition is realized when a phase
change process such as boiling or
condensation occurs at the outer surface
of a tube.
The constant surface heat flux condition
is realized when the tube is subjected to
radiation or electric resistance heating
uniformly from all directions.
We may have either Ts = constant or
qs = constant at the surface of a tube,
The heat transfer to a fluid flowing in a but not both.
tube is equal to the increase in the
59
energy of the fluid.
Constant Surface Heat Flux (qs = constant)
Rate of heat transfer:

Mean fluid temperature


at the tube exit:

Surface temperature:

Variation of the tube


surface and the mean fluid
temperatures along the
tube for the case of
constant surface heat flux. 60
Energy interactions for a
differential control volume
in a tube.

Circular tube:

The shape of the temperature profile remains


unchanged in the fully developed region of a
tube subjected to constant surface heat flux. 61
Constant Surface Temperature (Ts = constant)
Rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing in a tube

Two suitable ways of expressing Tavg:


• Arithmetic mean temperature difference
• Logarithmic mean temperature difference

Arithmetic mean temperature difference:

Bulk mean fluid temperature: Tb = (Ti + Te)/2

By using arithmetic mean temperature difference, we assume that the mean


fluid temperature varies linearly along the tube, which is hardly ever the case
when Ts = constant.
This simple approximation often gives acceptable results, but not always.
Therefore, we need a better way to evaluate Tavg.
62
Integrating from x = 0 (tube inlet,
Tm = Ti) to x = L (tube exit, Tm = Te)

The variation of the mean fluid


temperature along the tube for the
case of constant temperature.

Energy interactions for


a differential control
63
volume in a tube.
Log mean
temperature
difference
NTU: Number of transfer units. A
measure of the effectiveness of the
heat transfer systems.
For NTU = 5, Te = Ts, and the limit for
heat transfer is reached.
A small value of NTU indicates more
opportunities for heat transfer.
Tln is an exact representation of the
average temperature difference
between the fluid and the surface.
When Te differs from Ti by no more
than 40 percent, the error in using the
arithmetic mean temperature
difference is less than 1 percent.
An NTU greater than 5 indicates that
the fluid flowing in a tube will reach the
surface temperature at the exit
regardless of the inlet temperature. 64
LAMINAR FLOW IN TUBES

65
The maximum velocity occurs
at the centerline, r = 0:
Velocity profile The average velocity in fully developed laminar
pipe flow is one-half of the maximum velocity.
66
A quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow is the pressure drop P since
it is directly related to the power requirements of the fan or pump to maintain flow.

Pressure
Drop

In laminar flow, the friction factor is a function of


the Reynolds number only and is independent of
the roughness of the pipe surface.

Head loss

Pressure losses are


commonly expressed
in terms of the equivalent
fluid column height, called
67
the head loss hL.
The head loss hL represents the additional height that the fluid
needs to be raised by a pump in order to overcome the frictional
losses in the pipe. The head loss is caused by viscosity, and it is
directly related to the wall shear stress.
The required pumping power to
overcome the pressure loss:
The average
velocity for
laminar flow
Poiseuille’s
law
For a specified flow rate, the pressure drop and
thus the required pumping power is proportional
to the length of the pipe and the viscosity of the
fluid, but it is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of the radius (or diameter) of the pipe.

68
Temperature Profile and the Nusselt Number

The rate of net energy transfer to the The differential volume element
control volume by mass flow is equal used in the derivation of energy
to the net rate of heat conduction in balance relation.
the radial direction. 69
Constant Surface Heat Flux

Applying the boundary conditions


T/x = 0 at r = 0 (because of
symmetry) and T = Ts at r = R:

Therefore, for fully developed laminar flow in


a circular tube subjected to constant surface
heat flux, the Nusselt number is a constant.
There is no dependence on the Reynolds or
the Prandtl numbers.

70
Constant Surface Temperature

The thermal conductivity k for use in the Nu relations should be evaluated


at the bulk mean fluid temperature.
For laminar flow, the effect of surface roughness on the friction factor and
the heat transfer coefficient is negligible.

Laminar Flow in Noncircular


Tubes
Nusselt number relations are given in
Table 8-1 for fully developed laminar
flow in tubes of various cross sections.
The Reynolds and Nusselt numbers
for flow in these tubes are based on
the hydraulic diameter Dh = 4Ac/p.
In laminar flow in a tube with constant Once the Nusselt number is available,
surface temperature, both the friction the convection heat transfer coefficient
factor and the heat transfer coefficient is determined from h = kNu/Dh.
remain constant in the fully developed
71
region.
72
Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region
For a circular tube of length L subjected to constant surface temperature, the
average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region can be determined from:

The average Nusselt number is larger at the entrance region, and it


approaches asymptotically to the fully developed value of 3.66 as L → .

When the difference between the surface and the fluid temperatures is large,
it may be necessary to account for the variation of viscosity with temperature:
All properties are evaluated at the bulk
mean fluid temperature, except for s, which
is evaluated at the surface temperature.

The average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region of


flow between isothermal parallel plates of length L is

73
TURBULENT FLOW IN TUBES

Chilton–Colburn First Petukhov equation


analogy

Colburn
equation

Dittus–Boelter equation

When the variation in properties is large due to a large temperature difference:

All properties are evaluated at Tb except s, which is evaluated at Ts.


74
Second
Petukhov
equation

Gnielinski
relation

The relations above are not very sensitive to the thermal conditions at the
tube surfaces and can be used for both Ts = constant and qs = constant.

75
Rough Surfaces
The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow depends on the
Reynolds number and the relative roughness  /D, which is the ratio of the
mean height of roughness of the pipe to the pipe diameter.

Colebrook
equation

Moody chart is given in the appendix as Fig. A–20.


It presents the Darcy friction factor for pipe flow as a function of the Reynolds
number and  /D over a wide range.

An approximate explicit
relation for f was
given by S. E. Haaland.

In turbulent flow, wall roughness increases the heat transfer coefficient h


by a factor of 2 or more. The convection heat transfer coefficient for rough
tubes can be calculated approximately from the Gnielinski relation or
Chilton–Colburn analogy by using the friction factor determined from the
Moody chart or the Colebrook equation.
76
77
Developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance Region
The entry lengths for turbulent flow are typically short, often just 10 tube
diameters long, and thus the Nusselt number determined for fully developed
turbulent flow can be used approximately for the entire tube.
This simple approach gives reasonable results for pressure drop and heat
transfer for long tubes and conservative results for short ones.
Correlations for the friction and heat transfer coefficients for the entrance regions
are available in the literature for better accuracy.

Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes


Pressure drop and heat transfer
characteristics of turbulent flow in tubes are
dominated by the very thin viscous sublayer
next to the wall surface, and the shape of the
core region is not of much significance.
The turbulent flow relations given above for
circular tubes can also be used for In turbulent flow, the velocity
noncircular tubes with reasonable accuracy profile is nearly a straight line in
by replacing the diameter D in the evaluation the core region, and any
of the Reynolds number by the hydraulic significant velocity gradients
diameter Dh = 4Ac/p. occur in the viscous sublayer. 78
Flow through Tube Annulus
Hydraulic diameter
of annulus
For laminar flow, the convection coefficients for the
inner and the outer surfaces are determined from A double-tube heat
exchanger that consists of
two concentric tubes.
For fully developed turbulent flow, hi and ho
are approximately equal to each other, and the
tube annulus can be treated as a noncircular
duct with a hydraulic diameter of Dh = Do − Di.
The Nusselt number can be determined from a
suitable turbulent flow relation such as the
Gnielinski equation. To improve the accuracy,
Nusselt numbers can be multiplied by the
following correction factors when one of the
tube walls is adiabatic and heat transfer is
through the other wall:

79
Heat Transfer Enhancement
Tubes with rough surfaces have much
higher heat transfer coefficients than
tubes with smooth surfaces.
Heat transfer in turbulent flow in a tube
can be increased by as much as 400
percent by roughening the surface.
Roughening the surface, of course,
also increases the friction factor and
thus the power requirement for the
pump or the fan.
The convection heat transfer
coefficient can also be increased by
inducing pulsating flow by pulse
generators, by inducing swirl by
inserting a twisted tape into the tube,
or by inducing secondary flows by
coiling the tube.
80
Summary
• Introduction
• Average Velocity and Temperature
✓ Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes
• The Entrance Region
✓ Entry Lengths
• General Thermal Analysis
✓ Constant Surface Heat Flux
✓ Constant Surface Temperature
• Laminar Flow in Tubes
✓ Pressure Drop
✓ Temperature Profile and the Nusselt Number
✓ Constant Surface Heat Flux
✓ Constant Surface Temperature
✓ Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region
• Turbulent Flow in Tubes
✓ Rough Surfaces
✓ Developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance Region
✓ Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes
✓ Flow Through Tube Annulus
✓ Heat Transfer Enhancement
81

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