HEAT EXCHANGERS

A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat between a solid object and a fluid, or
between two or more fluids.
The fluids may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they may be in direct contact.
They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power stations, chemical
factories, petrochemical plants, refineries, natural gas processing units etc.

Type of flow in Heat exchanger:

 Parallel flow
 Counter flow
 Cross flow

In the parallel flow configuration, both the hot and cold fluids flow in the same direction.
In the counter flow, both hot and cold fluids flow in opposite directions.
In cross flow, both hot and cold fluids travel almost perpendicular to each other.
Heat transfer performance: Parallel flow < counter flow < cross flow
Principle of Heat transfer:
Conduction: The transfer of heat between two solid bodies is called as conduction. It depends
on the difference in temperature of the hot and cold body. Example is heating one end of the
metal like copper; due to conduction heat transfer the other end of the metal also gets heated.

Convection: The transfer of heat between the solid surface and the liquid is called as
convection heat transfer. Let us considering a vessel of water being heated, in this case heating
of water due to transfer of heat from the vessel is convection heat transfer.

Radiation: When two bodies are at different temperatures and separated by distance, the heat
transfer between them is called as radiation heat transfer. In case of the conduction and
convection heat transfer there is a media to transfer the heat, but in case of the radiation heat
transfer there is no media. The radiation heat transfer occurs due to the electromagnetic waves
that exist in the atmosphere. One of the most important examples of radiation heat transfer is
the heat of the sun coming on the earth.

Direct contact heat transfer:

Direct-contact heat transfer involves the exchange of heat between two fluids by bringing them
into intimate contact with each other.
The advantage of direct-contact heat transfer is that it generates a very high value of overall
heat transfer coefficient resulting in higher heat transfer efficiency.
In Heat exchangers, heat transfer takes place through this method.

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger:

Shell and tube heat exchanger consist of tube stack normally made up of low carbon steel,
Admiralty, copper, copper-nickel, stainless steel, or titanium. It is placed inside the shell
which is made out of steel which is most commonly used material, and when applications
involving extreme temperatures and corrosion resistance, others metals or alloys are
specified.
Tube sheets usually constructed from a round, flattened sheet of metal. Holes for the tube
ends are teen drilled for the tube ends in a pattern relative to each other. Tube sheets are
typically manufactured from the same material as tubes, and attached to tubes with a
pneumatic or hydraulic pressure roller to the tube sheet. At this point, tube holes can both be
drilled and reamed.
The tube sheet comes in contact with both fluids in the exchanger, therefore it must be
constructed of corrosion resistant materials.
Tube and tube sheet materials are joined with weld-able metals, and often further strengthened
by applying strength or seal weld to the joint.
Bonnets / end channels regulate the flow of fluid in the tube-side circuit, they are typically
fabricated or cast. They are mounted against the tube sheet with a bolt and gasket assembly;
many designs include a ‘machine grooved’ channel in the tube sheet sealing the joint.
The material used in the cast bonnets / heads used in smaller diameters are typically, poured
from iron, steel, bronze, nickel plated, or stainless steel.
The main roles of a baffle in a shell and tube heat exchanger are to:
Hold tubes in position (preventing sagging), both in production and operation
Prevent the effects of vibration, which is increased with both fluid velocity and the length of
the exchanger
Direct shell-side fluid flow along tube field. This increases fluid velocity and the effective heat
transfer co-efficient of the exchanger.

Advantages

1. Less expensive as compared to Plate type coolers

2. Can be used in systems with higher operating temperatures and pressures
3. Pressure drop across a tube cooler is less
4. Tube leaks are easily located and plugged since pressure test is comparatively easy
5. Tubular coolers in refrigeration system can act as receiver also.
6. Using sacrificial anodes protects the whole cooling system against corrosion

Disadvantages

1. Heat transfer efficiency is less compared to plate type cooler

2. Cleaning and maintenance is difficult since a tube cooler requires enough clearance
at one end to remove the tube nest
3. Capacity of tube cooler cannot be increased.
4. Requires more space in comparison to plate coolers.
Heat transfer Mechanism:

Depending on the arrangement of tube pass in shell and tube, the construction of heat
exchanger is classified into SINGLE PASS, TWO PASS and MULTIPLE PASS.
As the number of passes increases, cooling efficiency of the system increases.

Plate type Heat Exchangers:

Plate type Heat Exchangers are made from an assembly of identical metal plates pressed
together. Such plates have with horizontal or chevron pattern corrugations.
Each plate’s working space is protected by a nitrile rubber joint. The plates, which are
supported at the bottom and hung at the top by metal rails on which the plates can be moved,
are held together against an end plate by clamping bolts or tie bolts.
The inlet and outlet branches for each liquid are attached to one end plate. Seals around the
ports are so arranged that one fluid flows in alternate passages between plates and the
second fluid in the alternative passages, usually in opposite directions.
The plates have various designs of corrugations to aid heat transfer and also provide stiffness
to the plates. The plate corrugations promote turbulence in the flow of both fluids and so
encourage efficient heat transfer.

Material used: Plates are made up of Titanium Some successful alloys that are widely used
such as Hastalloy C276, Nickel Incaloy 825.
Frame which is not in contact with the liquid: Coated Mild steel
Flange connections: Aluminium, Brass or Plastic

Advantage of Plate type coolers:

+ Smaller in size & lighter in construction compared to tube type coolers for the same
performance.
+ Variable cooling capacity by adding / removing plates as required.
+ Less space is occupied compared to tube type cooler for the same performance and also no
extra space is necessary for maintenance and other operations.
+ Turbulent flow helps reduce deposits; By having a back wash valve the flow is alternated to
remove any sediments occurred by prolonged one direction flow.
+ Mixing of fluids is less unless if there is any crack on the plate which is highly unlikely.
+ Variable flow velocities and higher velocity flow is also possible when compared to a tube
type cooler.

Dis-Advantages of Plate type coolers

– High degree of cleaning is required when assembling as entrapment of dirt on the rubber seal
can easily lead to leak, proper tightening and procedures to be followed.
– Joints usually deteriorate in prolonged usage and it is very difficult to remove & repair
onboard.
– Expensive due to cost of titanium plates & joints.
– Plates are damaged and joints deformed easily due to over tightening or improper tightening
procedure.

Detecting the leaks:

Shell and tube type heat exchangers

If it’s a shell and tube type heat exchanger, leaks can be detected by following the procedure
below:
Isolating the heat exchanger from the system and draining the sea water
Removing the end covers or headers to expose the tubes.
If the surface is clean and dry, inspection of the liquid flow is made from around the tube
ends and through the perforations. However, in large coolers it is difficult to get the coolers
extremely dry to visualize any perforation. In such cases special fluorescent dye is added to
the shell side of the cooler. The dye glows when an ultraviolet light is shone on the tube,
revealing the tube leaks.

Plate Type Heat Exchangers

Similarly, in plate type heat exchangers, visual inspection or fluorescent dye penetrate is used
to find any defeats. (Dye penetrate is used on one side, followed by ultraviolet rays on the
other side)

Methods of marine heat exchanger maintenance

Note: Prior to Maintenance, isolate the heat exchanger by shutting off the line valves for
both medium and media; and drain the remaining liquid using the drain cock. The Vent must
be open to ensure everything is drained from the heat exchanger.

 If the deposits on the heat exchanger are not so hard, then they can be removed using a
wire brush.
 If the deposits are stubborn, chemical cleaning should be used by emersion of the part
in chemical solution.
 Depending on the type of the heat exchanger, there are tools provided by the
manufacturers for the cleaning purpose.
 Brush attached to the end of long copper pipe which pass through the tube to clean the
tubes. Snake wire also used to clean the tube because it has good flexibility.
 Once the cleaning is done, the heat exchanger must be flushed with fresh water to
remove any remaining chemical or dirt from the surface.

 In sea water cooled heat exchanger, anodes are fitted on the cover to prevent it from
galvanic corrosion. Anodes must be checked and changed if required.

 Always renew the cover gasket if it is damaged during opening of heat exchanger.
  In oil coolers and heaters, fouling can take place on the outside of the tubes as well.
This can be removed by chemical flushing.

In plate type heat exchangers, the stack of plates is removed to expose the surface. The plate
surface is then cleaned with brush or by the methods suggested by the manufacturer. (Sharp
tools should be avoided). Cleaning should be done in such a way that it does not damage the
plate seals. However, if a replacement of the seal is necessary, it must be done before putting
the plates back

Lube oil Coolers

4 stroke engines in ships (GENERATOR) will have shell and tube heat exchanger to
cool the Lube oil. It is attached along with the engine itself.
Lube oil will be flowing inside the shell. Sea water (Fresh water in case of central cooling
system) will flow through the tube and cool the lube oil.

2 stroke engine in ship (MAIN ENGINE) will have plate type of heat exchanger to cool
the lube oil. This type of cooler is fixed separately outside the engine.

Fuel oil Heaters:

The system which delivers fuel oil from the daily service tank to the diesel or boiler, must
bring it to the correct viscosity by heating.
For burning heavy fuel oil in a boiler furnace, or a compression-ignition engine, it is
necessary to pre-heat it. This may be done in a shell and tube unit either with plain tubes or
tubes with fins bonded to them and the oil flowing on the outside of the tubes.
The heating medium is normally steam but additional electric heaters are useful for startup
from dead ship condition. A steam trap is fitted at the steam outlet from the heater, to make
sure that only water returns to the observation and drain tank. If the trap fails, it is
necessary to close in the steam return valve to achieve approximately the same effect (about a
half or a quarter turn open).
Thermostat control may be employed for fuel heaters with the setting based on a chart
showing variation of viscosity with temperature. The charts may not of course be accurate
for a particular fuel. Better results are achieved with viscosity controllers, which are used
to control viscosity directly, through control of the steam supply.

Fresh water cooler

In central cooling system, fresh water is used to cool the machineries.
This fresh water is finally cooled by the sea water.

Generator and Main Engine Jacket water coolers

It is a plate type heat exchanger.

Sea water is passed in one pass, and Fresh water which gets heated up by cooling the main
engine/Generator jacket, is passed on the other pass.
This unit has got a controller which controls the amount of sea water that need to be supplied
to cool the jacket water.
If jacket water is more hot, controller adjusts itself so that more amount of sea water passes
through the cooler and cools the fresh water instantly.

Compressor air cooler

Compressor which is used to produce compressed air in ships consist of 2 coolers inbuilt inside
it.
 Inter cooler
 After cooler
Both are shell and tube type of coolers.
When the air gets compressed and moves to from 1st stage to 2nd stage unit, hot air gets cooled
at INTERCOOLER.
When air gets more compressed at 2nd stage, it turns hot too. This hot air is cooled at AFTER
COOLER.
Both inter cooler and after cooler uses fresh water to cool the hot air.
Fresh water passes in shell. and hot air passes through the tubes.
These Inter cooler and after cooler are fixed with bursting disks.
Air is passing through the tubes, if the tubes leaks, pressurized air leaks to shell,
which can damage the shell.
In order to prevent it, BURSTING DISCS are used.
If the pressure builds up, bursting disk break and safeguard the cooler.
It is very important that the coolers are cleaned properly and maintained scales free. If
there are scales, less heat transfers and there by damage the cooler.
intercooler in compressor.

1. Reduced air temperature, volume and increased air density for next stage
2. So increased volumetric efficiency and compressor efficiency.
3. Due to reduced temperature give better lubrication for cylinder and piston rings
4. Drain are fitted from which water and excessive oil can be drained out, to prevent air
bottle corrosion and starting air explosion and fouling of inter coolers and pipe.
5. Save the work done.

after cooler in air compressor

 To reduce final discharge air temperature thus air bottle size can be reduced.
 To reduce air volume after it has been compressed to the final pressure.
 So greater amount of air could be stored in air bottle.
 Increase volumetric efficiency

Charge Air Cooler

Tube type coolers are used.
The exhaust gas from the engine is utilized in the turbocharger for compressing fresh air to
charge the engine with a positive pressure greater than ambient conditions.
This compression causes the temperature of the air to increase, which thus cannot be fed
directly into the engine as it is out of operating limits.
Thus a cooler that bring the air temperature back to near-ambient conditions is fitted on the
engine.
When the air is hot, its density is less and thus the mass of air charged into the engine is less
when compared to the mass when the air is cold.
Thus the charge air cooler improves the charge air density and its temperature.
How do you know air cooler leakage?
 Check water level insight glass fitted at cooler drain pipe.
 Drain the cooler / taste the water
 If the water continuous comes out, the cooler is leakage. Also in the funnel white &
dense smoke.
 Then the engine should be stopped with permission from bridge.
 Normal leaking tubes can be stopped by plugging.
 Then the engine is put back normal running.

Steam Condenser

Steam condenser is a type of shell and be type arrangement.

Return steam from different places will come back to the condenser which passes through the
outer shell and sea water (fresh water in case of central cooling) will pass through the tubes.
Pressure gauge is connected to the shell as steam is a high pressure content.
Shell end plates are fitted with sacrificial anodes. These will prevent the rusting of end plates
and the shell.
COPT (Cargo oil pump turbine) in tankers use steam to run the cargo oil pumps. This system
uses vacuum condenser. As the steam rotates the pump, steam pressure is reduced. In order
to bring these steam for the condensation, vacuum is created inside the condenser which pulls
the steam to the condenser. Vacuum condenser also prevents the back pressure on turbine
blades.

Refrigeration Evaporator

Evaporator are commonly shell and tube type.

In Shell and tube, area of contact with the liquid refrigerant determines the performance.

Flooded Type:
In case of the flooded the evaporator is filled with the refrigerant and constant level of the
refrigerant is maintained inside it. In these evaporators or the chillers, the refrigerant is along
shell side while the substance to be chilled or freezer flows along the tube side of the
heat exchanger.

Dry Expansion Type:

In case of the dry expansion type of chillers or evaporators the flow of the refrigerant to the
evaporators is controlled by the expansion valve. The expansion valve allows the flow of
the refrigerant depending on the refrigeration load. In case of the shell and tube type of
evaporators the refrigerant flows along the tube side, while the substance to be chilled
(usually water or brine) flows long the shell side.

Bare Tube Evaporators:

The bare tube evaporators are made up of copper tubing or steel pipes.
The copper tubing is used for small evaporators where the refrigerant other than ammonia is
used,
while the steel pipes are used with the large evaporators where ammonia is used as the
refrigerant.
The bare tube evaporator comprises of several turns of the tubing, though most commonly
flat zigzag and oval trombone are the most common shapes. The bare tube evaporators are
usually used for liquid chilling.

Plate type evaporator:

The plate type heat exchangers can be easily formed into various shapes as per the
requirement. Thus in the household refrigerators and the deep freezers, where they are used
most commonly, they can be converted into the box shape to form the closed enclosure,
where various food can be kept in the frozen state.

The plates can also be welded together forming the bank of the plate type of evaporators that
can be used the larger evaporators of higher capacities.

Finned type evaporator:

The finned evaporators are the bare tube type of evaporators covered with the fins.
When the fluid (air or water) to be chilled flows over the bare tube evaporator lots of cooling
effect from the refrigerant goes wasted since there is less surface for the transfer of heat from
the fluid to the refrigerant.

The fluid tends to move between the open spaces of the tubing and does not come in contact
with the surface of the coil, thus the bare tube evaporators are less effective. The fins on the
external surface of the bare tube evaporators increases the contact surface of the of the
metallic tubing with the fluid and increase the heat transfer rate, thus the finned evaporators
are more effective than the bare tube evaporators.
Thermal expansion
Naval brass tube sheets are used with aluminum-brass tubes. The tube stacks
are made up to have a fixed tube plate at one end and a tube plate at the other end which is
free to move when the tubes expand or contract.
The tube stack is constructed with baffles of the disc and ring, single or double segmental
types.
The fixed end tube plate is sandwiched between the shell and water box, with jointing
material, Synthetic rubber 'O' rings for the sliding tube plate to permit expansion.

Fouling
The deposition of any undesired material on heat transfer surfaces is called fouling.
Fouling may significantly impact the thermal and mechanical performance of heat
exchangers. Fouling is a dynamic phenomenon which changes with time.
Fouling increases the overall thermal resistance and lowers the overall heat transfer
coefficient of heat exchangers.
Fouling also impedes fluid flow, accelerates corrosion and increases pressure drop across
heat exchangers.

Crystallization Fouling:
Scaling is the most common type of fouling and is commonly associated with inverse
solubility salts such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) found in water.
Inverse solubility salts become less solute as the temperature increases and thus deposit on
the heat exchanger surface. Scale is difficult to remove mechanically and chemical cleaning
may be required.

Chemical Fouling:
Fouling from chemical reactions in the fluid stream which result in the deposition of material
on the heat exchanger surface. This type of fouling is common for chemically sensitive
materials when the fluid is heated to temperatures near its decomposition (degradation)
temperature. Coking of hydrocarbon material on the heat transfer surface is also a common
chemical fouling problem.

Corrosion Fouling:
Results from a chemical reaction which involves the heat exchanger surface material. Many
metals such as copper and aluminium form adherent oxide coatings which serve to passivate
the surface and prevent further corrosion. Metal oxides which are corrosion products exhibit
quite a low thermal conductivity and even relatively thin coatings of oxides may significantly
affect heat exchanger performance.
Vacuum Evaporator
Vacuum evaporation is the process of causing the pressure in a liquid-filled container to be
reduced below the vapor pressure of the liquid, causing the liquid to evaporate at a lower
temperature than normal.
Used to produce fresh water in ship.

Ejector pump (sea water pump) supplies water to the evaporator

Evaporator is maintained in vacuum state by air ejector. It sucks the brine out through a
ventury arrangement which in turn creates vacuum inside the evaporator.
Hot water for the evaporation of sea water is taken from the main engine jacket.
3-Way valve directs water to jacket cooler and the fresh water generator as per the
requirement.
As evaporator is in vacuum state, water boils at around 45 to 50’c
Evaporated water passes through demister to the condenser. Demister prevents the water
droplets from entering into the condenser.
Sea water condenses the vapours to form fresh water which is taken to the tank by distillate
pump.
Salinometer fixed at the outlet of distillate pump measures the salt content in the fresh water.
Flash evaporator
In this system, water is heated before sending to the evaporator, where the evaporator is in
vacuum.
Drop in pressure changes the saturation temperature below the actual temperature so that
some of the water instantly flashes as vapour.
Steam in the sub atmosphere chamber gets condensed as it comes in contact with circulated
feed which is then taken up by distillate pump.

Multiple Effect Evaporator

A multiple-effect evaporator, is an apparatus for efficiently using the heat from steam to
evaporate water.
In a multiple-effect evaporator, water is boiled in a sequence of vessels, each held at a lower
pressure than the previous evaporator. As pressure decreases, water boils in low
temperature.
Vapour boiled off in 1st stage is used to boil the water in next stage. So, technically only 1st
stage has to be heated using external source.
Osmosis
A process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane
from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one.

Reverse osmosis
Reverse Osmosis, commonly referred to as RO, is a process where you deionize water by
pushing it under pressure through a semi-permeable Reverse Osmosis Membrane.
To reverse the process of osmosis you need to apply energy to the more saline solution.
A reverse osmosis membrane is a semi-permeable membrane that allows the passage of
water molecules but not the majority of dissolved salts, organics, bacteria and pyrogens.
However, you need to 'push' the water through the reverse osmosis membrane by applying
pressure that is greater than the naturally occurring osmotic pressure in order to desalinate
(demineralize or deionize) water in the process, allowing pure water through while holding
back a majority of contaminants.

As the feed water enters the RO membrane under pressure, the water molecules pass through
the semi-permeable membrane and the salts and other contaminants are not allowed to pass
and are discharged through the reject stream (also known as the concentrate or brine stream),
which goes to drain or can be fed back into the feed water supply in some circumstances to
be recycled through the RO system to save water. The water that makes it through the RO
membrane is called permeate or product water and usually has around 95% to 99% of the
dissolved salts removed from it.

DESALINATION

Desalination on-board the ship is done with the help of FWG.

Fresh water Generator Starting Procedure
• Close the air vent
• Make sure seawater ejector pump suction, discharge and overboard valves are open.
Start the ejector pump. Seawater pressure at the air ejector must be 3 bar or more.
• Wait for vacuum to build up inside fresh water generator shell. (About 92 % vacuum).
• Open the feed water valve to feed seawater to the evaporator. Adjust the feed water
pressure. Normally marking is provided on the pressure gauge for desired feed water
pressure.
• Open main engine jacket cooling water inlet and outlet to the evaporator gradually.
• Switch on the salinity alarm panel for measuring purity of the freshwater produced.
• There will be a sight glass provided at the suction line for the distillate pump. Make
sure condensed water is coming to the suction line. Now start the distillate pump and
open discharge valve to lead generated water to specified storage tanks.
Checks While Running Fresh Water Generator
• Through the sight glass provided in the evaporator shell, observe flashing of water.
• Also check for the brine level inside. It should not be too high or too low.
• Shell temperature must be around 50 deg cel.
• Make sure shell vacuum is more than 90% from the vacuum gauge.
• Check seawater inlet and outlet temperature to the condenser.
• Ensure seawater pressure at air ejector inlet more than 3 bars.
• Check for distillate pump pressure and water flow meter.
• Check salinity of fresh water produced.
• Check level and flow of dosing chemical.
• Check ampere of ejector pump and distillate pump motor.

Fresh water Generator Stopping Procedure

When ship approaches port, shallow water, etc. it is desirable to stop the fresh water
generator. This is because the seawater may contain harmful bacteria which can enter the
freshwater produced.
Operation of freshwater should be carried out in consultation with bridge watch keeper.
Following procedure may be adopted for stopping fresh water generator.
• Slowly open bypass valve for main engine jacket cooling water.
• Ensure that main engine jacket cooling water temperature is within normal limits.
• Close jacket cooling water inlet and outlet valves for the freshwater generator
respectively.
• Close the feed water chemical dosing valve.
• Stop the distillate pump and shut discharge valve.
• Switch off salinity meter.
• Close filling valve to freshwater tanks.
• Wait for evaporator shell temperature to drop below 50 deg cel.
• Stop ejector pump. Shut fresh water generator overboard valve.
• Open the vacuum breaker valve to make shell side pressure equal to atmospheric
pressure.
• Open the drain valve of the evaporator to drain all the seawater from the fresh water
generator.

Ultraviolet sterilizer
• This unit is fitted in between the hydrophore tanks and the supply points(tap).
• The stainless steel irradiation chamber consists of low pressure mercury vapour tubes
placed in a quartz jacket.
 • The ultraviolet radiation provided by the mercury vapour is used to kill all the
bacteria, viruses and any other harmful organisms which are not trapped by the filter.
• It consists of a cylindrical tube having one inlet and outlet for water so that the water
is sterilized as it passes through.

Maintenance
Don’t touch any electric equipment with wet hands.
Protect your eye and skin against the ultra violet.
Turn off the power and drain out all water before replacing the filter.
Don’t pressure too much when assembling the gland fittings, since it’s very sensitive
part to be broken easily.
Before the replacement, be sure to clean with soft dry cloth.
U.V. sterilizer has very sensitive components like U.V. lamp and Quartz sleeve.
Therefore, please pay attention a lot when use it.
Please turn off the running switch, if it wouldn’t be operating.
Please drain out and close the inlet valve, if it wouldn’t be operating.