Peter RecentRaju LoK hende Civil Engg Deet. Water Resources Engineering Principles and Practice SECOND EDITION SATYA NARAYANA MURTY CHALLA B.Sc.. BE. (Hons), C-E., FIE (Ind.) ‘Superintending Engineer (Retired) (irrigation & Power Department) Government of Andhra Pradesh Tuni-533 401 (AP) (Al uation FoR ONE WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS ‘New Delhi * Bangalore * Chennai * Cochin * Guwahati + Hyderabad. Jalandhar * Kolkata * Lucknow * Mumbai * Ranchi Visit us at www.newagepublishers.comishers Copyright © 2002, 1997, New Age International Piste Pub Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishe First Edition: 1997 Second Edition: 2002 Reprint: 2011 arene this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or part ry in any form, by ts incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the it copyright owner. 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PUBLISHING FOR ONE WoRiD —— NEWAGE INTERNATIONAL, 4835/24, Ansari Road, Dayan ND PUBLISHERS Visit us at ww.newagepublishen. oor—— f PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION In Chapter 1 on Hydrology, topics like sttisticl analysis of rain-fll and run-off data infiltration indices, determination of storage capcity of a eseroir taeed on ne wa inflow and demand coves, and changing the duration of uni-hydrographs based ona sgiven unit-hydrograph using the ‘S" curve technique, have now been included along with a few worked out problems with neces- sary sketches. ‘The design of ‘Sarda’ type of canal drop has been included in Chapter 12. ‘A new chapter on ‘River Diversion Head Works’ is added now. This includes some of the salient features adopted in the construction of various Anicuts in the past, and of Barrages constructed recently across major rivers, adopting different types of foundations. In Section II of this book, a few photographs of the recently constructred barrages across the Godavari and the ‘component parts of the Head-Works system, have been added. A new drawing (Plate 13), showing a typical layout of a (‘River Diversion Head Works’) which includes navigation facilities also, is now added. The general principles of design and function of each component of the ‘Head Works System’ shown in the layout, are explained in detail in the new chapter. ‘Thanks are due to Sri G.L. Narayana Rao, Assistant Engineer, Godavari Head Works at Dowlaiswaram, for sending the details of the old Anicut and the Barrage, along with some good photographs of Godavari Head Works system which have been included in this book. Special thanks are due to Dr. B. Janardhan Reddy, Principal, S.R.K.R. Engineering College, Bhimavaram (A.P.) for reviewing the additional text, and writing a fresh ‘Foreword’ for the new edition Finally, thanks are due to M/s. New Age International Publishers, New Delhi, for bringing out the new edition. SATYA NARAYANA MURTY CHALLAPREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION During my student days in the College of Engineering at Guindy, Madras, in the years 1942-46, we had very few text books and even those were rare due to World War Il. We had practically no text books by Indian authors. What we had were only afew manuals and notes of lectures published by the college itself. Even in practice, Water Resources Engineering was mainly confi to Irrigation and maintenance of canal systems in the Deltaic regions. No major irigation projects were in construction. ‘We had ‘Irrigation Engineering’ as a subject in our final year and the only book that was available for us was the “Irrigation Manual’ by Col. Elis which dealt with mainly on rainfall run off, wiers with sketches of structures built in Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery delta systems. We never had staff who were experienced in design and construction of irrigation works; with the net result, we knew precious little about "Water Resources Engineering’, by the time we came out of the college with a degree in hand. After we got Independence, in the year 1947, alot of major irrigation projects were started all over India, and the engineers who come out ofthe colleges had an unique opportunity of geting exposure to investigation design and construction in various fields. Thad the opportunity of working in two major projects namely Tungabhadra and Nagarjuna Sagar projects, right from the starting time till completion. Though T only worked in the investigation, design and construction of canals systems in both the projects, I had the opportunity of watching the construction of both the dams right from the foundation excavation till completion, In 1955, I was deputed to the Technical Education Department as Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering for a period of three years. During that time I had to teach reinforced concrete, project estimating and irrigation engineering for the final year Degree students. In those days, they had a separate paper on ‘Irrigation Design & Drawing’ forthe final year examination, in addition to a theory paper. My prior experience in design and construction earlier, gave me enough confidence. As none of the text books available then gave details of design of a structure component by component, with clear detailed drawings, Thad to coin a problem myself, work out the detailed design and make out a detailed drawing at home before I attempted to teach it to the students. Thus I covered the design and drawing for all basic exercises for an undergraduate student. At the end of my three year period of deputation, I had to leave the institution, My successors in the college did not have the same sort of experience to tackle the subject and there was consequently a great demand forthe publication of my class notes and drawings from the students. That was the starting point ofthis book and in 1959, it was first published under the title ‘Irrigation Design and Drawing’. Tt was an instant suecess and after another print, it was re-published in MKS units in 1965. Since then, it has seen many revisions with addition of ic chapters like ‘Design of Channels’, retaining walls, river wier etc. Subsequently two important chapters were added. They ‘were ‘Hydrology’ and Minor Irrigation. With the inclusion of these chapters, the title of the book also underwent a change as ‘Design of Minor Irrigation and Canal Structures? In the year 1989, M/s, Wiley Eastern Ltd., (now New Age Intemational (P) Ltd.), were approached and after they got the book reviewed by their specialists, agreed to publish it with some additions and alterations. It was first published by them in 1990. Subsequently it has gone through two reprints. The last reprint was in 1994, Due to certain changes in the syllabus at the undergraduate level, the publishers wanted additional chapters to be included to make it more useful, based on the suggestions received from various colleges. Accordingly now 14 new chapters have been added. These chapters were omitted by me earlier on, as there are standard books on these topics. For example, we have very good books on design of masonry and earth dams etc, and the students should consult those instead of reading abridged versions. To the best of my ability I added all those missing chapters and I hope the reader will be better satisfied. The present book with all these additional chapters required a change of ile and itis now titled ‘Water Resources Engineering — Principles & Practice’ Water Resources Engineering is such a vast subject that one cannot do ful justice tot in a single book. Each author highlights some of his original ideas and the reader, to get a comprehensive outlook on the subject, has to refer to various books written on the same discipline. In this book, the principles of design have been explained in a simple way givin, i i ir practi . - w ig more emphasis on the side of their practical application. References have been taken from various books and journals. Iam greatly indebted f the books and {Joumals listed out under ‘Bibliography’ in each chapter. Pe tall the ate titan De B uardhna Rett, Pina SRKR. Engineering College, Bhimavaram and Sri Sivakota Reddy, Superintend- ag Engineer of Tungabhadra for sending me photographs of structures to be included in this book.% ge and bis colleagues for MAKIN Avie, ey, Contents I thank Dr. V.B. Sarma, Principal, cence books that I badly wanted. 1 specially thank Sri Satnarayan Singh, ‘Managint = tion, to enable me to compile a small chapter °F Water Mangement Toffer my grateful thanks, to Dr. iy, Princips accepted to write a ‘Foreword” for this book. Ys is “The author gratefully acknowledges te permiss accorded by the ‘Central Boas arate Power’ forthe reprodusigg of graphs used in the determination of pressures ‘under wiers constructed on permeat : ee Finally I thank M/s. New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, New Delhi, for their suggestions and encouragement getting this new version ofthe book and publishing itin the way T desired. ‘a Suggestions and changes if any required from the readers will be gratefully accepted by the author for implementation infu, editions. Hyderabad for sending me massive gRKR. Engineering College, Bhimavaram, for Toni, SATYA NARAYANA MuRTy 18-8-96. unsCONTENTS Foreword Preface fo the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Chapter 1: Chapter 2: Chapter 3: Chapter 4: Chapter 5: SECTION HYDROLOGY General 1; Hydrological Cycle 1; Data Collection and Processing 1; Bench Mark Stations 2; Data Evaluation 2; Verification of Rainfall Records 2; Mass Curve 2; Correction of Records 3; Normal Annual Rainfall 3; Dependable Rainfall 3; Number of Rainy Days 4; Monsoons 4; Mean Annual Rainfall Over a Basin 4; Methods of Areal Assessment of Rainfall 4; Estimation of Runoff or Yield from a Catchment 7; Disposal of Rainfall on a Basin 7; Alternative Method of Calculating Runoff 9; Flood Discharge from a Catchment 10; Hydrograph 11; Orientation and Movement of the Storm Over a Catchment Area 11; Assessment of Flood Discharges 12; Recurrence Interval of Flood and Flood Frequency 12; Unit Hydrograph Method 13; Hydrographs from Stream Flow Data 14; Area Slope Method 14; The Effect of Environmental Disturbances or Ecological Disturbances on Hydrology 15; Statistical Analysis of Rainfall and Flood Frequency 16; Density of Rain Gauge Stations 17; Hyetograph and Moving Average curve 18; Correction of Missing Rainfall Records by Average Ratio Method 19; Frequency Studies for Rainfall Data 20; Flood Frequency 21; Infiltration Indices 22; Stream-Flow, Mass Curves and Reservoir Storage 24; Construction of Various Types of Unit Hydrographs 27; “S* Curve Hydrograph 28; Using the ‘S’ Curve Technique 29; Determination of ‘S’ Curve Ordinates from the Unit Hydrograph 29. INUNDATION IRRIGATION Introduction 32; Designing of Channels 32; Design of a Channel to Feed an Irrigation ‘Tank from a Canal System 33; Causes for Failure and Remedial Measures of the Rough Stone Barriers 34. MINOR IRRIGATION Introduction 35; Irrigation Tanks 35; Basis for Formation of Tanks 35; Hydrology 35; ‘Storage Capacity of the Tank 35; Number of Fillings 36; Number of Rainy Days 36; Working Table 36; Minor Irrigation, Negative Aspects 37; Earthen Bunds 37; Diversion ‘Schemes 43; Lift Irigation 44. SURPLUS WEIR Introduction 47; Estimation of Flood Discharge 47; Design 48; ‘The Effect of Flood Absorption Capacity on the Design of the Waste Weirs 51. FLUSH ESCAPE Introduction 56; Example 56; Design 56. we< aContents Chapter 6: Chapter 7: Chapter 8: (Chapter 10: (Chapter 11: Chapter 12: ‘Chapter 13; SURPLUS ESCAPE OO Moa ood Discharge 57: Weit $7 Length of it Introduction 57; Example 57; Mi ‘Aprons 57. IMPROVEMENTS TO. EXISTING WEIRS General 59. (CE WITH A TOWER HEAD : Sea : 61; Ayacut 61; Vent-way 61; Sluice Barrel 61; R. c. ae Sie aa ath Pressure 62; Weight Transmitted by (ne Roof Sab 62: Weight Earth ‘the Top Side ‘of Wall Beyond the Slab 62; ‘Weight of | ‘Earth bayer on area ers : Wei ‘Side Wall 63; Stability Analysis: 63; Tower ck- wate Ta 1 oy 36.30 4; Checking the Thickness of Well sk * 34.00 65: ‘Cater in Rear of the Barrel 66; Specifications 66. DIRECT SLUICE Example 67; Hydraulic Particulars of Main Canal 67: Hydraulic Particulars of the Dis- Cayutay 67; Sitice Vent-way 67; Design of Sluice Barrel 67: Section Across the Sluice Bumel 67: Desig of Roof Slab 68; Design of Head Wells 68; Wing Walls on the Upstream ‘Side 68; Return Wall 68; Specifications 68. DESIGN OF CANAL DROPS Introduction 69. ‘SYPHON WELL DROP Example 71; Channel Up-stream of Drop 71; Channel Dow i 3 stream of Drop 71; Design Ti: Dicarge : Troush the Syphon 71; Formula for Discharge of Trapezoidal Notch 7” Was Leve for which the Notch shouldbe Computed 72 Design of Notch Dimensions ; of the Trapezoidal Notch 73; Design of Well 73; Upstream Well 7: Downstream Well 73; Syphon Bs ‘Specifications 74, 'yphon Barrel 73; Protective Works 73; Irrigation Syphon 73; CANAL DROP-NOTCH TYPE GLACIS TYPE OF CANAL | DROP Design 81; Fluming Ra Upstream Side Glacis 82; Canal Transition or Canal 4 Approact i ee ee Cut-off Wal Bet Gide 5: Ener Dspatn Arangemen Blocks 87: Checking the Thickness of Bef ee ngs 89; Reducing the Length of pao, Cis of Dows Le Scour Depths 85; Exit hee Batt Wal and Friction : ‘ e Glacis 87; Abut- stream Cistem 89; Specifications 90.‘Gail, (Chapter 14: Chapter 15: Chapter 16: Chapter 17: Chapter 18: ‘Chapter 19: Chapter 20: CANAL REGULATOR General 91; Example 91; Design 91; Ventway of the Regulator 91; Fixing the Ventway by the Drowning Ratio Method 92; Downstream of Regulator 92; Roadway 92; Pier 93: Length of Pier 93; Shutters 93; Loads 93; Abutments 94; Wing Walls 94 Section of Level ing and Return 95; Splay of Wings on Both Sides 95; Solid Aprons for the Regulator evetments 95; Arrangements of Energy Dissipation 95; General 95; Specifications 96. ESCAPES Introduction 97; Location 97. DESIGN OF CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS Introduction 99; Pressure Aqueducts 101. UNDER-TUNNEL-CULVERT OR SYPHON AQUEDUCT - TYPE TWO Problem 103; Design 103; Stability of the Abutment 105; Pressure Under Pier 106; Upstream M.F.L. 106; Afflux over Drop Wall 107; Calculation of Loss of Head by Total Energy Method 107; Depth of Foundations of Returns 109; Design of Wing Walls and Returns 109; Anchoring Arrangements 110. SYPHON AQUEDUCT - TYPE THREE Design a Cross Drainage Work to Suit the Following Hydraulic Particulars 112; Design 112; Loss of Head in the Canal Due to Fluming of the Canal Water-way Through the ‘Trough 112; Drainage Water-way 114; R.C. Trough 114; R.C. Side Walls 114; Bottom Slab 115; Load 115; Fixing the Maximum Flood Levels of Drainage 115; Tail Channel 116; Affiux on the Drop Wall 116; Inspection Track 117; Foundations of Abutments and Piers 117; Arc Lengths to Fix the Lengths of Drainage Wings 117; Canal Transitions 118; Downstream Transition 118, Checking the Depth of Foundations of Drainage Returns by ‘Scour Depth 119; Causes for Failure of Cross Drainage Works 120; Specifications 122. SOME IMPORTANT AQUEDUCTS (IN SOUTH INDIA) Gannavaram Aqueduct 123; Hagari Aqueduct 124; Puligedda Aqueduct 125, RIVER WEIRS General 126; Classes of Weits 126, Classification of River Weis 126; Conditions for Stability cof Weirs 126; Overturning Moments Caused by Water Thrust 127; Conditions of Maximum Stress on Weir 127; Different States of Water Pressure on Weirs 128; Stability Analysis 129: Design of Weir on Pervious Foundations 130; Apron Downstream of the Weir Wall 130; ‘Types of Weirs or Anicus 130; Aprons Upstream of the Anicut 30; Consideration Governing the Design of Aprons 130; Classification of Pervious Foundation Soils 130; Theories of Per- ‘colation 131; Potential Theory 132; Khosla's Method of Independent Variables 133; Con- “lusions of Khosla’s Theory of Independent Variables 135; Design of Aprons 137; Computing the Uplift Pressures without Drawing a Diagram 138; Ploting the Uplift Diagram 138; Cal- culating the Uplift Pressures Under the Floor Adopting Khosla’s Theory of Independent Vari- ables 139; Modem Trends in Weir Design 140; High Coefficient Profile 140; Standing Wave Apron 140. Contents n 103 12 123, 126Contents Chapter 21: Chapter 22: (Chapter 23: Chapter 26: Chapter 27: Chapter 28: 4 ited Fill DESIGN OFRETAINING WALLS, posi 141; Problem 142: Satire St General 141; Failure of Retaining 146. DESIGN OF CHANNELS elcies 149 Kennedys Theory of Sit ; Maximum Safe jlae 147; Problem 147; Maximum Trans eta ist; Design of Channels Using Tepe er rblem 151; Regine Chanel 151; Desh red Width Creal Velocity 1 Pig, Secon f Suitable Bed Slope 154; roporser oe ‘ober tne a Canal Section Using B/D Ratio 155; Side Slopes Canal = ea eeias and Radius of Curvature 157 Balanced Depth of Cuug 12°: Remodelling of Channels 159; Flumes 160; Problem 160. NORMAL DEPTH OF FLOW AND 150; Design of Channels Using Kennedy's COMPARATIVE STUDY OF FLUMES WITH INCREASED DEPTH OF FLOW Mee: General 165; Modified Design 165; Advantages 165; Disadvantages 166; Specifications for Lining the Flume 166. DISTRIBUTORY SYSTEM General 167; Blocks 167; Capacit 168; Regulators 168; Escapes and Bridges 168; Bank Standards 168; ‘Transitions at Canal Structures 169. of a Distributory 167; Design Criteria 167; Off-takes, eld Channels 168; SPACING OF CROSS-REGULATORS AND FIXING SILL LEVELS OF OFF- ‘TAKING SLUICES FROM MAIN CANALS AND DISTRIBUTORIES Introduction 170; Regulators 170; Cross-Regulators 170; Some of the Existing Canals ‘Systems 170; Analogy 171; Block System of Irrigation 171; Spacing of Regulators 171; Difficulties Experienced in Water Regulation During Early Stages of Ayacut Develop- ‘ment 173; Some Clarifications (Possible Question) 173; Fixing Sill Levels of Off-takes from the Main Canals and Branches 173, COMMAND AREA Preliminary Survey 175; Intensity of Irrigation 175; Preparation of Block Maps 175; Block Levelling 175; ‘Ayacut 177; Command Area Development 178; Crops Block System of Irrigation and Soil Survey 176; Localisation of and Cropping Seasons 178, ‘SOTL-WATER RELATIONSHIP CROP WATER RELATIONSHIP Duty of Water 184; Tanks 184; Wells Wells 184; Factors Affecti ffecting Duty 184, 19 165 17 m0 15 Ld(Chapter 31: (Chapter 32: Chapter 33: WATER-LOGGING AND SALINITY General 186; Natural Causes of Water-logging 186; Artificial Causes of Water-logging 186; Effects of Water-logging 186; Remedial Measures to Reduce Water-logging 187; Reverse Irrigation 187; Kollair Lake Bed 187, WATER MANAGEMENT Introduction 189; Operation Systems, 189; National, State Level Policies on Irrigation 190; Management Inter Face and Structured System 190; Roles and Responsibilities of Government Agencies and Farmers 191; Tasks of the Operation and Maintenance (0 & M) Group of Engineers 191; Operation 192; Maintenance 192; Designing the System for Planned Operation 192; Water Level Control 192. GRAVITY DAMS, Classification 194; Diversion Works 194; Storage Works 194; A Storage Work, Consists of the Following Components 194; Dams are Broadly Classified into Three Categories 194; These Masonry Dims are Classified Again Under Two Categories 194; Elementary Profile of A Gravity Dam 195; The Middle Third Rule 196; The Forces that are Acting on the Dam are 196; Relationship Between Pressures and Stresses 197; Relationship Between ‘Various Stresses 197; Foundation Preparation and Treatment 198; Reduction of Leakage 198; Forces Acting on Dams 200; Moliter, Stevenson's Formula for Wave Height 200; Tides and Set-up 200; Weight of Dam 201; Water Thrust 201; Uplift Pressure at the Bot- tom of the Dam 201; Earth & Silt Pressure 202; Earth-Quake Forces 186; Intensity 202; Increased Water Pressure Due to Inertia of Water 202; Movement of Fault Due to Earthquake 204; The Weight of the Foundations 204; Effect of Atmosphere or Sub-atmos- pheric Effects 204; Requirements for Stability 204; Resistance to Sliding Including Shear 205; Tensile Stresses 205; Margine of Safety 205; Design of Solid Gravity Non-overflow Dams 205; Stability Analysis of a Non-overflow Gravity Dam 207; Computation of the Con- stants 207; Galleries in the Dam 211; Composite Dam 212, DESIGN OF SOLID SPILLWAY GRAVITY DAMS General 213; Length of Spillway Dam 213; Discharging Capacity of the Spillway 213; End Contractions 213; Velocity Head Correction 214; Standard Crests 214; Equation of the Lower Nappe, with the Dam Having Shutters to a Height of “H’ Meters 214; Coeffi- cient of Discharge and Discharging Capacity of the Dam 216; Storage of the Reservoir 216; Length of Spillway 216; Stlling Arrangements Below the Spillway Dam 216; Cal- ‘culation of the Depth of Jet before the Jump, i.e. Depth in the Bucket 218; Conjugate Depth 218; Trajectory Type of Dissipators 220; Ski Jump 220; Energy Dissipation Methods Below a Spillway Dam 220; Critical Gadients and High and Low Stages of Flow 222; Stability Analysis 224; Crest Gates 224. ARCH DAMS General 225; Arch Buttress Dams 225, ROCK-FILL-DAMS General 227; Essential Components 227; Design 227; Top Width & Base Width 227; Face Slopes 227; Foundations 227; Upstream Cut-off 227; Rubble Backing of the Impervious Front Face of the Dam 227; Impervious Upstream Facing 228; Main Rock Fill 228; Set- tlement and Sluicing 229; Safety Against Sliding 229; Free Board 229; Composite Type of Earth-Dam 229. 189 194 23‘Contents ‘Chapter 35: Chapter 37: Chapter 38: Chapter 39: eal a a ion of Site and Foundations 230; Materials for Construction 230; jeneral 230; Selection of Q" Usual Methods of Construction of Earth Dams are a8 Follows 232; Requreneat for tie Safety of Earth Dams 232; Cut Off 233; Core Walls 233: Upstrean Impervious Blas a 233; Subility of Earth Dams 233; Stability of Barth-dam Against Head Water : a 234; Economical Design 235; Homogeneous Section 235; Zonal Section 235; Stat ' ity “Analysis of Slopes 235; Swedish Method of Stability Analysis 235; Method of Analysis 236; Procedure 236; Analysis of a Dangerous Circle with Failure Below the Toe of the Dam 237; The Procedure to Construct such a Cirle is as Follows 238; Taylor's Method ‘of Determining the Factor of Safety for Slopes 238. WATER POWER Hydropower 239; Classification of Power Plants 239; Load Factor 240; Multipurpose- Projects and Generation of Power 240; Development of Hydropower in Stages 240; Sabari Basin of River Godavari 240; Some Important Hydropower Stations in India 241; Layout ofa Typical Hydropower Station 241; They are Described in Details as Under 241; India’s Power Potential 243. SILTING OF RESERVOIRS Classes of Silt 244; Silt Deposit in Lakes and Reservoirs 244; Reservoir Storage 244; ‘Assessment of Loss of Reservoir Capacity 245. RIVER DIVERSION — HEAD WORKS Main Diversion Work 246; Purpose of the Diversion Work 246; Pick up Works 246; Other Purposes of Diversion Works 247; Construction of Anicuts 247; Previous Practice of Design of Weirs of Anicuts 247; Crest Shutters 250; Modern Design of Weirs 251; Bar- rages 252; Barrage Actoss the River Krishna at Vijayawada 254; Godavari Barrage 255; Desimofite Pier 256; Hoist Bridge 256; Gate Operation Manual 257; Scour Sluices 257 taking Sluices or Canal Head Regulators 259; Canal 259; Navigati ; Pesan Siu) 2 ‘anal 259; Navigation Lock 259; INTRODUCTION TO DRAWINGS General 262; Prelimiinary Work 262; Classification of Report Classifi ‘Structures 262; Design 262; Drawing 262; Standards 262; Quality of Drawings 263; Preservation of Drawings 263. Examination Question Papers Index SECTION II Photographs of Typical Structures Referred ton the Various Chapters SECTION III List of Plates/Drawings 25CHAPTER 1 HYDROLOGY 10 GENERAL Water is necessary for the very existence of man who appeared ‘on the earth two to three million years ago. Due to rapid growth of population and increased needs of agriculture and industries, water in many areas has become a critical factor. 1.1 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE Out of the total available water on our planet, itis estimated that 97.3% is contained in the oceans. Out of the balance 2.7% most of it is in solid form at both the poles. The amount of water that is actually above the ground, ie., in the atmosphere, is a very small fraction and is estimated to be of the order of Lx 10 of the total reserves of the world. The amount of water contained in the atmosphere is surprisingly small. It is estimated to be less than 1% of the total mass of the atmos phere, but plays a very important role in climatic fluctuations. ‘Temperature, humidity and wind are the three main factors that control evaporation and evapotranspitation. It is con- sidered that most ofthe rainfall occurs in the oceans, while vast stretches of land are starved of water. Hydrological cycle represents a continuous process of ex change of water from the surface of the earth and oceans to the atmosphere and vice-versa, under the influence of solar heat. Considering the earth as a whole, the total quantity of water involved in this cycle is essentially the same. The cycle invol- ves the total earth system. The total system is divided into three distinct zones. 1. Atmosphere (Gaseous envelope above the Hydro- sphere), 2. Hydrosphere (Bodies of water covering the surface of earth), and 3. Lithosphere (Environment below the Hydrosphere upto solid rock). In the Hydrological cycle, water evaporates and forms part of the atmosphere in the form of water vapour. This water vapour forms into clouds that go upto a height of 20 km in the atmosphere. The evaporated water gets condensed before it is precipitated either on land or sea. This precipitated water may be intercepted or transpired by the plants, may run over the ground surface to form streams and lakes that ultimately join the ocean, or may infiltrate into the ground, Much of the intercepted water, run off, transpired water returns to the atmosphere by a process known as ‘Evapo- transpiration’ ‘The infiltrated water percolates downwards to form ground water that forms the water table. Wherever the water table in- tersects the surface of the earth, water comes out to form a spring and this joins the streams or forms a lake. Run off water reaches the ocean ultimately. part of it during its flow, may ‘get evaporated to complete the cycle. ‘This cycle of activities of water extends upto a depth of half ‘a mile in lithosphere and to a height of 10 miles (16 km) into the atmosphere. Disruption of this mutual chain of events at any stage leads to drought conditions. We are primarily con- ‘cerned with the assessment of surface run off and ground water. 1.2. DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING Hydrological observations are the most often overlooked ele~ ments in assessing water resources and design of irrigation projects. Many a time, irrigation projects are designed and built using the meagrest data and unchecked as to its quality. Because, the field of Hydrology deals with the land phase of the Hydrologic cycle, preci chou i tbe meee tt HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE Figure 11input, To assess this, we primarily require the establishment of 1 well-organised high quality, evenly distributed network of rain gauges. ‘The World Meteorological Organisation has recommended the following guidelines for determining the minimum det of precipitation networks: (a) For flat regions and tropical zones, one station for 600—900 km?, (b) Mountainous region: for 100—250 km’. (©) For arid or polar zones, one station for 1500— 10,000 km?, ‘The minimum density network should consist of three kinds of rain gauges: (a) Standard gauges: Non-recording type, to be read daily or at predetermined intervals. The recom- ‘mended time is at about 8 a.m. daily (b) Recording gauges: It is recommended that at least 10% of the total gauges in the network, be of the recording type. These recording gauges provide valuable information on intensity, distril uration of rainfall. This information will be highly useful in determining the duration ofa storm for con- struction of unit hydrographs. (©) Storage gauges: In many areas, itis important to ob- tain data, but due to ack of population or communica- tion, a standard rain gauge cannot be installed. A ‘gauge with large enough capacity, so that itcan be read (on a monthly, semi-annually or on annual basis will suffice. This data can be very useful in filling up gaps inthe network data. Important aspects that have to be considered when once a rain gauge i installed, are the maintenance of the gauge at that location and the quality of observation. 1.3. BENCH MARK STATIONS ‘A certain number of the network stations should be designated as “'Bench Mark Stations” or “Base Stations”” which will be long term sites for statistical or climatological purposes. These stations should be at sites where there will be no change or dis- turbance. These should be at sites where attendance is by {quality observers with responsible supervision. The other stations in the network can be designated “Temporary” and are established for special purposes such as design of a project. The selection of the observer is more important than any other factor. The quantity and quality of data can rise or fall depending upon how well the observer does his job. in tropical, zones, one station It is difficult to understand why considerable time, funds ‘and effort are put into the collection and processing of data and yet so litle into its quality contol. ‘Once published, the data pecomes ‘the absolute truth’ which in many an instance is not Water Resources Eng true. The term coined by computer industry + tage out" (GIGO) is certainly most appiecyc sae BaF data which is largely unreliable. Tegard to It is a rather disturbing fact that in pursuing the tterature dealing with Hydrological, Meteorological and climatological investigations, one rarely reads of any one questioning the reliability of data ‘Thus, it is imperative to establish enough rain gauges and employ quality observers. Cost of maintenance should not be ‘consideration. Once these are ensured, we will minimise the fisks involved in proper assessment of water available in designing a project and this itself is a sufficient return forthe fands spent on collection ofthis data. Ithas become very com ‘mon to hear that projects designed with the available meagre Gata, do not get the assessed yield. Itis even more pronounced in minor irrigation projects, Such occurrences could be largely avoided 1.4 DATA EVALUATION [At best a rain gauge measurement is only an index to what is, factually occurring in a given area. When one considers how small the orifice of a rain gauge is, compared to the total area it is supposed to represent, it seems almost impossible forthe rain gauge to be representative at all, India, with its large area is supposed to have about 2.800 stations whose data can be relied upon, This wosks out on an average one station for every sq. ka, 1.5. VERIFICATION OF RAINFALL RECORDS Investigations should be made about the reliability of data. Those stations whose data appear to contain a Iz-z= number of errors or seem to be undependable should be rejected. Some tests which can be applied are: (a) Percentage of rainy days both monthly and annually, (b) Frequency distribution of small amounts, (©) Rounding off the value to 0.50 or to 0.00, (@) Double mass curve of station under question vs. one. of several control stations, When one is in doubt about the reliability of data of one station, the above methods can be applied to compare the values with a nearby control station. If any notes of the ob- server are available during the period, these could be very use- ful. 1.6 MASS CURVE ‘The curve representing period vs. cumulative rainfall upto that Period is known as a mass cutve or double mass curve. This curve shows the trend of accumulated rainfall over ihe period. ‘This curve can be plotted year-wise, or month-wise, or day- wise over a month or for the storm period hour-wise to show the trend of rainfall. While the three of the four types can be plotted with the observations from a standard rain gauge, weowe require recording gauge to plot the mass curve romoury readings. cal mass curves are shown in Figure 1.2, For station C, we have only the total rainfall during the ding period The probable mass curve of station C is Stan based onthe trend of curves, Inthe absence of any other record, this isthe only method of ing and drawing a mass curve for station C. Mass curves ‘Sf cumulative rainfall during a storm period should be plotted forall precipitation stations in and near the basin, ‘Where only one recording station is located nearby, and in the absence of better information, the mass curve of precipita. tion at a non-recording station, is usually considered to be jonal in shape to that of the recording station except as ‘therwise defined by the observer's readings and notes, if any ‘Similarly, inthe case of a station with a storage rain gauge, we can know only the total rainfall observed in periods and we donot have any idea of the shape of mass curve for that period. Inthis case also, the mass curve of a station which has complete data willbe the guiding factor and the shape of the mass curve ofthe storage station will be similar in shape to the mass curve ofthe nearest station which has complete data, 1.7. CORRECTION OF RECORDS (a) There are times when a short period record may be Jost and some estimate of the missing record needs to be made. It may be a period as small as one day during a storm F upto one or three months. Ifthe rain has been of ‘widespread nature, contrasted to spotting thunder storm type, it may be possible to estimate the miss- ing data by use of a percentage of the normal, This is more valid than a mere wild guess. Ifthe record period is less than five years the normal may be estimated by the equation: ) Ne = Nae Pr where NV is the normal precipitation, P is the ob- served short period precipitation, subscript x refers to the station with unknown normal and subscript R to the station with known normal. In applying this formula, the stations should be as close as possible. 1.8 NORMAL ANNUAL RAINFALL Normal annual rainfall of a station is the mean annual rainfall of a station observed over a sufficiently long period. We al- ‘ways refer to the annual rainfall ofa station as less or more only with reference to this value only. 19 DEPENDABLE RAINFALL Dependable rainfall of a station is always, reckoned as 75% dependable or 100% dependable rainfall. 75% dependability ‘means, that out ofa record of 100 years of rainfall, the value we assume will be obtained in 75 years. In the other 25 years, it may be less. The sequence of these 25 years is difficult to predict. It may be continuously less over longer periods. But [ACCUMULATED RAINFALL IN CMS 6pm 9PM MID. SAM GAM SAN NIGHT MASS |_| ___lo 12 noon =P CURVES OF RAIN FALL Figure 1.2Jing 100 years as a unit, we get that rainfall in 75 years. Tt vain tat continuous over sucha ong pesed. Always patios of les rainfall or drought years come in acycle of 510 10 years. These can be observed only by plotting the yearly rainfalls over the extended periods and make a reasonable {guess as tothe frequency of the cyele of drought years Generally, irrigation works are designed for 75% depend- able rainfall over the catchment. However, while designing hydroelectric and water supply reservoirs, we take 100% de- pendability as the criterion 1.10 NUMBER OF RAINY DAYS ‘A rainy day is defined as one which records a rainfall of 2.5 mm or more. The Western Ghats, Assam portions, and sub Himalayan West Bengal have as many as 100 rainy days. In the extreme north west of Rajasthan iis as low as ten, In peninsular India, over the Semi-Arid regions, extending from Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu, it ranges between 50 and 40. Over Orisa, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh it is be- tween 75 and 50. 1.11 MONSOONS Generally, South-west monsoon which brings most of the rain over all parts of India strikes the west coast (Kerala) in I" week of June and it extends over the whole of India by end of July. During this period, a large number of depressions are formed in the Bay of Bengal. These bring in large quantities of rain, During the period July to September, these depressions cross the coast above Paradeep and bring copious rains in the Gangetic and Brahmaputra Basins. These travel upto Punjab Between September and November, the trend is for the depressions to bring copious rains between Paradeep and Madras. Before November, the South-west monsoon withdraws and North-east monsoon sets in. A few depressions that form in Bay of Bengal bring rains to Tamil Nadu only. ‘The North-east monsoon is comparatively of a short dura- tion, From January to June most of the country will be dry ex- cept for local storms. A few cyclones due to depressions in Bay of Bengal have also occurred in the month of May. But these are rare and far between, Thus, while most parts of India depend upon South-west, ‘monsoon for their water needs, portions of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu enjoy a bit of rain in North-east monsoon periods also. Run off is the technical term used to define the quantity of water that flows over the ground surface during a rainfall. The entire rain that falls on the ground does not give run off. A Portion of it percolates into the ground and recharges the ground water. A portion gets evaporated into the atmosphere ‘while a portion is directly absorbed by the plant life, before it reaches the ground. Water Resources Engineering If these three quantities can be assessed correctly and deducted from the entire rainfall, we get the figure called “Ex- tess rainfall’. Its this excess rainfall that actually causes "Run ‘iF which can be stored in reservoirs or diverted to canals from fenicuts for irigation. Ttis already said that a day with a rainfall, ‘fess than 2.5 mm is not a rainy day in the sense, that this fine fain is of no use. Itis either evaporated or absorbed in the soil, It does not produce any run off for utilisation. ‘A rain of 2.5 mm per day on 100 day's counts for statistics as, 250 mm of rainfall. But it is of no consequence to growing Ti: The duration of the storm is less than the time of travel of the drainage from the farthest point to the gauging point. By the time the drainage from the farthest point reaches the gauging station, the storm would have stopped and the catchment nearer the gauging point would have ceased to send down. any discharge. (b) T= Ti: The duration of the storm is equal tothe time taken for the drainage from the farthest point to reach the gauging point. Then the discharge at the ‘gauging point will rise to the maximum at a time T hours from the commencement, At this point, the drainage from the entire catchment will be simultaneously reaching the gauging point and afterwards the discharge slowly tapers off. (© T.>T: When the duration of the storm is than the time taken forthe drainage from the fete point to reach the gauging point. In this condition the discharge at the gauging point start rising slow. ly and reaches the peak after 7 hours from the com- ‘mencement of the storm and continues at that peak for a period of (71 7) hours. During this time, the entire catchment will be simultaneously sending down its discharge to the gauging point. The peak discharges in both cases are the same. Thereafter the discharge tapers off. 118 HYDROGRAPH Ahydrograph is a graph showing the discharge of a stream or river against the time of occurrence. Ifa hydrograph of a stream or river during a storm is prepared, the shape of the hydrograph indicates, the nature of run off, the peak of the hydrograph indicates the maximum flood discharge, the time interval between the peak discharge and the starting point indicates the time lag, and the area of the hydrograph indicates the flood volume discharged during the storm. The two arms of the hydrograph, i.., the slope of the rising and falling arms indicates the nature ofthe catchment. Inthe case of fern-shaped and fan-shaped catchments, a unit storm gives rise to two distinct types of hydrographs. They are illustrated in Figure 1.7 DISCHARGE TIME HYDROGRAPHS Figure 1.7 The fern-shaped catchment gives a flatter hydrograph, while the fan-shaped gives a sharply rising hydrograph. The time lag 7 in case of fern shaped will be more than 72, .c., fan-shaped ‘catchment takes lesser time to reach the peak. However, if the ateas of both the catchments are equal, then the total volume of ‘un off will be the same; for a unit storm though the shapes of hydrographs vary. n ‘The hydrograph starts rising the moment, the storm commen ces. The initial rise is due to the discharge from the catchment Nearer the gauging point. ‘The peak indicates the maximum dis- charge from the catchment due to the storm. ‘The catchment con- tinues to discharge even after the storm ceases, as more time is taken by the drainage from the farthest points to reach the gauging point. Thus the hydrograph is an indication of the type of catch- ‘ment. If the stream has a steeper slope, then the hydrograph will be sharper, the rise and fall will be steep and the time lag gets reduced 1.49 ORIENTATION AND MOVEMENT OF THE STORM OVER A CATCHMENT AREA ‘The movement ofthe storm over the catchment with reference to the direction of the main stream has a significant bearing on the peak discharge while the total discharge for the catchment may be same. Case I: Take the case of a storm passing over the catchment along with the direction ofthe stream or river from the gauging point towards its rising point. In this case, as the storm strikes the catchment, the portion of the catchment near the gauging point starts draining immediately and would have ceased drain- ing as the storm passes over, and by the time the drainage, from the earlier part of the catchment, ceases, the drainage from the ‘upper portion starts reaching the gauging point. In this way, the entire catchment may not be simultaneously discharging and the hydrograph for such a case will be a smooth and a flatter cone with a short peak. Case II: However, ifthe case is reversed, ic. the storm starts from the rising point of the stream or river and passes over the catchment slowly along the stream or river, a different condi- tion occurs. When the storm starts raining, the catchment at the rising point of the stream or river starts functioning and the drainage from that portion of the catchment enters the stream. By the time the storm flows over along the stream, more discharges will be joining the stream along with the drainage from the upper portion of the catchment. By the time the storm reaches the gauging point, the drainage from the catchment near the gauging point also joins the drainage from the upper portions of the catchment and thus we get a very flashy type of flood at the gauging point and the flood may disappear the mo- ‘ment the rain stops. In this case the hydrograph will be very steep. The time lag will be more. However, the total volume of flood discharge or run off in both cases may be the same. ‘Typical hydrographs are shown in Figure 1.8. ‘The Deccan rivers of India come under this pattern. For ex- ample, take the river Godavari. The drainage from the stating point, Le., near Bombay takes about 7 days to reach the anicut at Dowlaiswaram. If a hypothetical storm of one day duration. slowly passes along the entire catchment in seven days, then, it will produce a very high flood at Dowlaiswaram. The lent peaks obtained by a storm over the entire catchment in Per2 sTORM onan oF aren AS TIME, HYDROGRAPHS Figure 18 of 7 days, and a typical one day storm passing along for 7 days will be the same. However, the flood hydro-graphs will be dif- ferent. ‘Thus, it can be seen, the storms can produce flashy floods due to their respective directions. 1.20 ASSESSMENT OF FLOOD DISCHARGES Itis difficult to gauge every stream over long periods to assess the maximum flood discharges. So, based on observation of a number of streams during heavy storms, empirical methods have been prepared to evaluate the maximum flood discharge from catchments. These methods are not universally ap- plicable. They have to be used with changed parameters in dif- ferent regions. ‘The most widely used formulae in South India are the Ryve's formula and the Dicken’s formula. (1) Ryve's formula, Q=CM9 and Dicken’s formula, Q=CM™* where Q is the maximum flood discharge in ccumecs, M is the catchment area in square kilometers, and Ca coefficient, varying from place to place, depending upon the rainfall pattern of the zones in which the catchment is situated. The coefficients are different in the different formulae. Of these two, the Ryve's formula is the most widely used in South India, in arriving at the maximum flod discharge for design ‘of minor irigation works, design of cross drainage works, ete. Other important formulae in vogue are as follows: 1. Ali Nawaz Jung Bahadur's formula: This formula has been developed mainly for catchments of Deccan rivers. Itis Water Resources Engineering eA Q=CA (ox 14 ) Value of C taken from 48 t0 60. Qin cumecs and A in square kilometers. 2. Ingli's formula: 123A op 123/ VA [a+ 104 re kilometers. o= Qin cumees and A in squat 3. Fanning's formula o=cas® where value of Cis taken as 2.54, Qin cumecs and A in square kilometer. 1.21 RECURRENCE INTERVAL OF FLOOD AND FLOOD FREQUENCY It is the time interval after which a similar flood can be forecasted or expected, If this recurrence interval is denoted by Ta and frequency of flood by F, then both these terms can be connecced as follows: 100. ap mea: If data of annual floods, for N number of years is given, then these should be arranged in the decreasing order of their mag- nitude. The highest flood should be placed at the top and the lowest flood at the bottom of the list. The serial number of the highest flood will be one, while that of the lowest N. If the serial number of a particular flood in the order is, say m, its occurrence interval can be found by any of the following methods: qT, () California Method, 7;= % ' 2N ii) Hazen’s Method, T,=—2N — ‘ : @m-1 Git) Gumbell’s Method, 7, = (m+e-1) “here, C= Gumbell’s correction which depends on 4 ratio. The value of C corresponding to nm ratios is given as fol- lows: m 2 109 08 07 06 OS 04 03 02 01 08 O08 N CC: 1 098 988 0845 078 073 066 059 052 04 038 o2g In order to find any desired flood of desired frequency, a graph is plotted between discharge and frequency recurrence interval. Unknown flood of any recurrence interval can he found out from this graph. Flood frequency means, the number of times a particular flood can be expected in a river in a given number of years.Hydrology tjsually it is expressed as a 100 year flood or a 1000 year flood. ih 100 year flood is a flood that can be expected once in 100 . Similarly, a 1000 year flood is one that can be expected 3nce in 1000 years. Usually, these are worked out by ex- trapolating the observed data. There are vatious statistical tpethods, by which these can be computed based on the ob- fered data, Detailed computation of such a flood by statistical qnethod is not attempted in this book. 1.22 UNIT HYDROGRAPH METHOD ‘Aunit hydrograph (Figure 1.9) is a hypothetical hydrograph of ‘basin due to a flood of unit surface run off in a given time, ‘The duration of time should be chosen according to the size of the catchment as a day or less than a day, but the time duration should necessarily be less than the concentration time. How- ever, there are a few assumptions in this case: (a) All the combined characteristics of the basin are rep- resented in the hydrograph. (b) Identical rainfalls with the same characteristics produce identical hydrographs. (©) The vertical ordinates of the hydrograph are propor- tional to the volume of run off on the same catch- ‘ment. (@ Itis generally impossible for rainfall to be uniform ‘over the entire catchment for the entire period. However, we assume the rainfall as a hypothetical storm covering the whole catchment over a duration of time equal to time of concentration, ic, the travel time of water from the remotest point of the water shed to the gauging point. 0 3 a z 5 3 y g ¢ z 5 a 8 DURATION OF TIME (DAYS) Figure L9 3 Construction of a unit hydrograph : A unit hydrogra ways derived from an observed hydrograph, So, we rune some data as to the duration of rainfall, amount of rainfall, and the resulting run off data as observed by gaugings. From the ‘observed hydrographs, take outa typical hydrograph of a storm and the corresponding rainfall data. (a) Let ABCDE (Figure 1.9) be one such observed hydrograph due to a rainfall in aday. In small rivers and streams, there may bbe some base flow, i.c., flow resulting from springs even in periods when there is no rainfall. This has to be roughly as- sessed and deleted from the flood hydrograph. In the observed hydrograph, assume the portions of the curve AB and DE as those due to base flow. Let the portion of the curve BCD be the hydrograph due to excess rainfall or sur- face run off during the storm. Join the points B and D by a dotted line. ‘Then the area of the curve BCD above the dotted line represents the total volume of run off discharged by the surface run off. Point B on the curve corresponds to the starting point of in- flow due to run off and this will more or less coincide with the time of commencement of rain. Point C corresponds to the peak of the curve and the ordinate of C above the dotted line represents the peak discharge during the storm. ‘The time taken for the discharge to reach the peak C from the commencement point B, is called the time of concentration, ‘or some times the time lag. The surface run off ceases from point D and the curve DE denotes base, or spring flow. (b) Measure the area BCD which denotes the volume of the run off. Divide this by the catchment area of the basin upto the point where the hydrograph is observed. The resultant figure represents the run off of the storm expressed in centimeters or in millimeters. (c) Now divide the ordinates of the hydrograph BCD by this run off. The curve joining the corresponding points, represents the unit hydrograph. If the duration of rainfall taken is one day, then the resultant hydrograph is called a ‘one day unit hydrograph’. Similarly, wwe can plot hydrographs for smaller durations depending upon the data available. ‘This unit hydrograph is a very good tool for estimating: (i) Maximum possible total discharge of the stream during a storm, (ii) Maximum peak discharge during a heavy storm (to get at these values, we need not draw the unit hydrograph of the stream every time), (iii) From the unit hydrograph, if we want a hydrograph for a different intensity of excess rainfall, what we have to do is multiply the ordinates of the unit hydrograph with the excess rainfall figure. The curve obtained by joining all such points consis required hydrograph. From this we can Tea4 peak discharge and the volume of water the stream discharges during the storm. 1.23 HYDROGRAPHS FROM STREAM FLOW DATA ‘Sometimes, we have only, stream flow records and we do not have any rainfall data. In such cases, the biggest hydrograph from the observed data is taken and plotted. Knowing the catchment area of the basin upto the point, we can plot the unit hydrograph. ‘The maximum discharge in the catchment is computed from any one of the empirical formulae, illustrated already. Obtain the factor of maximum discharge divided by the maximum dis- charge of the unit hydrograph. Multiply each ordinate of the unit hydrograph by this factor. Join all those points. This new ‘curve is the probable maximum flood hydrograph. This can be used in flood routing calculations of small reservoirs and tanks. 1.24 AREA SLOPE METHOD Generally, we have a good record of rainfall data and practical- ly no stream gauge records. In such cases itis not possible to Construct a unit hydrograph by the conventional methods. ‘A new method of approach has been evolved by F.F. Snyder for constructing a Synthetic Hydrograph (Figure 1.10) of a stream based on the area of the catchment, the length of the stream upto the gauging point from the centre of gravity of the catchment and the average slope of the stream from the watershed upto the gauging point. This method is also called the Area Slope Method. Ne Os SYNTHETIC _HYDROGRAPH Figure 1.10 Water Resources Engineering vnitmntdiantdl 1.24.1 Construction of a synthetic hydrograph ‘A. is the area of the catchment basin upto the gauging point L the total length of the stream from the watershed upto the ‘gauging point Leis the length of the main stream from the centre of gravity of the catchment to the gauging point Sis the average slope of the stream during its length L Op = Peak discharge of the unit hydrograph ase width of the unit hydrograph tm Time of concentration of the unit hydrograph fp = Time from the centre of unit of rainfall to the peak dis- charge of the unit hydrograph W~ 50 = Width of the unit hydrograph measured at discharge ordinate equal to 50% of Op tr = Unit rainfall duration, tm = fp +05 tr W175 = Width of the unit hydrograph measured at discharge ordinate equal to 75% Op We—50 = Width of the rising side of unit hydrograph measured at discharge ordinate equal to 50% Op We—75 = Width of the rising side of unit hydrograph measured at discharge ordinate equal to 75% of Op ‘The various relationships for the parameters mentioned above are as follows: Synthetic Relationships wel w(oxg] W-75=0.81(W—50)°7? o28 Te=a9(txe] Ys. Wr - 50 = 0.69(W - 50° Qp = 0.315 AP? x 5-3 Wr — 75 = 0.605 (W—50)°%° W-50=2.18 gpl? where gp= From these relationships we can uniquely plot a unit hydrograph. Example A = Area of the catchment in Sq. Km, = 569.78 Sq. Km. L = 5401Km, 1. =24.94 Km. S = 210mKm t= Vhour w-50 = 15 Te = 2Shours - W-75 = 35 q = O.758cumecs Wr-$0 = 37ft: gone tp = 70hours We-75 = 2.0 ‘The unit hydrograph method is most suitable for small an moderate sized catchments, where there isa possibile of wa jinfall being uniform at least in short periods and t may be distributed over the entire catchment. However, this i not the case in big rivers like Godavari, ee where the rainfall may not be over the entire catchment simul. taneously and the hydrograph at the gauging site may not be representative for the whole catchment. Most of the time, the tun off may be only from a part of the catchment. Inall these cases, the following method is adopted to obtain the maximum flood hydrograph: (a) From the peak discharges available each year, over a number of years the chance peak of one in 100 years or one in 1000 years is computed by any of the recommended statistical methods. This will be the peak discharge in the maximum flood hydrograph. (b) From the storm hydrographs of each year, over a number of years, determine the slope of the rising arm of the storm hydrograph and the slope of the descending arm of the storm hydrograph. With these details, plot a number of hydrographs, which will give the largest flood volume. The storm hydrograph which gives the maximum flood volume will be used in flood-routing studies of a reservoir under planning 1.28 THE EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCES OR ECOLOGICAL DISTURBANCES ON HYDROLOGY India is one of the richest countries in the world in terms of water resources. Though India has substantial water resources to draw upon, today we are hardly using about one-tenth of these resources. India’s water resources draw their water mainly from the two monsoons, namely the South-West and the North-East monsoons. South-West monsoon commences in June and covers the entire country by the end of July. It lasts upto end of September and may occasionally spill over into a part of Oc tober. The North-East monsoon commences after the South~ West monsoon withdraws, and it ends by December-end, covering parts of South India. ‘Thus, the biggest problem with India’s water resources is that the monsoons bless us with rain during short periods of the year and over 75 per cent of the country’s entire rainfall comes pouring down within the four months of June, July, August and September. OF late, the rainfall is not uniform even during these four Months and at times the entire yearly rainfall occurs during a few days due to a cyclonic storm in the Bay of Bengal, causing heavy floods and devastation, 1oss of life and property. So, 99 er cent of such rainfall goes waste into the sea unused. After theeyctone, there is no rain worth the name in the same area for considerable period of time. 1s Nature has provided us with several cushions to even out this imbalance in water availability, First, the vast forest tracts that we have, hold back the mon- soon rain and release the water steadily like a slow release valve into the rivers, streams and ground water systems and thus recharges them, Secondly, in all those parts of the country where we have Imassive ground water acquifiers, the rain water gets stored in substantial quantities for use by people later through wells, borewells with pumpsets, etc. ‘Thirdly, people help themselves by designing systems like Ponds, tanks and reservoirs with dams, to store some of the ‘monsoon water for use during the dry months. Today with environmental destruction, mainly due to indi criminate destruction of forest cover, we find thatthe country’s water balance is badly disturbed. The cushion which would even out the water availability is slowly decreasing or disap- pearing in some areas. This can be qualitatively observed in sonic hill streams, which flowed even in summer a few decades ago. Now these dry up in summer months. As a result of this phenomenon, the water availability is becoming extremely un- even and uncertain. Floods and droughts are frequently recur- ring and their intensities are increasing year after year. ‘The flood prone area in this country has been increasing at an alarming rate.,Jt has been estimated that the flood prone area in our country has increased from about 20 million hectares in 1960 to over 65 million hectares in 1985, a phenomenal in- crease in just a quarter of a century. This is bound to increase unless steps are taken to afforest the areas which once flourished and are now denuded. ‘To have some sort of an ecological balance, experts have recommended that at least 1/3 of the land should have forest cover. India, which at one time had more than this stipulated forest cover, has now only about 15 to 20 per cent of its land area under forests, and this has been steadily going down, be- cause the illicit felling of trees and deforestation is far ahead of the pace at which afforestation is being undertaken. The main factors responsible for this rapid loss of forest cover are over ‘grazing, raising crops by hill ribes by burning forest cover and the forest litter (shifting or podu cultivation of hill slopes) which is going on unabated. Another factor is, felling of trees for supply of firewood to urban areas, let alone villages, which depend mainly on firewood for cooking. India’s urban population alone requires vast amounts of firewood. The requirement is, of the order of 15 million tons @ year, which is worth Rs. 500 crores more than what the various state governments spend on afforestation programmes. Forest cover plays crucial role in controling Hoods by regulating the run off by retaining the rainfall i its it i the soil Consequently, the infiltration of water into ee Vegetation also reduces soil erosion and consequently Tand-slides.16 Forests afford a constant supply of decaying matter (leaf lit. ter), and this associated with the rots ofthe trees make the sotl structure porous and conducive to retention and infiltration of the precipitation received. The thickness and the quantity of leaf litter present in a forest has @ major impact on the amount of rain that penetrates the soil to become moisture held in the soil and ground water. ‘According to one estimate, the soils of India’s forest areas, if they have good undisturbed forests on them, can store more than the entire rainfall that falls on them in an average year on a temporary basis and more than 50 per cent on a long term basis. While the run off is not wasted, floods willbe lessened. ‘Thus forests play an important role in controlling floods and soil erosion. Once forests are denuded and the litter cover dis- appears, soil erosion is tremendous, and is said to increase by as much as 400 times. ‘The eroded soil gets deposited in river beds raising their bed levels and consequently reducing their discharging capacity Naturally, when floods come, the water levels of the silted rivers increase because the lesser the water the river can hold, the more intensive is the flood. Now-a-days, Indo-Gangetic plain witnesses severe floods ‘every year. This is due to the denudation of forest lands in the ‘topical and sub-tropical zones and in the Himalayas. If this ‘goes on unchecked, these rivers will also become dry like the cones in South India (the Godavari, the Krishna, etc.) during non-monsoon periods. India apart from severe floods faces severe soil erosion problem. ‘The soil loss every year is estimated at about 5,000 nillion tons, which is enough to make brick houses for every family in the country from Kashmir to Kanyakumari. Some of the reservoirs that we have built at a huge cost to irrigate vast tracts of land are getting silted up rapidly. Reser- voirs like Nizamsagar on the river Manjira, a tributory of the river Godavari, have lost substantial capacity. ‘Based on the observation of the functioning of the reservoirs already constricted and in operation for some time now, the Government of India have made it a point to strictly enforce certain regulations so that the ecological balance in the catch- ment area is not disturbed, while sanctioning new reservoir schemes. For reservoirs already constructed, and which are in opera- tion now and where their capacities are going down, afforesta- tion schemes are being taken up on a large scale to reduce the soil erosion, and restore the ecological balance if not fully, then at Jeast to a certain extent, 1.26 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL AND FLOOD FREQUENCY 1.26.1 Average annual rainfall over an area ‘The annual rainfall over an area, or the catchment area of a particular basin is computed by any of the methods already in- Water Resources Engineering dicated, based on the annual accumulated rainfall roorded at the various rain gauge stations Jocated in the entire sea or tin, These annual rainfall records are to be maintained, ear- ‘years, from which, we can statist- wise for a large number of “ Tully analyse, study the pattern of rainfall and from them Compute the annual yield or run-off from the basin. 1126.2 Average annual rainfall, or accumulated rainfall in ayear “This is the mean of a large number of years of continuous rain- fall revord. A minimum of 35 to 40 years of continuous record is desirable, to make any meaningful statistical analysis. This ean annual rainfall figure will be changing either way, with ‘every subsequent year of rainfall record. Rainfall is said to be in deficit in a particular year, of obser- vation, if the accumulated rainfall is less than the average rain- fall and is said to be surplus if it is more. ‘Suppose the average rainfall of the area is say 100 em and the rainfall of the same area of a particular year is 80 em; then the rinfl ssid to be 1OP= $0) % 100 _ 209 less or deficit and if it is 120 cm then the rainfall is said to be {120-100 09 «208 neces ote es ‘The average annual sainfall of the entire country (India) computed from a large number of stations spread all over the country is ofthe order of 115 cm. The rainfall that occurs over the entire country computed from all stations during both the ‘monsoons in a year, is said to be normal, in deficit or excess, ‘compared to that figure. 1.26.3 Generally the desert areas of Rajasthan, receive an an- nual rainfall of 5 cm or less. Arid regions are those that receive an annual rainfall of 40 cms or less. ‘Semi Arid Regions are those that receive an annual rainfall, of 40 to 75 em. Humid regions are those that receive an annual rainfall of more than 75 em. At the equator, the climate is known as Tropical Climate, and it rains almost on every cloudy day. ‘The ratio of the yearly rainfall to the arrange annual rainfall is known as the ‘Coefficient of Wetness’. For a statistical analysis, we require a record of large number of observations of rainfall, and the correctness of any predictions made, depends on the analysis of the available data. 1.27.1 Statistical analysis of rainfall data Take the example of average annual rainfall over the area, sions were available for 15 years from the year 1901 to 1915, _ The first step is to arrange the computed rainfall figures site in the ascending order, o inthe descending order vie le 18.| ‘gable 18 Statistical Anatysls of Annual Average Ralnfull for 15 years 301-1915) Sha Yarof Average an Deviation Squncof cbeeration val rainfall fomibe deviation arranged inthe mean(x-3) (qf descending onder X° cm ee sh ew wee me | aro 40 «TOL 2 98 20° 4401 1608 2. 3 as ast a3 + 9007 40 01 9.06 s 1901 ws asi 620 6 9s w2 221 88 71908 ws ata 326 2 190 Mo 4091 ox oR 38601 om 101908 326 4001 00 n 166, a 28 is 178 “ cass 1s 13.76 _| vs Eu-ay's 2168 In the above tabular statement, the annual rainfall figures have been arranged in the descending order. ‘The total number of years for which records available are ‘n" years and in this case, the value of ‘n’ = 15 (column (1) of the table). The sum total of the average rainfall figures of all the 15, years is equal to Ex = 569.8 cm. ‘The average value (or mean value) is equal to Es and in this case the average value is 38. 37.99 em. Column (4) of the tabular statement shows the deviation from the mean. This is obtained by subtracting the value (x) in column (3) from the mean value i.e. %. When x is > than X, the value (x) will be +ve and when x> than ‘¥’, the value be-ve. This value is shown in column (4) for each year. The column (5) denotes the value of the square of deviation ic square ofthe figure shown in column (4) and this is always +ve, 1.27.2 Analysis (1) The maximum rainfall during the period is 45 cm, while the minimum is 26m. (2) The average value for the entire period of observa- tion ie 37.99 em. () Since the period of observation is 15 years (odd years) the value opposite to the serial number 8, ic n 38.9 cm in known as the median value. If the period of observation is even, say 14 years, then the median value will be the average of the two values opposite 105. Nos. 7 and 8, ie, C28*389) 39.25 em (4) As per the table, rainfall in excess of the mean value i.e. 37.99 ems occurred during 10 years out of a total period of observation of 15 years. (8) Standard Deviation: The value is termed as ‘o' and VEE om n is equal too = NI299 = In this case it is equal to 14 4.80 ems. This parameter will be useful in statistical analysis of results (6) Coefficient of Variation: The value = x 100 is known as the percentage coefficient of variation. In 480 BAS, x 100= 12.6%, This another parameter, that is useful in statistical analysis of ob- served results. “This analysis can be made for various other values like (a) peak flood discharges of a river or stream (b) Annual run-off ‘observations, (¢) Maximum and minimum Temperatures, etc. 1.28 DENSITY OF RAIN GAUGE STATIONS In any irrigation project, the most important aspect to be con- sidered, is the estimation of dependable rainfall observed over a large number of years from the rain gauge stations located in the catchment area of the stream or river in question. This is possible, only if we have sufficient number of rain gauge sta- tions inside the catchment area, evenly spread. If there are not enough rain gauge stations, the data we collect for computation of run-off from the catchment may not be realistic, or we may not realise the correct run-off as per computations. So, to col- lect proper data, we may have to install additional rain gauge stations inside the catchment; Such a network or rain gauge sta- tions in known as ‘Saturated Net-work Here is a worked out solution of a problem given in LLT. Chennai, this case itis 1.28.1 Problem A certain river basin has four rain gauge stations and the normal annual precipitation observed is 800, 520, 440 and 400 mm respectively. Determine the optimum number of rain gauge stations in the catchment of the river basin, if itis desired to limit the error in the mean value of rainfall to 12%. Solution Statistically, the error in the mean value expressed as percent- age and the coefficient of variation expressed as percentage, are both one and the same.‘The statistical analysis of the observations of the four rain. Water Resources Engineering ‘Table 1.10 Tabular statement showing yearly ralnfall and § year and 3 {year moving average ralnfall valves Sauge stations already located inthe catchments shown inthe | _____7__ Table 1.9. [S.No Yearof Average antes 8 x cbvervation ‘annual average value moving average rainfall ofrainfall value of rainfall mee incms incms ‘nem Station Normal Annual Deviation fromthe Squarcof the T1901 5 = = Prepon mean(r=F)_ Deviation = ee ae ae = 1 800 1260 7600 a 1903 364 384 392 2 520 400 4 1904 398 396 44 3 40 ro0c0 5 1908 462 410 ato 4 ae 1360 6 (1906 450 413 406 ned _Ere7160 7 1907 410 393 386 356. 366 a EE _ 2160 2 81308 38.0 Aree Vora Renae edad 9 1908 306 347 358 01910 352 369 359 Standard deviation 6 182533 = 180mm iat a ai ev 396 ‘ sation = 180_X 100 2 192 386 397 Coefficient of variation = 180 100 = 33.39% Bec ais a ae ee ‘As per .S code 1968, the optimum number frain gaugesto | 14 1914 420 356 - be installed in a given basin is given by the relationship 1s 191s 469 = = 2 *-6) P ‘Where ‘N’ is the optimum number of rain gauges tobe installed in the basin in question. ‘o' in the coefficient of variation of the already existing num- ber or rain gauge stations (n).. ‘P’ is desired degree of percentage error while estimating the average depth of rainfall over the basin The additional number of rain gauge stations to be freshly established is given as (N — n), 12 8. The additional rain gauge stations that have to be established in the basin are equal to (N-n) = 8-4 =4 nos. ‘These additional rain gauge stations have to be specially lo- cated inside the basin under question, in proportion to the areas between the isohyets drawn on the plan ofthe basin based on the rainfall results of the existing stations. Thus by Judicial Loca- tion of the additional 4 rain gauge stations that can reduce the % error in computing the average rainfall in the basin to 12%. 1.29 HYETOGRAPH AND MOVING AVERAGE CURVE ‘The variation of rainfall, either yearly, or every hour of a storm can be plotted as a bar graph. This is known as a Hyetograph, This graph will only indicate the variation of rainfall with respect to time. From the graph we cannot have any idea ofthe trend of the rainfall or any pattern. Inorder to have a general idea of the trend and pattern of the rainfall over a large number of years, 5 year or 3 year moving average curves will be of some help. 2 In the above problem N = (a = (2.7157 =7.7 or say ‘With the help of Table 1.10 showing the annual rainfall records from 1901 to 1915, Hyetograph and moving average curves of 5 year duration and 3 year duration curves have been drawn, vide Figure 1.11 1.29.1 5 year moving average curve ‘The first 5 years of record are averaged and this average value is plotted at the mid-point of the group. The next point is ob- tained by dropping the first reading, add the 6th reading and average it. This is plotted at the mid-point of the second group. Like this continue till the end of the Table. Join all these points by acontinuous curve. This curve thus obtained, does not have such abrupt and vide variations, as are indicated by the bar chart or hyetograph. In the Figure 1.11, the 5 year moving curve shows a slight improvement in rainfall towards the year 1905; and shows a decline towards 1908. Then it shows a rise and then dips again. 129.2 Similarly a 3 year moving average curve is also drawn. This curve also indicates the same trend as the 5. year moving average curve, but has lesser degree of peaks and troughs. ‘The moving average curves can thus show the general trend and pattern of the rainfall recorded over a large number of years. If we have a data over a large number of years, and if the Patterns repeat at regular interval, we can approximately Predict, the year of good rainfall or year of drought. ‘These curves can be conveniently used for prediction of maximum, minimum temperature, recurrence of floods in & river, ete, aSe nnererewaner » HYETOGRAPH ANDBYEAR ANDSYEAR MOVING GRAPHS “ “ yeaa howd curd Venn ovina curv \ RANFALLINCENTIMETERS 00 pid: 190 102 a4 1910 er 101 ‘YEAROF OBSERVATION Figure 111 ‘Hyetograph and 5 year and 3 year moving graphs 130 CORRECTION OF MISSING RAINFALL RECORDS BY AVERAGE RATIO METHOD This has been already indicated in a general way in para 1.7(a) & (0), using mass curves of rainfall from Figure 1.2. Estimates of missing data, and adjustment of rainfall records an also be computed by Ratio ofaverages. In this method, the ‘ainfall stations must have been located in almost similar climatological areas. Then only the value made by interpola- tion of corrections made by this method will have a reasonable accuracy. 1.30.1 Problem ‘The rain gauge station at station P, was inoperative fora part of the month when a storm occurred, due to various natural2» ‘easons. The rainfall recorded during that same period in other 4 stations A, B, C and D situated close by were 10.5, 12.0, 14.0 ‘and 9 em respectively. The average annual rainfall figures of all the 5 stations in the basin are 80, 90, 100, 70 and 120 em respectively. It is required to estimate the rainfall at station P 100, The pobbiy hat aT year sor, witha Fag ao myst onan any sees of yes gien a P 1 — F)" and that it may occur is given as P = 1 - (1 - Py (i) The probability that it may occur in any year during a 20 year storm is (T=N); T = 20, and 1 Fao5* 100 or 5% or 0.05 P=1-(1-F) = 1-(1-0.05)" 1-0.36 = 64% Gi) Probability that the 20 year storm may occur in the next 12 years is: P =1-(1-F) = 1-1 - 005)? = 1-054 0.46 or 46% (ii) Probability ofits not occurring in the next 8 years is P= (1-F)" = (1-0.05)* = 0.66 = 66% 132 FLOOD FREQUENCY 1.321 If sufficiently, a large record of the flood peak dis- charges of a river are availabe, by using the statistical analysis, wwe can forecast; a 100 year or 1% possible chance flood. Theseoo studies are highly useful in fixing the spill-way capacity of a ‘dam proposed to be constructed on the river in question. ‘Suppose we have the record of flood peak discharges for a continuous period of ‘n’ years, calculate the ‘mean’ and ‘median’ values, deviation from the mean for each year and the square of the deviation as per procedure already indicated. If ¥is the mean value in cumecs, ‘n’ the number of years, and ‘x’ the value of the peak flood each year, then the standard deviation is equal to and coeffi of variation is equal to =< X 100 expressed as percentage. Gumbel's Method Gumbel’s equation, giving the relationship, for a recurrence peak flood of “7” years (Qr) connecting the mean value of peak flood S* or, and standard deviation is given as Or = ¥ + 6 (0.78 loge” ~ 0.45) ‘where Qr'is the probable recurrence peak flood of T years. If T += 100, then Qr is Q100, and is called 1% chance flood. If T= 100, then this equation reduces to 2100 = ¥ + 6 (0.78 loge™ — 0.45) X + 0 (0.78 x 4.605 — 0.45) ¥ + 3.140 Cumecs 1.32.2 Problem Determine the frequency of a flood of magnitude 10,000 cumecs, given the following record of peak flows of a medium river for 10 years. Year [1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 peak tow in '3200 4250 6250 3100 2800 3500 8500 8900 4200 000| Statistical analysis of the data is made to compute the values of ‘mean peak flow’ and ‘the standard deviation’ vide Table 112. ‘Standard deviation ‘a’ = 2215 cumecs Use Gumbel’s equation Q=% + 0 (0.78 loge” - 0.45) In this equation Q = 10,000 cumecs. =x 2X ~ 4970 Mean peak flood = =~ = 4971 2215 cumecs Standard deviation (0 Water Resources Engineering ‘Table 1.12 Tabular statement showing yearly flood peaks ‘S.No. Year of obser- Deviation ¥= 4970 cumecs, o = 2215 cumecs and T'is the time in years of Recurrence interval. ‘Simplifying this equation, we get Q-% + 0 x 045) ox 078 ‘Substituting the values for Q, ¥ and 6, we get Loge” = Loge” = 3.49 rae” Recurrence interval is say 33 years +. Frequency of Q = 10,000 cumecs peak flood discharge o¢- 1 1 curring is x 100 = 35 x 100 = 3%. 32.78 years or say either 32 or 33 1.33.0 INFILTRATION INDICES 1.33.1 In para 1.15, the various factors that effect the total precipitation, into useful or excess rainfall that ultimately results in run off have been mentioned. This is to say broadly that, at any instant due to a rainfall storm, Run-off = Rain fall - Losses Consequently it follows that Intensity of Run-off = tensity of Rainfall — Intensity of Losses. 1.33.2 Infiltration is the quantity of water that penetrates the soil to make it wet, saturated and also constantly go down to recharge the ground-water table or recharge the aquifers. In para 1.15.3, ithas been explained as to how much daily rainfall is required to make the soil from dry state to wet, and from wet to saturated condition etc. before it becomes critical to give ef- fective run-off.Hydrology 1.33.3 Generally, when a storm occurs, the rate of loss of rain- fall, de to percolation into the soil is greatest inthe early part of the storm, and with subsequent rain it becomes a bit more uniform, depending upon the soil characteristics. Estimates of excess rainfall that causes run-off, over large areas are made by using infiltration indices. These indices are assumed as con- stant rates of infiltration during a storm, whatever may be the intensity of rainfall. Actually this is not the case, as was already explained in para 1.15.3. These indices are mostly of academi- cal value, to generally estimate the run-off due to a storm over ‘catchment or basin of a stream or river, These indicies are generally referred to as (i) Gi) ‘W index. index and 1.334 Definition index is defined as the rate of rainfall out of the rate of storm rainfall, above which the rainfall volume equals the run-off volume. The ‘$” index comprises of all losses due to percola- tion etc. and also due to detention in pits and ponds. The basic assumption is that ‘6’ index is assumed to have the same value right through the storm, irrespective of the intensity of rainfall during the entire storm period, dex. = sctual run-off or excess rainfall during the storm Total rainfall of the storm Determination of *6" index has to be done only by atrial and error method, since a rainfall of less than the ‘$” index causes no run-off. As such there is no rational method of determining this. 1.33.5 ‘W Index Itis the average infiltration rate during the time rainfall inten- sity exceeds the infiltration capacity of the storm. (P-) juration of the storm Total rainfall during the storm period ‘Surface run-off, after deducting all losses due to storm rainfall. A few Typical Problems collected from University question Papers are solved here. “W" Index where P= Q= 1335.1 Problem ‘The rates of rain-fall (cms/hour) for the successive one hour periods of a 6 hour storm are 2, 10, 2, 8, 2, and 1 cms/hour. Establish the ‘6’ index and ‘W’ index, if the resulting run-off from the storm is 15 cms. Solution If? is the intensity of rain (cms/hour) and ‘9's the percolation index (cms/hour), and ‘f’ in hours is the time interval of the observed rain-fall intensities during the entire storm period, then the value of the net precipitation (cms) (Poet) during the entire storm is given by the relation. Pret = Y (i-0) Xt ‘Since we do not know whether in the above equation, at any i? we have to assume first the value time, is greater or less than of by trial. Let us assume that, all intensities of rainfall, mentioned in the problem give run-off. i.e. 6 <4 (cmMour) (t= (9 hour). (2 — 9) + (10-4) + (2-9) + (8-9) + (2-9) +(1-9x 1) =25-66. 15 = 25-6 ‘Then Poet = 15 ems = 016 9=10,ie. 72-=1.67 emsthour From this, we can roughly infer that, the last reading of rain- fall of 1 cmv/hour, in the problem, does not give any run-off. In the final calculation, this 1 cm/hour reading is deleted, Now the final calculations is as, = (2-9) + (10-9) + (2-9) + (8-9) + 2-9)x 1} 15=24-59 This gives a value as 6 = 1.8 cmvhour, Pret = 1.33.52 Problem The following are the rates of rainfall for successive 20 minutes interval petiods of a 140 minute storm. 2.5,2.5, 10, 7.5, 1.5, 1.3 and 5 cm/hour. Taking the ¢ index as 3 cm/hour, find the resul- tant run-off. Solution Inthis case, the values of “” and ‘are given incm/hour, while the time interval ofthe rainfall intensities is given as 20 minutes or 1/3 of an hour. Since the value of 6 is 3 cm/hour, only the rainfall intensities of 10,7.5 and Sem will give resultant Run-off. Run-off (em) = [(10-3) + C75~3) + G-3)] x } (+4542) 1B 3 3 = 45cm, 13353 Problem ‘The recorded rates of rainfall at successive 15 mintue interval of a 2-1/2 hour storm are as 3.0, 3.0, 9.5, 6.0, 4.5, 8.0, 2.0, 5.5, 5.5, and 2.5 cnvhour. Taking the value of @ index as 3.9 cmvhour, determine the value of ‘W’ index. Solution ‘The first step isto calculate the resultant run-off. Run-off = [(9.5 - 3.9) + (6.0-3.9) + (4.5-3.9) + (8.0-3.9) 15 +(55-3.9) +(5.5-3.91X 6Huw 2664214064414 1.6416) 4 ~45. Mn 3.9 cms. Total precipitation = (3.0+3.0+9.5 +6.0+4.5+8.0+20 +5.5+55+2.5) 49.5 _ 124cm winder = 024-39) . 85 25 a = 3.4 cm/hour. 1.33.5.4 Problem AA three hour storm occurs over a 62sq. km. From the following data, estimate the net storm. Rain over the whole area and its hourly distribution, Water Resources Engineering ora reservoir, with the help of a working table, knowing tank: of inflows and the rates of demand fora full season, “The level of the reservoir from which we can release the water to meet the demand, to the level above which we cannot More without surplusing as waste, is known as the capacity of the reservoir (useful). By judicious release to meet the demand ‘wecan operate the reservoir, such thatthe inflows are made use of, to the maximum, The reservoir will act as a balancing reser- ‘in, with the total releases amounting to say “X" times the re- Servoir capacity, when ‘X is termed as the ‘number of fillings’. 'A few typical questions collected from some university question papers are solved here, using graphical method. 1.34.1 Problem (1) ‘The monthly inflows from the catchment of a river into a reser- voir and the monthly releases from the reservoir are given below. Find graphically the storage of the reservoir required. Subang “¢i Hourly nfl em ‘Table 1.13 inGemy’ emo) | Hour Hour _Wt Hour Mouth Monthy Inflow in million — Monthly Demand in milion oo « 20 15 ite mera Cubic Meters Cubic Meters o » as 1s 5000 Ta 120 50 os 10 1s 50 1s Reb. 20 “8 Ma. 3 18 Solgtion Arr. » 100 The net rain in the Ist hour May “ 95 _ 14x (0) + 20%) + 28%(65) _ 14 Sune 8 0 a 62 62 July 10 30 ‘The net rain in the Ind hour os i 25, 145-2) + 205-35) + 28(5 84 oa ra = _ MG=2) + 205-35) + 285-1) _ 184974, |_o8 bf = a 62 aa ‘The net rain in the [rd hour * ne ion . ‘able 1.13(a) is prepared showing the month, and the cor- 14(0) + 20(0) + 28(1.5-1) : , = 4@ +2010) + 28 = 4 023m. responding monthly inflows, cumulative inflows up to the end 62 62 ‘Thus the total rain from the 3 hour storm over the entire area of 62 km? is = 0.23 + 2.97 + 0.23 = 3.43 cm. The hourly distribu- tion is 0.23 cm in the I hour 2.97 cm in the II hour and 0.23 cm in the III hour. 1.34 STREAM-FLOW, MASS CURVES, AND RESERVOIR STORAGE Whenever a storage reservoir is planned for utilisation as water supply, irigation or for developing hydropower, the capacity of the reservoir has to be so fixed, such that the inflows of the river or stream, are fully tapped and stored, to be released ac- cording to the needs of the demand. When the inflows are more than the demand, the excess in- flows have to be stored, s0 as to meet the demand, i., when the demand is more than the inflows. This excess demand over the inflows, depletes the storage in the reservoir. In the chapter 3 under minor irrigation, paras 3.5 and 3.7 clearly explain as to how we can fix the capacity ofan irrigation of the month, monthly demand and the cumulative demand up to the end of the month. ‘Table 1.132) Statement showing inflows and demand Inflows Demand Month ‘Monthly In- Cumulative | Monthly Cumulative flows in Mil- inflows in | Demand in demand in lion cum. Million cum. | Million cum. Million cum. a @ @ ® © January 120 120 50 0 February 20 140 48 8 March 25 165 18 m April 19 184 100 m May 4 198 95 368 June 35 233 Ho 418 July no 43 0 508 ‘Angus 170 513 25 533 September 100 613 28 558 October 80 63 20 8 {October _80__693__29___67§__iHydrology Figure 1.13 shows both inflow and demand mass curves. "The time duration (month) is represented on the ‘X axis, and the ‘Y” axis denotes the quantity of flow (inflow and demand) in million cubic meters. ‘The curve ‘A B CDE" represents the mass inflow curve, and the curve ‘F BI DJ" represents the demand mass curve. These ‘two curves intersect at points ‘B” and ‘D’. In the initial stage from the starting point up to “B” the mass in-flow curve is above the demand mass curve. This shows that the inflows are in ex- cess over the demand and are utilised in filling up the reservoir. From point ‘B’ onwards upto point ‘D’, the demand mass curve is above the inflow mass curve. This indicates that the demand is more than the inflows into the reservoir, and the reservoir meets the demand from its storage. This also means that the reservoir is getting depleted. From point “C" the inflows are slowly increasing till point “D’ is reached, where the inflow equals the demand. Beyond point ‘D’ the inflows are in excess of the demand. This indicates that the demand is less than the inflows, resulting in building up the reservoir storage. ‘The area confined between the two mass curves represents the quantity of water drawn from the storage to meet the demand and the biggest ordinate “CI represents the storage space required in the reservoir in million cubic meters. In this example the storage space or capacity ‘CT’ is equal to approximately 240 million Cubic Meters. Thus we are able to draw 578 Million cubic meters by routing the inflows through a reservoir of capacity 240 million cubic meters. MLLION CUBIE METERS rep san b any nov ore.Water Resources Engineering 26 Table 114 i ee The numberof flings obtained = 378 24 ‘Month ‘Yield in 16m sly 73 1342 Problem ‘Ag 27 ‘The yield from the catchment area ofa river during each suc- Sept as cessive month is given below. Determine the maximum ost 22 capacity ofthe reservoir required, so as to allow the storage to | 27" he or 18 be drawn at a uniform rate throughout the year without any | ¥ 17 Dee. 1s. wastage. ane on 183 € ® ey ’ | © & DEMAND MASS CURVE a 7 ie ? é 2 : F 5 LIA | Thenlowdarlen B x Flow uhSs chave | ‘9 . Lier? | z & £23 3 6 a 3 23803 $8 6g DuRATONOF Mon Figure 1.14‘The total yield from the catchment from January to end of December is equal to 59.1 x 10° cu.mn vide Table No. 1.14(a). ‘Tus is tobe drawn equally in ll the 12 months athe ra of Tq = 493 x 10° m>, This means that the starting point and the end points of inflow mass curve and the demand mass curve will be same, While the inflow mass curve is curve shaped, the demand mass curve is a straight line covering all the 12 ‘months, vide Figure 1.14. In the above figure the curve ‘ABCDE. represents the inflow mass curve, while the straight line ‘A E° represents the demand mass curve. Since the er inflows have to be uniformly used without waste during the ‘year, the starting point “A” and the end point and ‘E" for both ‘curves is the same. ‘Table 1.14(a) Statement showing inflows and demand Inflows Demand Month ‘Monthly Cumulative | Monthly Cumlative Tnflowsin inflowsin | demandin demandin Milion um. Million cum. | Milion cum. Milion cum. ian 14 1 4 0 Feb 20 a to. 98 March 28 62 40. ar Ape 82 aa to. 196 May 47 v1 o- 24s June 7 408 to. 24 July 15 483 o- M3 Aug. 27 S10 to. 392 Sep. 2s 53s to. a lox. 2 387 to. 90 Nov. 18 0 o- 539 [Dee 16 391 o- 588 1.34.3 Interpretation of the curves Between points A and C, the inflows are less than the demand, the difference between demand and the inflows is met from the reservoir storage, and the reservoir reaches the lowest level at point ‘B” on the inflow mass curve. At point °C" both the inflow ‘and mass curve intersect indicating that the demand is equal to the inflows. From point ‘C’ the inflows are higher than the ‘demand, and the resoroir storage starts building up till it attains ‘a maximum at point ‘D’. Thereafter the inflows slowly go down, till the storage is completely depleted indicating thatthe inflows are fully utilised. This is indicated by the common point “E". 1.34.4 Determination of the storage capacity required In the figure, the point ‘B’ denotes the lowest level of the storage, and point ‘D" denotes the higest level the reservoir at- tains, The ordinate between the parallels to the demand fine drawn through ‘B’ and ‘D’ represents the storage capacity re- ‘quired for the reservoir to route the inflows to meet the demand without wastage. The line ‘BF is parallel to the demand fine throug ‘B" and “DF” is the parallel to the demand line through ‘D’. The ordinate ‘BF” represents the storage required in mil- lion cubic meters. In this case, the length of the ordinate ‘DF” represents 22 million cubic meters. 1.35. CONSTRUCTION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF UNIT HYDROGRAPHS In paras 1.22 and 1.24.1 of this chapter, construction of & ‘gauged basin and construction of a synthetic hydrograph of an ‘ungauged basin using Snyder's method have been indicated. Construction of various types of unit hydrographs are discussed in detail with worked out examples inthe following paras. 1.35.1 Example ‘The flood flows in a river due to a 3 hour storm are given below. The drainage area is 65 sq. km, Derive the 3 hour unit hhydrograph, assuming a constant base flow of 35 cu. m. There is no need to draw the graph. Table 135 Tineinbous Disgeln | Tineinh —Dichrin ‘comes ‘comes 7 38 rs 705 3 o n 0 ‘ % x0 0 ° 10 3 9 | 2 0 % 3 [n> is 300 x» @ | 200 2 0 Loa 20 s 38 Solution ‘The given data and further computed results are tabulated vide Table 1.15(@). Column (1) of the Tabular statement indicates the time in hours from the time the storm commenced tll the flood flow ended at 45 hours after commencement of the storm. ‘Column (2) shows the total run-off ordinate (T-R.O) ic. the corresponding flood discharge in cumecs, against the cor- responding time in hours as per given data. ‘Column (3) shows the base flow run-off ordinate (B.F.O) in ‘cumees, which is 35 cumecs, and itis the same throughout. ‘Column (4) denotes the direct flow run-off ordinate (D.R.O) in cumees. This denotes the discharge in cumecs due to the storm alone. This is arrived at by deducting the base flow of 35, cumecs from the corresponding figure in column (2) ie. equal tocol. (2) ~col. (3). DRO=TRO.-BRO. ‘The total quantity of flood discharge in cumecs is obtained by adding all the values of col. (4) multiplied by the time interval2B ‘Table 1.15(a) Showing Computations for derivation of@ 3 hour wt Hydrograph Timein Total Baseflow Direstflow Unit Time (How) Runoff: runoff Runoff Hyérograph fromthe ‘ordinate ordinate ordinate ordinate beginning (FO) (ORO) (W.G.O) of Surface cumecs _cumecs_(cumecs) Runoff (col2-<0l2) ow) @ @ ® @ oo 0 35 3 0 0 3 o 35 3 09 6 0 3 4s 16 9 130 3 us 42 2 40 35 ms 75 n 1s 30 38 ws 1s 18280 3s ms 90 18 2 20 3 ws 68. a 24 205 35 1m 62. 4 27180 3 us 53, n 300 cy ws 38, 0 3 9s 3 © 2 3 36 8 3 “0 18 36 » o 3s 2% 09 2» 2 0 3 if, 05) 2 45 35 Ea ° o 45 LDRo = 1645 cumecs in seconds (assumption is thatthe area of the flood hydrograph is approximately equal to the hypothetical hyetograph drawn with the time interval and value in col. (4)) DL DRO. = 1645 Cumecs Net precipitation over the entire catchment of 64 sq. km. = 1645 x 3 x 60 x 60.cu.m 65 x 10%sq.m = 02733 m or 27.33cm ‘The ordinate of the unit hydrograph is obtained by dividing the result of D.R.O. in col. (4) by 27.33. ‘Take for example the value corresponding to 15 hour in col. a ‘The corresponding unit hydrograph ordinate 269 35 = 9.7 Cumecs All the results of the unit hydrograph start with zero ordinate as there is no flood at zero hours (since the base flow is deducted). 1.3.2 Changing a short duration unit hydrograph to longer duration ‘The principle of superimposition of two identical unit hydrographs can be applied ifthe long duration ofthe desired Water Resources Engineering multiple of the short one. For ex- wydrograph with the calculated or. ‘hour unit hydrograph are worked unit hydrograph is an even ‘ample take the 3 hour unit by dinates. The ordinates of a 6 ‘out, vide Table 1.16. Column (1) indicates the time in hot ‘ment of the storm. Column (2) indicates the ordi inydrograph (3 hour U.G.O.). ‘By assuming two unit storms producing a net rain of | em each, the second identical storm commencing 3 hours after the fiat storm, the ordinates ofthe second storm are tabulated in column (3) of the table, ation of a hour unit Hydrograph based on the or- urs since the commence- inates of the 3 shour unit ‘Table 116. Det ‘dinates of 23 hour uit Hydrograph Time ious) 3Hoor—— T the entire catch- ment simultaneously starts discharging the flood at the rate of 1x A x 108 2.78A 2 100 x a x 60 x 6 ~ gr Comers Where Qs the discharge in cumecs, ‘A’ area of the catchment in square kilometers ‘tr’ is the duration of unit storm in hours i.e, 1 cm in “tr hours. 1.36.2 The flood hydrograph reaches a peak ‘T” hour after the ‘commencement of the storms, and the catchment continues to 2.78A cumecs. tr ‘The peak of the flood hydrograph will be a straight line parallel to the ‘X" axis of the graph, showing the value of the and discharge a constant flood of ordinate equal to 2284 cumecs. Since the shape of the tr hhydrograph resembles the figure ‘S*, it is called a ‘S’ hydrograph. It is also called the summation hydrograph result- ing from successive unit storms extending over a period of ‘more than ‘T* hours. The number of such unit storms required to produce a ‘S’ hydrograph can be put as equal to or greater than x Where ‘T’ in hours is base time of flood hydrograph due to a unit storm of 1 cm in ‘tr’ hours. 137 USING THE ‘S’ CURVE TECHNIQUE TO OBTAIN UNIT HYDROGRAPHS OF DIFFERENT DURATIONS, BASED ON THE UNIT HYDRO- GRAPH OF A GIVEN DURATION The technique is better illustrated by a worked out example as follows: 137.1 Problem The ordinates of a 3 hour unit hydrograph in cu.m/sec. are Biven below. Draw the ‘S’ curve and determine the ordinates of 6 hour unit hydrograph using the ‘S’ curve technique. ‘Table 1.17 Time in hours Ordinate of Unit | Time in hours Ordinate of unit ‘hydrograph in Ihydrograph cumsee ccum/sec o 0 15 94 3 1s 18 46 6 4s 2 23 9 86 24 08 2 120 Ed 0 Solution In the above problem the duration of the given unit storm ‘tr’ = 3 hour. The Base time of the unit hydrograph ‘T" = 27 hour. So, We requite atleast 9 to 10 unit storms of 3 hour duration to plot the ‘S” curve hydrograph, Please see the Table 1.17(a) for the computations. Column (1) indicates the time in hours since the commencement of the unit storm of duration (tr =3 hour). Column (2) shows the corresponding ordinates of the unit hhydrograph in cumecs (as per given data). Column (3) indicates the ordinates of the ‘S" curve hydrograph in cumecs. Since the time interval of column (1) is equal to the time duration of the given unit hydrograph, it is very convenient to obtain the or- dinats of the ‘S* hydrograph. ‘Table 1.17(a) Derivation of a6 hour unit hydrograph from a given 3 ‘hour unit hydrograph using the ‘S’ curve technique Time Shour 'S'Cuve Lagged“‘Stcuve hours (hour) —UG.O. ordinates “S'curve difference UG. (eames) (came) ordites (ames) (eames) (cumecs) catsx3 o ® o © o o. ° 0 ° = ° 0 3 1s is = 1s o7s 6 45 60 ° 60 30 ° 86 146 1s is 655 n 120266 60 206 «= 103 1s 94 60K 0 | 46 06 66140 70 | 2 3 RSF 86D 6dr AS | 24 os 3708 34 Lss n ° “7 29 08 os 30 AT OT ° 0 Tous 437 138 DETERMINATION OF ‘S’ CURVE ORDINATES FROM THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH The ordinates in Column (2) of the tabular statement indicate the commencement of the storm, the duration of which is 3 hours. ‘The second unit storm of 3 hour duration starts from 3 hours after the commencement of the first storm. Thus the ordinates get staggered or lagged by 3 hours. Similarly the third unit storm of 3 hour duration commences from 6 hours and so on, till all the 10 unit storms are over. Instead of a laborious process of tabulating the ordinates of cach storm, successively lagged by 3 hours and finally adding, to get the ordinates of the ‘S” hydrograph, it is enough to make the cummulative total of ordinates up to the time, and the or- dinates thus arrived at, are the ordinates of the ‘S” bydrograph.eS Water Resources Engineering 0 see or NT ORDO ees cun aCsNIE * dor oro renee ne 4 % aml aadocoa ovo 8 3B DISCHARGE CURVES ‘HOUR UNT eYORDGHAF SS HOYRUNT HYOROGRAPH ean ‘rm TA) INHOURS, Figure 115 ‘Changing the duration of unit hydrograph by ‘S’ curve technique Column (3) indicates the value of ordinates thus arrived at and those are the ordinates of the ‘S” hydrograph corresponding to the time in hours in column (1). ‘A graph is plotted with time in hours on the ‘X’ axis and ‘S* curve ordinates in cumecs on the *Y” axis. The resultant curve is in the shape of ‘S? attaining a maximum value 43.7 cumecs at the end of 27 houts and continues to be maximum beyond 27 hours. 1.38.1 Lagged ‘S’ Curve: Column (4) shows the ordinates of the lagged by ‘S’ curve ive the ordinates of a 6 hour (tr’) unit hydrograph, what bd doe is, draw another ‘S' curve hydrograph (same as already obtained above); by shifting it by 6 hours (tr) along the “X" axis. The graphical difference between the ordinates of the two ‘S” Curves that is the shaded area between the two ‘S’ curves, represents the run-off due to “tr” hours of rain at an intensity of 1/tr cm/hour. (Vide Fig. 1.15). Ordinates of 6 hour Unit hydrograph Column (5) indicates the difference of the values of ordinates between the two ‘S" curves, To obtain the value of the ordinate of the 6 hour (¢r’) Unit hydrograph, multiply the value obtained in column (5) i. (the difference in ordinates between the two ‘S’ curves) by grea Wee} | pydrolony ‘This value indicates the ordinate in cumecs of the 6 hour unit hh corresponding to the time of commencement of the orm shown in column (1). 138.2 Inference (1) The 3 hour unit hydrograph, vide Fig. 1.15 has a peak value of 12 cumecs, against a peak value of 10.7 cumecs in the 6 hour unit hydrograph. This is evident, as the density of rainfall is more in the 3 hour unit hydrograph than that in the case of a 6 hour unit hydrograph, since the same quantity of rainfall is spread over a longer time, ‘The base time of 3 hour unit hydrograph is 27 hour while that of the 6 hour Unit hydrograph is 30 hours and the 6 hours unit hydrograph is flatter. Q 1.383 In order to check, the validity of this technique draw the lagged ‘S" curve assuming ‘t”” as 3 hour, and multiply the dif- ference of ordinates by % = 3 1, we will get the same value of ordinates of the 3 hour unit hydrograph. This same technique can be used for changing the unit hydrograph to a smaller/petiod i.e. tr > tr’. From a Unit hydrograph of duration ‘a? hours, if we have values of ordinates at each hour, we can derive the unit hydrograph of 1 hour, 2 hour, 3 hour duration ‘using this technique. 1.38.4 In a hypothetical case, assume that we are given the or- dinates at 3 hour intervals for a unit hydrograph of 6 hours, and wwe are asked to obtain the ordinates of a 2 hour unit hydrograph, the following steps may be followed: (tr = 6, and w=2) (1) Plot the 6 hour unit hydrograph curve, showing the time along the ‘X” axis and the values of ordinates in cumecs along the *Y” axis. an (@) From the graph of the 6 hour unit hydrograph, obtain the values of ordinates a2, 4,6, 8, 10 hours along the *X axis tll the base time “7” of the hydrograph is reached. (3) From these values of ordinates, obtain the values of the ordinates of the ‘S’ curve hydrograph and plot the same starting from ‘zero’ hours, i.e. commence- ment of the storm. (4) By shifting along the “X° axis by 2 hour (#7), draw the ‘S” hydrograph again (lagged by 2 hour). (5) From the values of ordinates of the two ‘S' curve, hydrographs, obtain the difference in values of the ‘ordinates corresponding to the time from commen- cement of the storm, till, the end of the base line. (©) The value of the difference in ordinates thus ob- tained in step (4), is multiplied by © Si. 2, Dane ‘The hydrograph plotted with the values thus obtained will indi- cate the 2 hour unit hydrograph. Bibliography (1) Irgation Manual by Col. W.M. Elis (2) India’s Water Wealth by Dr. K.L. Rao, (G3) Central Board of Ivgation & Power Forty-Sixth Research session 16- 19 November 197—Trivandrum (Kerala) Proceedings — Vol. Il, Hydraulics. (4) Civil Engineering Division Journal of the Institution of Engineers (ndiay (5) Hydrology. Principles, Analysis and Design by H.M. Raghunath,CHAPTER 2 INUNDATION IRRIGATION 2.0 INTRODUCTION Tnundation means flooding and inundation irrigation means, ir- ‘igation by flooding and not by supplying water in a regulated ‘way from a source which provides dependable flows during the crop period. This sort of irrigation is resorted to only, when the Parent source gets water only during heavy rainfall as flash flood, or flows for a limited period, It will not have enough flow during the entire crop period. Generally hill streams with small catchments come under this category. During a storm, both the catchment ofthe stream and the ayacut under it will be simultaneously receiving rain ‘The flash flows in the stream, if not drawn and stored, will get wasted. So, methods will have to be devised to divert such Flows and store them in a series of tanks and use ths storage for the benefit of the crops during non-rainy period. 21 DESIGNING OF CHANNELS For designing a channel, we must have some of the hydrology of the stre available, then at least we mi basic knowledge am. If gauge discharges are not ust have a good knowledge of the number of days when the stream will have enough flows for diversion and storage. The next important information re. Guired is the number of rainy days in a year during the crop Period. The number of days the stream will have enough flow Will not be more than the number of rainy days. Assuming that every rainy day will not correspondingly give enough flow in the stream, a statistical correlation has to be arrived at, which Will indicate the quantum of rain each day corresponding to 4 flood or enough flow in the stream. This, is the main factor which dictates the design of inundation channels, ‘These chan. nels are also called Flood-flow channels. ‘We must design the width and depth of the channels 50 as to be able to divert flows from the streams to storing tanks. Tnun. dation channels, generally cannot supply water directly to the ayacut and it cannot have any direct ayacut under it, for the simple reason, that it cannot cater continuous assured supply of ‘water to the ayacut during the crop period. Ifthe stream has a dependable low flow continuously during the crop period, which can be diverted and utilised, then only the channel can have direct ayacut also. Now assuming that the inundation channel basicaly fills up s, capacity is known, then we have to a number of tanks, whose capacity is aga the channel, to go on filing up these tanks tothe extent possible during those periods when there is enough flow in the. stream. ‘Suppose the capacity of all such tanks is Q million cubic ‘meters, and we require about M (say) fillings of these tanks to sustain their ayacut, then the total quantity of water we have to divert is ‘MQ’ million cubic meters. The figure M should not bbe more than the number of days during which we assume enough water available for diversion. Assuming that Nis the number of days during which we can divert this flow, then the quantum of water, we can divert each day would be M2 minion cubic meters assuming 24 hours as the diversion day. Once we arrive at this, we can calculate the capacity of the channe! Mi NX24x 60X60 ‘The success or failure ofthis typeof irrigation depends upon the uniformity of flood flow in the stream. If the floods are such that diversion is feasible e very time, the tanks are getting depleted, then we can get the necessary fillings. Capacity of the channel = cum/sec. However, if the entire flood flow is concentrated over avery shor duration, then, the tanks under the channel will not get the necessary fillings and water will only spill over as surplus, All old minor irrigation Sources-from hill streams built during the Zamindari Period, come under this category. The ‘system consists of a rough stone barrier across the hill stream to ‘raise the stream flow for diversion. The flow thus raised at the barrier is diverted through an open head channel to feed the tanks. Provisions are made in the rough stone barrier ‘across the Stream by leaving gaps to let proportionate flow to the lower ayacut, if any. The problem with these open head channels, is that during heavy floods, the head of the channel sometimes gets choked up, blocking the flow. Periodical removal of this silt is neces- Fr re inundation channel systems are slowly being modemised, by constructing head sluices, to prevent excess flood entering the channel and thus prevent breaching of tanks and also prevent silt from entering and blocking the channel Necessary scour vents are provided upstream of the head sluice {o Prevent such excessive silting at the head. These measures have been successful.Inindation Irrigation ‘igure 2. gives the idea of such a system. Rough stone barriers across the hill streams get disturbed every year. Fresh stone is dumped and the section is remade during closure period. The interstices get filled up with silt and over a period, the barrier will be quite effective. As and when scours develop due to overflow of the stream over the barriers, dumping of fresh stone of good size helps. Over a period, the barriers become stable and function as good diversions. It is very easy to maintain these and are also quite cheap. The an- ‘nual maintenance cost of such a barrier will be comparatively negligible considering the interest rate over the capital cost, ‘@ pucca masonry anicut is built with upstream cut-off, down- stream cut-off, upstream and down-stream aprons designed to Khosla’s theory of “Design of weirs on permeable founda- ns."” ‘The Zamindari works on hill streams like the Thandava, the Varaha, the Sarada, et. in the North coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh, speak eloquently of themselves by irrigating vast tracts of land with rice crop. On some flashy non-perennial rivers, the flood flows are utilised by diversion from pucca anicuts also, River Pennar is one such river. It gets its main yield from North-east monsoon and during cyclones from the Bay of Bengal. However, by constructing pucca anicuts across it and diverting flood flows, alot of area is under successful irrigation. ‘One such big work is the Sangam anicut, from which a flood flow or inundation channel feeds a huge reservoir called Kanigiri reservoir irrigating thousands of hectares of land. 22 DESIGN OF A CHANNEL TO FEED AN IRRIGATION TANK FROM A CANAL SYSTEM In projects like Nagarjuna Sagar, while localising ayacut and designing the canal system, the irrigation tanks and their STREAM SECTION OF INUNDATION CHANNEL, SKETCH OF A DIVERSION SCHEME 34 ayacuts have been excluded on the plea that they get water from their own catchments and depend upon the yield. But experience has shown that it is not so. During dry spells, of weather, there is no water in the tank and its ayacut faces acute shortage of water while the surrounding localised ayacut fed from the canal system, thrives well. In such cases, the tanks have to be necessarily supplemented with canal water to save the crops. This is generally done by an outlet from the canal at a suitable place. The design of the outlet must be such that, itis possible to fill up the tank to F-T-L. in a reasonably short time and close it off. It will not be helpful, if the tank is supplemented from a canal by a feeder channel, whose capacity is based on the average duty of the ayacut under the tank. The feeder channel will be discharging this quantity of water into the tank. Since the discharge is based on the average duty of the ayacut, the quantity will be very small. A tank will have its sluices at various levels, called high level and low level sluices located at different places in the tank bund. The water that enters the tank may not be enough to raise the level to feed all sluices. To avoid this contingency, itis better the tank is filled in a short duration only and further supply closed. Tanks located inside the localised ayacut thus enjoy two sources. In case of a canal system which is designed only to irrigate crops in Kharif period and closed, the ayacut-dars bring pressure to fill up their tanks before the canal is closed. ‘They utilise the water for raising a second crop or a fodder crop while the localised ayacut is dry. To avoid this anomaly, it is always better to abandon all ir- rigation tanks within the localised ayacut and tag on their ayacut directly to the canal system. By abandoning the tanks, a lot of additional area in the abandoned tanks beds will be DUMPED STONE a THE BARRIER Figure 2.1ue available for irrigation under the canal system. Government ‘can also raise a lot of money by selling these lands, and credit- ing that amount towards the cost of project. 2.3 CAUSES FOR FAILURE AND REMEDIAL, MEASURES OF THE ROUGH STONE BARRIERS ‘These rough stone barriers get disbursed and damaged and sometimes also breach in the low flows over the barrier. In the initial low flows over the barrier. the water level upstream is raised and then the flow shoots down the barrier till the tail water builds up. During this time, there is no effective hydraulic jump near the structure and the shooting flow downstream scours the river bed. This results in the rough stones, downstream side to sink and slip into the scours, Ifthe stones are big enough, they sink into the scours and if they are small, they are washed away far down the river bed. In high flood, when the downstream and upstream water levels are same, more or less the barrier does not suffer any damage and is quite safe. These rough stone barriers, which are also termed as stone groynes, suffer damage and have to be restored every year. To minimise the disturbance. itis always advisable to use big sized Water Resources Engineering stones laid to a slope not steeper than the angle of repose of « loose rockfill (which is roughly | V2 : 1 horizontal to vertical, Itis also advisable to dump big sized stones in the front and rear sides of groyne, These stones will function as a falling apron ‘and fll up the scours upstream and downstreams ofthe groyne, Year by year, these are remade before the flood season so that in course of time, a sort of stability is established. The groyne stones are sometimes grouted with cement mortar. Since these groynes are formed on small hill streams, in times of flood, there wil be a lot of silt and mud in the flows. This debris will {ill up the voids in the stones and will form a compact mud masonry which cannot be easily washed away. However, there will always be some damage which will have to be repaired and the groyne restored to receive the next flood. The cost will not be heavy if the maintenance is carried out yearly. There are also many cases where these groynes are formed skew to the river axis, o act as attraction groynes, to keep the flow nearer the sluice side of the bank. There are no hard and fast rules in the specifications in constructing these groynes. Experience only tells us about their functioning and maintenance every year.(CHAPTER 3 MINOR IRRIGATION 3.0 INTRODUCTION For purposes of convenience and identification, irrigation projects are divided into three categories: 1. Major and Multipurpose, irrigating vast tracts of land 2. Medium Irrigation Projects 3. Minor Irrigation Projects ‘The demarcation between items one and two is purely based on financial outlays for the projects. While multipurpose projects could serve irrigation, navigation, flood control, etc., medium irrigation projects are purely for development of ir- tigation, and sometimes for drinking water supply also. Minor Irrigation consists of irrigation from: (a) Tanks (b) Lift Irigation (©) Diversion schemes on small streams. 3.1 IRRIGATION TANKS Inrigation tank is generally a small storage reservoir formed across a stream in a valley. Sometimes these tanks could be having independent catchments, drawing their supplies from the run off from the catchment areas. These tanks fully depend ‘upon the rainfall in their catchments. In addition, some tanks may have a supply channel from a neighbouring stream, which has a dependable flow. ‘An irrigation tank essentially consists of the following: (@) Anearthen bund across the valley creating a storage (b) A surplus weir to dispose off flood discharge (©) Sluices to feed the channels (@) Channels from the sluices to feed the ayacut. While investigating for formation of a new irrigation tank, the following information is required. 32. BASIS FOR FORMATION OF TANKS (a) Area of the catchment basin: The catchment area for the proposed tank has to be determined accurately. If the catch- ment is large, it could be traced from Government of India con- tour map. However, if the area is small, the watershed has to be traced by a compass and the area is:to be determined by Tuning a closed traverse. (b) Nature of the catchment: Next step is to examine the nature of the catchment, whether it is good, average or bad for pur- poses of computing run off. Generally catchments with vegeta- tion give good yield, Those with porous soils give poor yield. Next, we have to examine, whether the catchment of the proposed tank is entirely free, or whether there are already some tanks with their ayacuts. If so, their storage capacities and the ayacuts they irrigate have to be gathered and noted. If the stream under question has any other irrigation below the proposed tank, those details also are necessary, as we can- not intercept all the yield to the detriment of the lower down tank which is already functioning. 3.3 HYDROLOGY Examine whether there are any rain gauge stations in the catch- ment area. If there is no rain gauge within the catchment area, the rainfall details of the nearest rain gauge station have to be collected. Iffor the stream any gauge discharge data at any point in its course is available, it will be of immense value in evaluating the basin characteristic equation connecting rainfall and run off. From the rainfall data available, compute the dependable rainfall of the station. This will be the mean rainfall of the catchment area. Ifthe catchment has more than one rain gauge, then the mean annual rainfall is calculated by any one of the standard procedures already explained. If we have the basin equation, we can straightaway apply the formula and get the yield at the point of the stream in question. Otherwise, we can use Strange’s tables. Alternatively, using the daily rainfall data for the dependable yield, we can calculate the daily yield following Strange’ tables. ‘Once the gross yield is obtained, deductions are to be made for the upper abstractions, ., yield utilised by the upper tanks, and the yield to be let down for the lower down tanks already functioning. ‘After all these deductions, we get the net available yield at the site in question, i., where the new tank is proposed. 34 STORAGE CAPACITY OF THE TANK If the tank has more than one irrigation sluice, then the useful storage capacity, i... the live capacity of the tank, is the volume6 of water it can hold between the Full Tank Level and the lowest sluice level. If the tank has any more storage capacity below the lowest cill ofthe sluice, the water stored below that level is not useful. ‘That is known as dead capacity. This dead capacity is useful in trapping silt during the years of operation. Once this dead capacity of the tank is filled up with silt completely, further silting of tank will encroach on the useful storage of the tank. So, it is always better to leave sufficient dead storage while proposing new tanks. This dead storage also serves in raising the water table below the tank. It is also useful as a drinking water source for cattle. ‘Thus the capacity of a tank to irrigate a proposed area under it fixes the F.T.L,, ic., Full Tank Level, which is also the top of the surplus weir ofthe tank. Having fixed the alignment of the tank bund, foreshore con- tour survey has to be done, and contours at 1/2 meter intervals are to be plotted. Next, the areas between successive contours are determined, From these areas, and contour interval, the capacity of the tank at various contours is determined. If for any reason, contour survey as suggested above is not possible, at least the F.T.L. contour may be surveyed and the ‘area of water spread at F.T.L. contour determined. If the area of water-spread at F.T.L. contour is A and the difference in level between the lowest sluice cill and the F.T.L. is h, then the capacity is computed by the cone formula V AMDB. 3.5 NUMBER OF FILLINGS It will be uneconomical to design a tank to hold all the available yield. Instead, a capacity such that with 2 or 3 fillings in a year, the entire yield can be stored, is chosen, ic. the live storage 5 Yield (Cetween FEL, and ell of sluice) = Sot fling There is no hard and fast rule to determine and fix the num- ber of fillings. The practice varies at different places of varying rainfall. One practice is to take one filling during South-West monsoon and another during the North-East monsoon. Some practices follow a different procedure. The number of fillings are arbitrarily assumed with reference to the annual rainfall Another method is by actual observation of the functioning of the neighbouring tanks. If the capacity of the existing tank and its ayacut are known, then the number of fillings can be deter- mined, by knowing the type of crop grown. The quantity of water used by the crop can be roughly assessed. This gives the quantum of water used. Knowing this quantity and the capacity of the tank, the number of fillings Total quantity of water used Capacity of the tank But all these methods are rather approximate and may not be realisable in practice. Water Resources Engineering 3.6 NUMBER OF RAINY DAYS From the annual Rainfall Records and the daily rainfall read. ings, we can gather the approximate number of rainy days in a year. (a) If we assume that the tank is dry and gets filled on each rainy day, then the theoretical number of fillings will be equal to the number of rainy days. For small kuntas (tanks), we realise a large number of fillings (limited to the number of rainy days) as the capacity of the tank is small compared to the run off or yield from its catchment. (b) Suppose the capacity of the tank is such that it gets filled up in aday of rainfall, say 5 or 6 cms, and these days are sufficient. ly distant apart, then from the daily rainfall records, find out the number of days on which we have rainfall in excess of 5 or 6 ems. The number of such days will give us the number of fill- ings. (©) Ifthe entire yearly rainfall is concentrated in a short dura- tion, then we may not get many fillings, because, once the tank gets filled up, the excess yield that enters the tank gets wasted over the surplus weir. (@) The most scientific and accurate way of determining the capacity of the tank, fixing the F-T-L. of the tank and number of fillings achieved in the process, is by preparing a working table for this and the procedure is described below. 3.7 WORKING TABLE, For preparing a working table, we must know the following details 1. A graph indicating the level and useful capacity from the lowest cill of the tank up to Full Tank Level. This is known as “‘area capacity curve”. 2. From the statistics of a dependable year, calculate the daily run off (yield) from the daily rainfall read- ings and prepare a fortnightly inflow statement. 3. Obtain from the nearest meteorological station, the Values of evaporation during those fortnights. The value from a pan evaporimeter is likely to be large compared to that from a free water surface. So itis ‘suggested that a fraction of this value is taken into the working tables. The value of the factor may be of the order of 0.7. 4. Having fixed the ayacut, and the nature of crop to be raised, obtain from the Agriculture Department, the fortnightly requirements for the crop (excluding the rainfall). From these, the following working table is prepared. AS- ‘suming that the monsoon starts from June 1, and the crop period is over by November 30 (6 months or 12 fortnights), the follow- ing table can be prepared:Minor Irrigation n” ayacut and repeat the working table till we get a satisfactory ‘Sum total of figures in column 5 from all fortnights gives us the total run off or yield from the catchment. If any quantity of yield is surplussed out, that quantity has to be deducted. Similarly, the sum of figures in columns 7 and 8 for all the fortnights shows the drawals from the tank (water actually 5 sives us the mumber of filings for ‘This is the method followed in large reservoirs also. Using of any other method is not justifiable and will be arbitrary. ine. | Forme | Suring | Staprcorepon | Ronighly level ‘ding to level in inflows: solution. cole) i 2 3 ‘ 5 [taper | hms Nov. 13 0 used). Nov.3d | Lcol,7+Ecol. 8 Tels | Res | opto | Nera [Omiglnc! Live capaiy of ni coven |! yieiis | om | etthoender a (4)+(5) | (crop require- fortnight the taak neat ve ni 7 ni 2 0 Column 2 shows the various fortnightly intervals, i, from Ist to 15th June upto 15th to 30th November (12 intervals). Column 3 assumes that the tank is at the lowest sluice cill level or even less. Column 4 indicates the corresponding storage at the cor- responding level in column 3. Column 5 shows the inflows during the various fortnights. Column 6 gives total of column 4 and column 5. It gives the theoretical storage at the end of the fortnight. Column 7 shows the withdrawals from the tank during the various fortnights. Column 8 shows the total evaporation loss during the fortnight. The meteorological station indicates the daily loss in millimeters. We know the area of the water spread at various levels and from this the volume of water lost due to evaporation ccan be computed and noted in column. (Water spread may be taken at the starting level or closing level or average during the fortnight). A graph showing the water spread area at various levels is necessary for this. Column 9 shows the storage in the tank at the end of the fortnight. This is obtained by adding up the quantities in columns 7 and 8, and deducting from column 6. Column 10 gives the level corresponding to the storage in column 9 from the area capacity curve. This closing level, forms the starting point level for the next fortnight. This process is continued. If during the crop period, the value in column 9 reaches more than the F.T-L. capacity, then the excess quantity of inflow will spill over and the tank Will remain at F-T.L. only. If we get a level higher than the starting level at the end of the working table, then the working table satisfies the ayacut ‘and indicates a carryover. If not, then the working table is a failure. We have to make adjustments in the extents of the 38 MINOR IRRIGATION, NEGATIVE ASPECTS (a) Absence of a rain gauge in the catchment and using the details of a neighbouring rain gauge. The nearest ‘gauge may be near or far. This is one major defect. Due to this, the basic data itself becomes highly un- certain, (b) Assuming arbitrarily the number of fillings and fixing ayacut without preparing a proper working table. (©) Incase of a diversion scheme, we assume a percent- age of the available yield as divertable. This is again uncertain and arbitrary and may not be realised in practice. ‘These are the most important basic fundamentals on which the functioning of a Minor Irrigation Scheme depends. ‘Thus minor irrigation tanks, and diversion schemes formed with the above assumptions, can at best be called percentage schemes. Some may function and some may fail depending upon the realisation of our assumptions. ‘There have been some tanks formed on these lines and they have never irrigated any area. ‘Thus we should be happy if we can achieve a fair amount of success, if not 100 per cent. 3.9 EARTHEN BUNDS ‘The main barrier across the valley and stream bed, to store water in the tank is usually an earthen bund. For small tanks, the height of bund may be of the order of 3 to 5 meters, while on bigger streams, the height may go upto 10 meters. For big tanks which are also called reservoirs, the height of the earthen bund in the deep ‘course may go up to even 10 to 15 meters. In such cases the ear- then bund is called “Earth Dam’ and special care has to be taken in forming it. Section of the Earthen Bund: There is generally no problem in forming earthen bunds upto 5 meters. It is always advisable and economical to use the available earth from the tank fore- shore. Generally soils are of three types: 1. Sandy soils2. Gritty, gravelly and loamy soils 3, Plastic and heavy clays, It is advisable not to use sandy soils as they are pervious. ‘The foundation for the earthen bund should be stripped and all loose and sandy layers must be removed. Generally an earthen bund will fail for the following reasons: 1. Percolation (both through the bund and under the foundations) 2. Slipping of side slopes 3. Overflow or toppling of the bund 4, Erosion by waves. Percolation: When the tank is full, water will seep through the bank forming a saturation gradient. This gradient willbe flatter in porous soils and steeper in impervious soils. Ifthe bank sec tion is not enough to keep the saturation gradient within the bank with sufficient overburden of soil, then the water that seeps through the bank upto the saturation gradient will cut the outer slope of bank and slowly start eroding the bank in rear by removing the soil. This will slowly work upstream causing failure of bank. ‘The other failure is due to seepage under the bank due to porous nature of the foundation material. The per- colating water through these porous tunnels under the bank will appear at the rear slope and slowly start removing soil particles coming in its path, thus forming ‘Pipes’. This can also happen if the bank has not got sufficient width at foundation. In this case, the creeping water that appears at the rear toe of the bank has a velocity which is more than what the soil particles can sustain, This will cause removal of particles from its path and forms clear tunnels through the bank. This will slowly work upstream causing failure. This is known as failure due to piping. So, to avoid such failures, a bank is generally formed on an impervious base with enough width to accommodate the saturation gradient. Two typical sections illustrating the above principles are shown in Figure 3.1 So FREE-BoaRo, mw & up STREAM RIP RAP CUT-OFF TRENeN Fi, WITH INPERVIOUS Sone? Water Resources Engineering ‘The saturation gradient is generally assumed to have a slope varying from 1 in4 to 1 in 6. It starts from the upstream face where the Maximum Water Level (M.W.L) intersects the upstream slope, as shown in the figure. Generally, this gradient will not cut the rear slope in bunds of small heights, However, in cases of high bunds, the rear slope is made parallel to the saturation gradient, from a point where the cover is about a meter between the rear slope and saturation gradient. Alternatively, berms are formed in rear as shown in the figure so as to give a minimum cover of one meter over the Saturation or Hydraulic Gradient. ‘To minimise any possible erosion in the rear due to piping, a rock toe is laid on an inverted filter. A rough stone toe drain is also provided in high tank bunds, as shown in the sketch. Criteria for forming inverted filters is as follows: Filter Criteria (i) Filter material should be fine and poorly graded so that the voids in the filter are small and thus prevent the base materials from entering. (Gi) ‘The filter material should be coarse enough and per- vious in relation to base material. This aspect facilitates rapid removal of seeping water without building up any seepage force within the filter. ii) The filter material should be coarser than the per- forations or openings in the drain pipes so that the filter material is not lost in the drains. ‘The openings or perforations in the pipe drain should be adequate to admit all the seeping water safely. (iv) ‘The thickness of the filter material should be suffi- cient enough to provide a good distribution of all particle sizes, throughout the filter. The thickness, also should be adequate to provide safety against piping. According to Dr. Terzaghi, the filter material should fulfil the following criteria: Figure 3.1SECTION OF ATYPICAL DIS 7-3 MM 015-08 MM DIS -0-09MM INVERTED FILTER Figure32 Dis of filter ‘Das of base material ‘This prevents the foundation material from going through the pores of filter material. <45< Di of base material This keeps seepage forces within the filter to permissible limits For usual conditions, there is no better drain than a generous rock toe about 25 to 35 per cent of the height of earth dam with proper inverted filters to prevent impregnation of fine materials (Figure 3.2). Partial cut off: A partial cut off is one which extends down from the impervious section of the dam to the underlying strata, ‘but does not reach the impervious stratum. In many cases, it ‘would be impractical and extremely expensive to continue the cut off to impervious stratum and so, the use of a partial cut off is considered necessary. Owing to the fact that the horizontal per- meability may be of the order of 10 to 50 times the vertical, the effect ofa partial cut off in reducing seepage may be much greater. RIP RAP LAID OF INVERTED FILTERS 3 ZF Rock ‘Therefore, in small earthen dams, a cut off trench is ex- cavated to half the depth of storage and is back filled and con- solidated with impervious soil, i.e., same soil used for the hearting zone. Upstream Blanket: Instead of using a cut off, under a dam, on pervious foundations, an impervious upstream blanket may sometimes be advisedly used. ‘The purpose of such a blanket is to increase the length of path of percolation from seepage under the dam and thus decrease the velocity and quantity of seepage. In comparing the efficiency of the blanket, with a partial cut off, consideration must always be given to the fact that the horizontal permeability is usually much greater than vertical permeability. Some times, a combination of both upstream impervious blanket and partial cut off are used judiciously to advantage. ‘The efficiency of the up-stream blanket depends upon its imperviousness, as long as it does not get exposed to dry and wet conditions. If the soil used for the blanket cracks up due to shrinkage when exposed to dry conditions, it loses its effective- ness. ‘The blanket should have enough thickness and con- INRGKEYED TO Invi ROCK, FILTERS? Long-t0E DRAIN TYPICAL SECTION OF EARTH DAM Figure 3.3,solidated by power rollers at optimum moisture conditions, just like we do for the hearting zone and filling ofthe partial cutoff. ‘The section of a typical earth dam is shown in Figure 3.3. ‘The following are the salient details: (8) Top width: This must be enough to carry a road way with ‘enough carriage way to accommodate earth moving machinery to go over it in times of an emergency. (b) Upstream Stope: This slope depends upon the height of the dam and decided by the stability analysis, with soils obtaining atssite. Generally, it will be flatter than 2 V2 : 1 (horizontal to vertical). Rip-Rap over inverted filters (satisfying the filter criteria) is Jaid om this slope right upto T.B.L. ‘The thickness will increase from about 60 cms at top to say 90 cms at bottom, and will rest on a toe wall, either in masonry, or in rough stone. Vertical stone breakers are also inserted in the rip-rap to ef- fectively break the waves in times of squally weather. Bank Section: The main bank section may be a homogeneous section or a zonal section with casing and hearting zones, depending upon the soils available at site. The section of the earth dam will be large in case it has to be a homogeneous sec- tion. The top of the hearting zone will be taken upto maximum water level. Incase a zonal section is used, the central hearting zone will be formed with comparatively impervious soils, while the casing zones on both sides of the hearting zone with compara~ tively less impervious soils, so that, any seepage that enters, will get drained out easily. Cut off: This is the most important and difficult item to execute in an earthen dam. In order to ensure that the dam does not fail, due to percolation under the dam, an impervious cut off, com. pletely preventing seepage from upstream of the dam reaching the toe of the dam along the foundations, is an absolute neces- sity. The latest technique is to form R.C.C. Diaphragm Wall, with its bottom well-keyed into bed rock and top well-keyed into the hearting zone. In high dams, sometimes two diaphragm walls are used, and the intervening space between the cut offs is made impervious by injecting chemicals to seal off the interstices in the soils to make it leak proof. The only danger in this cut off is that it will be effective only if there are no windows in it. Tests will have to be done to ensure this before forming the main bank section. Sand Chimney, Longitudinal and Cross Drains and Rock Toe: The sand chimney formed hugging the hearting zone in rear, helps in trapping any seepage through the hearting and the phreatic line drops down into this layer. Any seepage thus col- lected will be lead into the longitudinal sand drain atthe bottom of the chimney and this is lead away by means of cross drains ‘aeross the bank section formed at suitable intervals. Finally, the toe of the dam will be protected by means of a rock toe laid on inverted filters and toe drain formed along the entire length of the dam. Rear Slope: The rear slope of the dam will be fatter than the upstream side slope and willbe protected from surface-gully. ing by turfing ‘The water that collects on top of the dam, will be lead down the rear slope by means of chute drains, constructed at inter- vals, along the length of the dam. 3.9.1. Slipping of Side Slopes and Sudden Draw-down Conditions Occasionally, it may happen that due to a defect in sluices or otherwise, the water level in the tank may suddenly come down from M.W.L. or F-T.L. to a very low level almost making the tank empty. In such cases, the front slopes of bank may slip down due to the hydraulic thrust exerted by the entrapped water in the saturated zone. In order to prevent this from happening, the front slope is protected with rip rap of sufficient thickness laid over an inverted filter. This will prevent slipping of bank by releasing the water alone without disturbing the soil par- ticles, The inverted filters must satisfy the filter criteria be- tween layers. In small tanks, rough stone revetment laid over gravel back- ing will suffice. 3.92 Stability of Side Slopes Inhigh dams, the stability of the side slopes is checked by ‘Slip Circle Method Analysis". For this analysis, we require the following parameters of the soil with which the embankment is formed. C= Cohesion, 8, angle of internal friction and T, the shear value. A slip will occur, when the shear along the plane of rupture is not enough to withstand the super-incumbant load. If the failure occurs along the arc of a circle, then ~ Ntan@ + © Avent, Fs where Fs is the factor of safety against shear are of the circle under investigation Tis the force tending to produce movement along the circum- ference of the arc (which is the total shear strength of the material along the arc under investigation) ‘Nis the sum of all normal forces, ie., weight of all slices above the are under investigation Bis the angle of internal friction of the material, as determined by the tests Ls the length of arc and C is the cohesion. Ifa satisfactory factor of safety is shown, it means merely that shear failure need not be expected along the assumed Circle, but it may occur elsewhere along some other circle un- less the one under investigation is already known to be the most dangerous. So, we have to draw a number or circles along which we expect a probable failure and analyse each one of them. ire along the‘Minor Irrigation Manual approach to slip circle analysis is tedious and time con- suming. Computer may be used to advantage in this analysis. The upstream slope is always analysed for sudden draw- down conditions. We have to make sure that the shell material is free draining. If itis free draining, as fast as the pond goes down, then the tesisting and driving forces within the draw-down range are calculated for the dry or moist weight of material. If not, the resisting forces are calculated for the submerged. ‘weight of material below water surface and dry weight above water surface, but the driving forces are calculated in the saturated weight of the shell material below the water surface and dry weight above water surface. All materials below the draw-down level are submerged and all resisting and driving forces below draw-down level are cal- culated on the basis of submerged weight of the materials. 3.9.3. Consolidation of Banks While forming these earthen bunds, enough care has to be taken in consolidating the layers of earth, so that the bank does not shrink in rainy season and allow water to percolate through. It is desirable that all banks are consolidated at optimum. moisture content with power rollers to get at least 98 per cent Proctor’s density. Moisture content more than the optimum, will mean low shear value and less than the optimum will i crease pore-pressure, ‘A weak zone in a tank bund is enough to endanger the entire bund, even if it were formed well enough. 3.9.4 Top Width and Free Board of Banks ‘The height of the bank between M.W.L. and top of the bank is called the free board. This depends upon the size of the tank, Ifthe tank is a big one, due to greater fetch the height of waves will be more than that in a small tank. Col, Ellis recommends the following dimensions for free board and top width of bank depending upon the maximum height of the bank: Depth of Deep bed Free Board ‘Top width of bank below FTL, above M.W.L. 2103 Meters 1 Meter 5 Meters 3105 Meters 1.25 Meters LIS Meters 5107 Meters 1.75 Meters 2.0 Meters Over 7 Meters 2,00 Meters 3.0 Meters ‘There is no harm in having an extra height of free board and extra top width of the bank. Generally, in small tanks, where 1 meter top width is provided, due to erosion in rainy season, it may tend to become ‘almost a point or knife edge only. It will not even afford enough space for cycling. In order to have at least a good ycleable path in all seasons, for inspection, a top width of less ‘than 2 meters is not desirable. a 39.5 Failure by Slipping or Sliding If the soil with which the bank is formed does not possess the necessary shear strength to withstand the superimposed height of the earth, then the bank will fail by sliding. ‘This failure may occur at foundation level if the foundations are of poor nature. The slip may occur on the slopes, if the bank is formed with slopes steeper than at which they can be retained by the combined friction and cohesion between particles com- posing it. While forming banks higher than 10 meters, it is necessary to test the soils for their various parameters and test the founda- tions also for bearing capacity, etc. ‘The proposed bank section will have to be checked for stability by the slip circle method and the safest section only adopted 3.9.6 Failure by Over-topping This generally happens if insufficient free board is provided. In high gales, the waves will generally be high and if enough free board is not provided, the waves, while riding the slope may clear the top. The height of wave depends upon the water spread before the bund (also called “fetch’) and the velocity of wind. There are various formulae in vogue for determining the wave height. The formula that is most commonly used is as follows. 3.9.7 Moliter Stevenson’s Formula for Wave Height If V is the velocity of wind in km/hr, and F is the fetch in kilometers, then the height of wave is given by nw = 0.032 WWF +0.763-0.271 YF and, when F> 32 km, hy = 0.032 VWF hws the height of wave, ie, from the trough tothe crest and 2/3 hw is the height of crest of the wave above the still water level. Free board should be at least 1.5 times the wave height hw ‘The wave as it approaches the bank, has a tendency to smoothly ride up along the slope. If the slope is a flat one the height to which the wave can ride along the slope up will be ‘greater than ifthe slope is steep. It will destroy itself by strik- ing against the slope. If the free board is not enough, a breach may occur. To prevent this from happening, while providing sufficient free board, wave breakers, which are generally vertical stones fixed inthe rip-rap on the upstream slope in a zig-zag pattern, are also provided. This will help in breaking the waves as they come riding along the slope. The other reason could be that in a storm, when there is a large inflow into the tank, the water level rises quickly and if the surplussing capacity is not enough, the water level may rise above M.W.L. and may even top over the bank. Once this hap- pens, earthen bank will not remain unharmed and it will breach.a So, providing enough surplussing tance, and the safety of the tank, p 3.98. Breaching Section Capacity is of utmost impor- rimarily depends upon this. is not possible to construct the surplus weir to to dispose off the floods due to all possible vents, In such a case, a portion ofthe tank bund, preferably on ‘one flank, where the height of bank is les, is constructed with lower standards, ie. with lower free board, and top width, ‘When the water level above the M.W-L. of tank rises alarming, ly due to unexpected high floods, this ‘et overtopped early before the rest of the bund, and the tank will breach here, keeping the rest ofthe bank, and surplus weir intact. Once the breach occurs here, the water level will imme- lately fall and the rest of the bund will be safe. Otherwise, breach may occur any where in the length where it is weak or atthe surplus weir by outflanking it, It will be very costly to fill up breach and repair the surplus weir in such acase. It will be Considerably cheaper to restore the bank at the breaching sec- tion. The entire tank will not get depleted even if the breach ‘occurs in the tank bund at this breaching section, Breaching of tanks: Breaching of tanks in @ cyclone or a heavy storm isa common occurrence. In some catchments, there may be a large number of tanks constructed on the various tributaries of the same stream, These, thus form a chain of tanks, the surplus of which joins the same stream. The surplus Of the upper tank will feed the tank lower down and so on, tll it falls into a major river or sea. In such cases, if during a cyclone, the uppermost tank breaches, its entire capacity will suddenly enter the tank imme- diately below it. If this tank is not big enough to absorb this sudden inflow, this tank will also breach. Once this happens, it sparks off a chain of destruction. The combined discharge of these two breached tanks will enter another lower down tank, breaching that also, In the end, it can happen that the entire cchain of tanks in the catchment may breach. So, itis always very important to keep all tanks in proper state of repair to see that such an event does not occur even in small storms. Another practice is to provide more flood ab- sorbing and surplussing capacity for every Sth tank or 50, to Prevent such a catastrophe. Railway effecting tanks: Tanks forming « chain, whose ul- timate surplus passes under a railway line, are known as Rail- way Effecting Tanks. Generally, in constructing the surplus of a tank which has a part of its catchment free, and the rest inter- upper tanks, itis customary to make some allowance eactoddicers absorbed by the upper tanks. But in case of railway effecting tanks, itis better that no such allowance is made. Nothing can prevent the railway line getting effected, if intire chain of tanks breach. However, the railways have poe ‘own standards for fixing the vent way of the culvert, to prevent such happenings. Water Resources Engineering 3.9.9 Flood Absorbing Capacity ‘The capacity of the tank between M.W.L. and F.T.L. is known as the flood absorbing capacity. When a continuous flood enters a tank, it takes some time to fill up the tank to reach 'M.W.L. before the surplus weir reaches its maximum flood dis. charging capacity. In large tanks and big reservoirs, this capacity acts like a cushion in absorbing high floods to cut off the peak discharge. A detailed study of this flood absorbing capacity and its ef- fecton the design ofthe surplus is made under chapter, Surplus Weir. Silting of tanks: During rainy season, the run off that enters the tanks, contains both rolled and suspended silt. Ifthe catchment hhas got sufficient vegetal cover, the silt carried by run off will be less as compared to that from a catchment which is badly cut up and devoid of any vegetal cover. ‘This silt will enter the tank and deposit in the tank bed, fill- ing up slowly the dead capacity. Once this dead capacity is ‘completely filled up, further silting will encroach into the live capacity of the tank, thus reducing its capacity to irrigate, Where it is possible, tanks are remodelled by raising the standards, ic, by raising their F-T-L. Sometimes the M.W.L. and F-T.L. can be made same by fixing crest stones over the surplus, into which planks can be inserted te 0 store water up to MWL, Removal of tank bed silt is not an economical proposition. Permission should be given to remove tank-bed silt to those who wish to transport and deposit it in their fields for improv ing fertility. Manufacture of bricks in the tank bed in the dry season can be encouraged. However, care should be taken to ‘ee that such pits are not allowed to be dug to levels below the cil of the lowest sluice. Small kuntas (or ponds) which do not have any surplussing arrangements, will not have siting problem, as the bed silt gets washed away when it breaches. A lot of bed silt gets eroded \When a major tank also breaches. Thus a breach may cause @ fraction of a benefit by way of removing deposited bed-silt. ‘Surplussing Arrangements: These arrangements are most necessary for keeping the tank safe during a flood. Generally, these surplussing arrangements are located on either of the flanks, to reduce the cost. Ideal place to construct the surplus weir will be in the deep bed where the stream passes. But this means, a high structure at a great cost. So, to economise, the surplus is located on the flank where the ground leve! is high (near F.T.L.) and hard foundations, are easily obtainable. Various types of surplus weirs and their detailed designs have been given under the chapters surplus weir, core wal type of weit ‘and flush escape. Depending upon the size of the tank and the topographical features, any one is chosen, Sluices: These are structures constructed in the tank bunds for , Figure 47 y ae In case where the head of percolation is great, in order to The total length of solid apron from the body ivall as reduce the length of aprons on the downstream side of the weir, provided in the drawing is 8 meters and this will be enough. itis necessary to provide upstream side solid apron. This apron These can be reduced ifthe u ‘ luced ifthe upstream side puddle clay apron gf notsubject to any uplifts and hence can be of nominal thick- jg eally impervious. To ensure safety, the whole upstream side ness. However, this acts in considerably reducing the creep Jength and consequently reduces the lengths and thicknesses of aprons, downstream of the weir. | 42.14 Downstream Aprons ‘Since the ground level is falling down to +10.00 in a distance of about 6 meters, it is desirable to provide a stepped apron as shown in Figure 4.7. The stepping may be in two stages. The aprons may be designed for a hydraulic gradient of 1 in 5 so that the residual gradient at the exit of aprons can be limited to 1 in 5 which is safe enough and will nt start under- ‘mining the structure. Maximum uplift pressures are experienced on the downstream aprons when the water level inthe tank is upto Top | of dam stone level, i.e. to +12.75 with no water on the |) downstream side However, assume that the downstream water elevation is at | 410.00, ie. the level ofthe lowest solid apron. Total uplift head acting = 12.75 ~ 10.00 = 2.75 meters. If the residual uplift gradient is o be limited to 1/5, then we § require aprons to accommodate a total creep length of 2.75%5 = 13.75 meters. The upstream water has to percolate under the foundations of the weir, if it has to establish any uplifts under the aprons. The possible path of percolation is shown in the above sketch, Assuming the puddle apron formed on the |, upstream of the weir to be not impervious, the water will start i percolating from A at a level of +11.00 and reach B and C. | Then it will follow CD under the foundation concrete. From here, it will follow the least path from D to E under the end cut-off and then appear at F, ie. the lower solid apron. So the total length of percolation: AB + BC + CD +DE+EF = 1.40 + 0.60 +3.00+DE+ 1.00 (assume) =DE+6.00 This length must not be less than 13.75 meters, ifthe struc- ture is to be safe. DE +6.00= 13.75 DE = 13.75 - 6.00 = 7.75 meters. i. | ts apron can be packed with stone and well grouted with cement concrete. At the end of the second apron retaining wall of the downstream side apron, a nominal 3 to 5 meter length of Talus with a thickness of 50 cms. may be provided as a safety device. 4.218 Thickness of Solid Aprons ‘The maximum uplift on the apron floor is felt immediately above point D in the sketch. ‘Assuming a thickness of 80 cms of apron the bottom level of, apron is 10.20 creep length from D to the bottom of apron is 1.20 meters. ‘Total creep length from point A on the upstream side up to the point above D under the solid apron is 1.40 + 0.60 + 3.00-+ 1.20= 6.20 .® Head lost in percolation along the path up to the point Residual head exerting uplift under the apron =2.75~12.4= 1.51 meters, ‘Since the bottom of apron is above the assumed tail water elevation, the weight of concrete fully takes care of the uplift, as there is no loss of weight in concrete due to buoyancy. Each meter depth of concrete can withstand a head of 2.25 meters by the self weight of apron alone. Allowing an extra 20 per cent thickness to withstand any variations, the thickness of apron required is 225*5 So, provide the fist solid apron as 80cms thick. The second apron can be similarly checked and a thickness of 50 cms. will be quite sufficient. Detailed bank connections, revetments on the flanks are shown in detail in Plate I in Appendix. soe 43. THE EFFECT OF FLOOD ABSORPTION CAPACITY ON THE DESIGN OF WASTE WEIRS Every reservoir or tank has some storage capacity between the crest level of the surplus weir (full tank level or F-T-L.) and the ‘maximum flood level (MLF.L. ot M.W.L.). The extent of this =0.805 meters or say 80 cms32 storage depends on the area of water spread between these two levels and also the difference between M.F.L. and F.T.L- This storage is also known as the flood absorbing capacity. ‘The greater this storage the greater i its influence in moderating the maximum flood entering the reservoir and to that extent we can economise on the length of the waste wet. Whenever there is an inflow into the reservoir, the entire inflow does not straight away find its way out over the waste weir. ‘The inflow enters the reservoir, and starts filling up the storage between F.T-L. and M.PL. During this process the ‘water level in the reservoir rises. Ifthe water level is initially at the F-T.L. when the water level rises due to the absorption of the inflow, the waste weir starts functioning. If the inflow is sufficiently large over a period of time then this water level will ‘continue t0 rise till such time, when the instantaneous inflow ‘and the corresponding outflow over the waste weir are both same, After such a condition is attained the water level will not rise further, since the inflow and outflow are equal. After the water level reaches the maximum, even if the inflow into the reservoir stops suddenly, the waste weir will continue to func- tion ata diminishing rate, tll the water level reaches the F.T.L. when the discharge over the waste weir becomes nil. A simple case is taken in which itis assumed that the maxi- ‘mum discharge from the catchment enters the reservoir all of a sudden when the water level in the reservoir is just at the crest level or F-T.L. of the waste weir. Ifthe maximum flood discharge is Q cum/second and there is no flood absorption in the reservoir, then the required length of the waste weir is calculated based on the following equation as the entire discharge will have to find its way out over the waste weir = KLHY @ Kal caig Cais the coefficient of discharge over the weir (broad or sharp crested depending upon the type of weir crest adopted) Lis the Jength of the waste weir. His the depth of flow over the waste weir and Q is the maximum flood discharge. In the above equation, there are two variables, L and H, one is left to our choice and the other is computed by substituting the value of the first from equiation (i) + where, 4.3.1 Determination of Time Taken to Reach the Maximum Flood Level When a Continuous Discharge Enters ‘Assume the water level at F-T-L. Ifa sudden flood discharge of cubic meters/second enters the reservoir, in the first instance, the water level which is assumed originally at crest level of the ‘starts rising, as a result of which the waste weir any time f after the flood started Jharge over the waste weir as q. waste weir, starts surplussing. Assume at centering the reservoir, the Water Resources Engineering ‘The net inflow into the reservoir will be (Q ~q). As the water level further rises, (Q ~ q) decreases as q increases, In ‘other words, as the water level rises over the weir crest the rate of rising diminishes. This will be more Pronounced ifthe area ‘of water spread in the reservoir increases from F-T.L. to MMWL. ‘Ata time f let the height of water above the waste weir be “cand ina short interval of time df, let the increase in water level in the reservoir be dx. ‘Then in time dt the volume of water added into the reservoir is Ax dx, if A isthe area of water spread at a height x over the crest of the waste weit. This is equal to the net inflow into the reservoir in time dt. Volume of water added into the tank = Net rate of inflow into the reservoir multiplied by dt, oF Adx=(Q~q)dt But, = Kix*. ‘Adx = (Q - KLx”) dt, (if L is the length of the waste weir) Ads Therefor, dt = Tg) po epte mentee, fa=] Alo ‘The solution can be put as = fix). ‘A can be expressed as a constant by taking it as the average | area of water spread. The equation obtained from the above” integral function is not easy to adopt. However, it can thus be seen from the above equation that it is possible to calculate the height to which the water level rises in a required time provided wwe know the length of the weir and the maximum flood dis- charge continuously entering the tank. Generally, the F-T.L. and M.W.L. are fixed. If we know correctly the storm period and the maximum flood discharge entering the tank we can compute the value of L taking into consideration the effect of flood absorption. 43.2. IfT isthe time required for the water level to rise from crest level to the designed height and 7 is the maximum time for which a flood discharge @ can last (to be obtained from hydrological data), we will have three distinct conditions: Case (i): 1 T IFT is greater than 7, itis evident that the water level would never reach the designed height, in time T. The water level will have attained some height over the crest of the waste weit which is less than the designed value and since the inflow into the reservoir stops, after this time, the water level cannot rise any further. Hence, we should so reduce the length ofthe waste ‘weir, that in time 7, the water level rises to the designed height above the waste weir. For a given value of Q and 7, there isa critical value of the flood height (hc), and this value is such that we can allow for flood absorption only when the assumed value of h is greater than this critical value. Generally, this critical value fc is such that the storage between crest level and maximum flood level (designed level) is approximately 0.6 times, the total influx of flood in time 7, or, Abe = 0.6 OT ‘when A is the mean area of water spread between weir crest level and MWL. 436 Calculation of the Length of Weir Taking Flood ‘Absorption into Account For a given value of Q and T, when the desired value of h is between fc and Amar, the length L of the waste weir should be such that it should take a time T for the water level to rise to h above the crest level. In time 7, the volume of water that entered the reservoir is or. Assuming that the water level in the reservoir goes up by a height A above the crest of the waste weir, the volume of water that remained in the reservoir at the end of time T= Ah (quan- tity reckoned above weir crest only). Therefore, volume of water that passed out from the reservoir through the waste weir = (QT— Ah). ‘Average discharge through the waste weir ‘Volume of water that passed ou! ‘Time in which it has passed out ny = GE—AD oc (Q- ANT In time 7, the discharge Q over the waste weir increases from zero to gmax and we may assume that gay as the average or, 3 discharge overit, The maximum discharge for which the waste weir should be designed is worked out as follows: ‘qnax =m X qav, Where mi a constant. £2 form. Actually this value varies We are apt o take a valu o wre he head and itis safer to assume a Targer value. In this case the value assumed i 25. e gman = KLIP? where K'= 23 CaV2¢ Ge _ gue poi oe Therefore, 5 ae Value of caNtg =1.84 m_ 251 Therefor, valueof = 2 =a a5e gid (FAR) FOAL rien tai (2-T) ors “When @Q is expressed as cubic meters/second, A in square kilometers, Lin meters and Tin hours, this relationship reduces itselto 278 AR L t=(o-2844),—, e T ) 0.735 1 43.7 Critical Height, he ‘This is obtained from the relationship, Ahc = 0.6 OT. If A is ex- pressed in square kilometers, te in meters, Q in cubic ‘meters/second and T'in hours, we get he= BE. = 463A 43.8 Ilustrative Example Design a waste weir to accommodate a maximum flood di charge of 1000 cumv/see. when the maximum duration of flood is 5 hrs, and the average area of water spread above crest level and maximum flood level is 15 square kilometers. imax is obtained as follows: This is a purely theoretical height to which the water level in the reservoir would have risen, if the entire flood had been absorbed in the reservoir without any surplus over the waste weir. Thus itis governed by the relationship, Ahmax = OT (where A is the average area of water spread between MWL and FTL). __ Ifthe waste weir starts functioning the moment water level rises above FTL, normally the maximum height to which the ‘water level would have risen during the time T would be lower and this difference accounts for the flood absorption. So in practice itis better we take the designed height less than the ‘maximum height (Fax) and greater than the critical height (Ac) ‘Total influx of flood = Flood absorption capacity (OX T)=(AX hnax) ie, 1000. 5x 3600 = Amax x 15 x 1000 x 10004 1000 x5 x 3600 pérefi ay = LOOX S X 3600, 1.9 rye Therefore, — nay = XS X 3600. = 1.2 meters Calculate he using the equation, he = GE = 10005 _ 9.75 meters 163A 463x 15 Assume a value of h in between 0.75 and 1.2 meters such that 075 | PLAN OF NOTCH IN DROP WALL igure 123 Plan of notch in Drop wall n 2,60 meters, top width of abutment is 0.50 meters. The top level of abutment is kept atthe T.B.L. of the channel upstream, ie, at +12.50, The wall will have a front batter of 1 in 8. The abutment will rest on foundation concrete 1.00 meter thick. ‘The foundation of the abutment will be continuation of the foundation ofthe drop wal. Foundation top level at + 7.60 Top of abutment at + 12.50 otal height 4.90 m. Provide a section as indicated giving a base width of 0.4 h. Upstream wing wall: AB in Figure 12.4 is the upstream wing wall. This wing wall is level at op with its level at+12.50., The top width is 0.50 meters. This wall is splayed at 1 to 1 and has enough length such that it gets keyed into the bank well. The foundation of this wall need not be as deep as that of the abut- ent. Since good foundation soil is available only below © ‘SPLAYLINI- © ROP WALL 47-60 46-60 SECTION OF ABUTMENT BC 20 1 snag48.50, the thickness of foundation conctete may be adopted as 60cms. ‘The height of wal is 4.00 meters. ‘The front batter of 1 in 8 may be adopted. Adopt a section as sketched in Figure 12.4. Downstream sloping wing: CD. in Figure 12.4 is the downstream sloping wing. The top level of the wing at C is +12.50 and top width is 50 cms. The wall also has a face batter of 1 in 8. ‘The section of the sloping wing at C will be same as the section of the abutment. The thickness of foundation, however, is restricted to 60 cms, ic. the top of foundation will be at ++7.60 but the bottom of foundations will be at 7.00. ‘The top level of the sloping wing wall at D will be the same as the return D. E. top width is 50.cms. Front batter 8. Top level will be the T.B.L. of the channel downstream, i.¢., 10.50. «+ Height of wall at D is (10.50 — 7.60) = 2.90 meters. ‘Adopt the section as in Figure 12.5. ee afk +1050 +7-60 +7-00 kr 80MHt SECTION OF RETURN os — DE Figure 125 Section of level return: D. E: ” Splay of stoping wing: At level 8.00, ic., bed level of channel below drop, the distance between the edges of returns is 6.00 meters, i. bed width of channel below drop. ‘Same section adopted at D may be provided. This fixes the splay of the wing. ‘The level return is made sufficiently long so that it projects ‘well into the top of bank downstream of drop. 12.7 LENGTH OF REVETMENTS AND BED PITCHING (a) Measured from the face of the drop wall, the length of revetment upstream is generally kept 3 times the full supply depth (3d) or a minimum of 3 meters. Water Resources Engineering | (b) Measured from the downstream edge of the solid ‘apron, the length of the downstream revetment is kept 4 times (F.S. Depth + height of drop) or a min- imum of 6 meters. The length of bed pitching is kept at half the length of the corresponding revetment. ‘The difference in levels between the solid apron (at +7.60) ‘and the canal bed (at +8.00) is made up by a gentle reverse slope of | in Sin the downstream bed pitching laid in continua tion of solid apron. Suitable bank connections have been shown in the drawing. 'A berm of one meter width is provided in the canal both upstream and downstream. Slope for canal cutting is taken as 1 to 1 and that for embankment is taken as 1 '/2 to 1. 12.8 CAUSES FOR FAILURE The two main causes for failure of this type of drop are: 1. Improper energy dissipation below the drop, creating super-critical velocities beyond the solid apron. This creates scours at the downstream end of apron, consequently under- mining the solid apron and the returns and downstream Talus. Therefore, providing sufficient solid apron, as per the sug- gested principles in the design is imperative. 2. The thickness of solid apron has to withstand the impact of the falling water and also withstand the uplift pressures (cal- culated on the basis of creep theories). Care should be taken to see that there is no residual uplift pressure at the end of solid apron, In case it is not possible to reduce the residual uplift, inspite of providing long length of apron, a cut-off pile at the tend of solid apron may be provided, limiting the exit gradient to less than '/s or '/ (depending upon the foundation soil). 12.9 SPECIFICATIONS 12.9.1 Foundations and solid apron ‘The foundations for the body wall of the drop, abutments, wing walls and returns upstream and downstream side of the drop are all laid in one monolithic mass of cement concrete, the propor- tion needs to be kept is 1:4: 8. For the portion of concrete forming the solid apron down- stream of the body wall, imperviousness and weight (density) are the main criteria, $0 as to counteract the uplift pressures ‘coming into play under the floor. So it will be quite economical to use fly-ash as admixture to the extent of 20 per cent (replace- ment of cement) and this will economise the cost. Of the total thickness of the solid apron downstream of the drop; the top 15 to 20-cms thickness is laid in cement concrete with a richer proportion, say in’ C.C. 1: 1.2 3.0r 1:24 using granite chips of 20 mm size. The use of fly-ash in this layer is not advisable, This wearing coat is necessary ® withstand the impact of the falling water directly on to the apron in the initial stages of flow. Once the full flow conditionsCanal Drop — Notch Type are established on both sides of the drop, the depth of water downstream ofthe drop will act asa water cushion 129.2. Body wall of drop, abutments, wing walls and returns upstream and downstream of drop All these walls can be in stone masonry with cement mortar 1:6 well plastered in cement mortar I: 4, In case, coursed stone masonry is adopted, plastering is not necessary. Pointing the masonry in cement mortar 1:3 will do. 1293 Notches and notch piers Its beter, these items are done in tich concrete and plastered very smooth to get atthe designed dimensions. It is better, the notch piers are well anchored into the body wall with dowel bars with nominal lateral reinforcement. 12.10 SARDA TYPE OF CANAL DROP 1210.1 General ‘The drop wall in this type of fall, consists ofa plain broad crest, with its edges smoothened to avoid sharp edges. The length of the drop wall, is kept the same as the bed width of the channel upstream of the drop. Since there is no constriction ofthe length, af drop wall, as in the case of Notch-Type of drop, the cll of the drop wall is raised above the upstream bed level so that it passes the full discharge of the channel over it without disturb- ing the upstream full supply level by a wire drawing effect, as, the water level nears the drop wall. A typical Sarda Fall with a trapezoidal shaped body wall is shown in the following Fig. 126: FSL. BED PITCHING DRAIN VENTS: 9 Full supply depth in the channel both on the upstream and downstream sides of the drop wall “dis the depth of flow over the crest ofthe drop wall. ‘a’ top width of drop wall “D” the base width of the drop wal. ‘SH’ is the hight of drop wall above the top level of the cistem, Length of the cistern. (water cushion) is the depth of the cistern below the downstream channel bed level. Its also equal to the height of the end cll above the cistern level. “W’ isheight of drop ie. equal to the difference between the full supply levels of the channel upstream and downstream. 12.102 Crest width of drop wall ‘The crest width ofthe drop wall is computed in the same man- net as is done in the case of a surplus wier. Vide para 4.2.3 (Gurplus wier) crest width a= 0.55 (WH + Vd) where, “H" isthe height of drop wall, and “a isthe depth of flow over it. 12.10.3 Base width of drop wall ‘The base width of the drop wall may be about that of the Hed elementary profile of a masonry dam ie. b = where ‘A? ary P ny rage HEIGHTOF DROP py BL ROP WALL ‘BED PITCHING ENDCELLS WEARING COAT ‘SARDATYPE OF CANAL OROP Figure 126 Sarda Type of Canal dropdf: 80 is the height of the drop wall above the cistern level, and “a” is the depth of flow over it. The drop wall may be trapezoidal in shape with both sides having the same slope, or upstream side being vertical and the entire balance slope being given on the downstream side, or as some books suggested, the downstream side to be completely vertical up to the cistern level, with the ‘upstream side having a vertical face up to channel bed level, and then the width increased by a series of rectangular steps till it reaches the required base width. In the former case the drop wall is said to be trapezoidal in shape, while the later in called rectangular in shape. 12.10.4 Discharge over the drop wall ‘Since we know the quantity of discharge to be passed, over the drop wall, the head over the drop wall can be determined treat- ing it as abroad crested wier vide para 4.2.2 (surplus wier) 3 Q = 166i (Without taking into account the Velocity of approach). In this case ‘Q" is the full discharge of the channel and ‘Lis the bed width of the channel which is also the length of the drop wall and ‘d’ is the depth of flow over the drop wall. From com- putations, we can arrive at the value of ‘a’ since we already know the value ‘D’, full supply depth of the channel up-stream of drop, we can arrive at the value of (rise of cill above channel bed as (D~d). In case of a drop where the downstream F.S.L. is above the crest level of the drop wall, the discharge over the drop wall ‘may be computed as a partially submerged wier. 12.10.5 Some books sugest the following equations for deter- ‘mination of discharge over the drop wall. If the drop wall is of the rectangular shape, aul Q = 0415 Vig Ld? @ Water Resources Engineering I the drop wall is of a trapezoidal shape then 4 3 (Hf Q = 0.45 V2g Ld? (y sed, as the result will not show ‘Any of the equations can be us any perceptable variation. 12.10.6 Rest of the components of the structure, namely the length and depth of the cistern below the drop, thickness of the cistern, upstream and downstream channel transitions with ab- nutments, wings and returns and protective works can all.be designed in the same manner as that fora ‘Notch-Type of fall’ ‘The length of the cistern must be adequate enough to accom- modate the falling profile of the water over the drop wall. In- stead of giving a reverse slope with stone pitching or in lean masonry, at the end of the cistern, an end cill equal in height to the depth of the water cushion can be constructed monolithic with the cistern concrete as shown in the Fig.12.6. 12.10.7 Since the drop wall has a raised crest, above the bed of the channel upstream in order to drain the water, when the channel is empty a sloping drainage vent way be constructed in. the body wall itself as shown in the Fig. 12.6. 12.108 In the case of a Notch-Type of drop, the discharge from the Notches, spreads over the lips reducing the impact on the cistern floor. In order to withstand the inpact of the water falling over from the drop wall it is considered necessary that the top layer of cistern concrete is of a rich mix which can stand the impact. This is shown as wearing coat in the Fig. 12.6. Bibliography (1) rigation Manual by Col. W.H. Elis. @) Hydraulics by Lewitt.CHAPTER 13 GLACIS TYPE OF CANAL DROP 130 A glacis type of Drop which is also known as “Hydraulic Jump Type’ is designed with the following hydraulic par- ticular. Upstream side Downstream side Full Supply dis- 7.5 cumecs. 7.5 cumecs. charge Bed width 6.0 meters 6.0 meters Bed level +10.00 +8.00 Full supply depth 1.50 meters 1.50 meters (sD) Fall supply level + 11.50 +950 esl) Top of bank level + 12.50 +1050 aL Hard oil is available for foundations below + 8.00 level Symbols and terminology adopted in the design: 8, = Bed width of channel upstream in meters. = Throat width, normal to the canal axis, in meters. = Bed width of channel down-stream in meters. Full supply depth in channel, upstream side in meters. Hypercritical depth at the point of formation of standing wave in meters 43= Full supply depth of channel, downstream side in meters D= Depth of crest below the total energy line upstream in meters. Subcritical depth in channel, below the point of for- mation of standing wave for parallel downstream sides in meters. Subcritical depth in channel, below the point of for- ‘mation of standing wave for expanding downstream. side in meters. Depth of cistern below the down-stream canal bed in meters. Height of crest of the weir above the upstream bed in meters, Height of baffle wall in meters. Actual amount of drop in meters. Calculated drop in meters. Hes ‘= Horizontal length of upstream GI meters. = Width of the weir crest. = Length of baffle platform in meters. Ly= Length of cistern in meters. = Full supply discharge in cumecs. ‘q= discharge per meter length in cumecs. A fall o drop generally consists of the following main parts: (a) Upstream Approach including upstream Glacis. (©) Throat (©) Downstream Glacis (@ Downstream Expansion (baffle platform, baffle wall, cistern and deflector, ete). (©) Energy dissipators. 13.1 DESIGN Taroar: Instead of a body wall with notches, a weir will be provided between the abutments to cater to the discharge of the canal. This could be a broad-crested weir, a narrow-crested weir or a high-coefficient weir In this exercise a broad-crested weir is proposed. The discharge over the weir is worked out by the formula 3 CaBtD 2g D where the coefficient of discharge is taken as 0.62. ‘The same formula can be put down as, 84 Br D™ ‘Width of the throat (measured perpendicular to the where, Br canal axis) D = Depth of flow over the weir. @=Discharge in cumecs, and 1.84 =2 C4 V2g with Ce= 0.62. 13.2 FLUMING RATIO The ratio of the actual width of weir provided to the canal bed ‘width upstream of the drop is known as Fluming Ratio. ‘The CWPC recommends the following ratios depending "upon the height of drop. Height of drop ‘Clear throat width Upto 1.20 meters som ‘Over 1.20 meters and upto 3.0 meters. 19% Above 3.0 meters Be.‘The fluming ratio thus calculated may be subject to the con- dition that the overall width of fall is not more than the width of the channel downstream. The throat width may be rounded off to the next 0.25 meters. Where there are piers (if bridge is combined with the drop), the effective throat width may be taken as equal ty (Bt~ 0.2), where n = Number of Piers. Inthis case, the throat width Br may be fixed, taking a flum- ing ratio of 75 per cent. = 6.00.75 =4.5 meters. 133. FIXING THE CREST LEVEL With the throat width so determined and coefficient of dis- charge, the depth of flow over the weir D is now calculated. Q= 1.84.81D? S cumecs, and Bi 32 15 OO > Texas D=0,906" = 0.94 meters. The crest level is given as: otal Energy line on the upstream side (TEL.)—D In this case, the T-ELL. on the upstream side where, v a4 Ls0+ where V is the velocity in the channel upstream (velocity of approach). Velocity in the channel, upstream Baris: 75 675 x15 ~ 10.13 "074 msec V_ ov _ 055 2g 2x981 19.62 nae} cs TEL=+11.50+0.028 = + 11,528 Crest level ofthe throat = + 11.528 -0.94 =+10.588 or + 10.58 i.e, the crest ofthe throat will be ata height of 0.58 meters above the upstream canal bed level In case of full-width falls and sometimes in flumed falls also, the crest level may work out unreasonably high, In such cases, the fall may be flumed, or fluming ratio increased, iit ie already flumed, 0 that the crest isnot higher than 04 a above the upstream canal bed level. (i being the fll supply depth in the canal upstream). Otherwise, it wll cause moray, flux at low supplies and may cause alternate silting and scour. ing upstream of the throat. In this case 0.4 di = 0.4 x 1.5 = 0.60 meters. ‘The rise of the weir crest is within this stipulated timit, Water Resources Enginee “i The level of the crest of the throat is fixed at + 10.58. 13.4 LENGTH OF WEIR CREST (L4) ‘This is measured along the axis of the canal, in short it is the ofthe weir crest. ‘The recommended value is 2/3 of the depth of flow over: weir crest (D)- In this case it works out to 2/3 x 0.94 = 0.63 meters or 0.60 meters. 13.5 UP-STREAM SIDE GLACIS ‘The upstream slope of the Glacis is to be > : 1 (horizontal vertical) joined tangentially othe weir crest with aradius toD?. ie, 994-047 or say 0.50 meters. ‘The upstream slope has to rest on a curtain wall of 0.60 width. Since the upstream slope is} 1 ‘Tangent length with radius of curve as 0.50 meters is eq) ra Ran $ = 0.50% tan 31°43" = 0500618 =0:309 or say 0.30 meters 136 DOWNSTREAM SIDE GLACIS itt dig ee ‘The Downstream slope of glacis is tobe 5: | joined tangenti to the weir crest at Top and to the baffle platform at the with acurve of radius equal to D. : 2 “ Side slope is 5 : | (horizontal to vertical) 0=56" 19° Brae iy 3728" 10 tan ‘an 9 = tan 28" 10° = 0.5355 tangent length = R. a8 = 0.94 x 0.5355 = 0.50 meters.Cais Type of Canal Drop 197 BAFFLE PLATFORM ANT Foxing the cll level ‘The Reduced Level of the baffle platform Is obtained ax fole lows ‘intcompute the calculated height of Drop from the follow: ing relationship, Wea I a where, Hi = actual height of drop (upstream FS... downstream F.S.L.) =< Bed with of canal downstream (By) (Overall width of fall including thickness of piers normal to the axis of the canal and, eis calculated height of drop, Now, K= 850 1.333; Mi 2.00 meters. Me 2 * KOI” | 433008 ™ Togs * 194 ‘The reduced Level of the baffle platform is equal to = (Downstream F.S.L. ~ di), where dr is given by the relationship, d= 0.985q? x H.07! where q is the discharge in cumecs/meter of the weir and dr is the subcritical depth of the flow in the canal downstream side after formation of standing wave for parallel sides in meters. q = discharge/meter length of the weir. = 25.21.67 cumecs ss d= 0.985 x 1.679% x 1.91497! = 0.985 x 1.305 x 1.147 = 1.474 8 aPpnoacn ” Ita! In the Sub-critical depth of flaw in the channel below tho point of formation of standing wave, for expanding am sides, des Him Het de “ dy Hot det 1914 + 1474 ~ 2.00 1388, Reduced Jevel of the baffle platform » Downstream F.8.1., 4 9,50-~ 1,388 48.112 oF nay +810 13.7.2 Helght of battle wall (i) ‘This i given by the relationship hyade=. ‘where deis the critical depth ‘and dl is the hypercritical depth, at formation of standing wave ‘and ho isthe height of baffle wall above the baffle platform, "The critical depth is given by the relationship ch where, q is the discharge in cumecs/meter Here, q = 1.67 cumecs. 167 1.4 ogi)” 2.141 lem 0.66 * dais is given by the following relationship dy 0.18342" x 15038 Substituting the values we have dy = 0.183 x 1.679" x 1.91409884 20.183 x 1,679 1.9140 = 0.183 x 1.578 heals =023 + f= 0.66 -0.23, 0.43 oF say 0.45 or provide a height of 0.45 meters. Top level of Baffle wall = +8.10+0.45 = 48.55 13.7.3. Thickness of baffle wall The thicknes of bate wall generally taken a2 2 ie 2x045= 30 meters, 13.7.4 Length of bafMe platform (Lp) This is generally taken as 5.25 times hy ie, 5.25% 0.45 = 2.36 or say 2.40 meters, ‘The Bale platform is joined othe bafe-wal with curve of radius of he. 0.30 meters, 13.7.5 Cistern level ‘The platform below the baffle-wall upto the deflector-wall is Known as the cistern. Generally, this will be at a level lower than that of the baffle platform and canal bed level downstream, of drop. ‘The depth of the cistern is adopted as 0.1 ds meters below the canal bed level, where dl is the full supply depth of the canal downstream of the drop subject to a minimum of 15 cms in minor channels and 30 ems. for Main canals and branches, In this case, ds is 1.50 meters. * Cistern depth = 0.1 x 1.50 0.15 meters or 15 ems. ‘Treating this as a minor channel, adopt 15 cms, + Reduced level of cistern = Reduced level of the channel bed — 0.15 =+8.00-0.15 +7285, The top of deflector wall is kept at the canal bed down stream. ive. at +8.00 The cistern floor will be joined to the top of the deflector wall with a slope of 1 in 5. 13.7.6 Length of the cistern (L1) The length Lyis generally taken 5 times the sub-ctitcal depth of flow below the point of formation of standing parallel sides. =Sds, (where, dy has already been calculated to be 1.474 m, wave for Water Resources Engineering = 5x 1.474 = 7.37 meters. If the canal bed soils are of erodible nature, the length of the| cistern may be increased upto 6 times dx i.e. 6 dy. 4 ‘The second criterion that fixes the length of the cistern is the splay of the downstream wings. ‘The wings are splayed from the baffle wall with a splay of 1 in 5, such that the distance’ between the returns at the end of the splay is equal to the full supply width of the canal water way. This is more desirable, than limiting the width between the returns at the end of splay {o the canal bed width downstream, as this would mean, thatthe designed canal section, is not yet attained atthe end of the splay ‘and the banks immediately below the returns are likely to erode {ill the canal attains its normal velocity, Assuming 1 to 1 canal cutting, the width of water way at canal FS.L, =642x 1) Length of the weir and the baffle wall are the same (as the sides are parallel), ie. 4.5 meters. Adopting a splay of | in 5 the length of Transition of wings. “Als = (4.50-2.25) x5 2.25%5 9 meters. 1.25 meters, ‘This fixes the length of the cistern from the baffle-wall upto end of deflector-wall, 13.8 UPSTREAM CANAL TRANSITION OR CANAL APPROACHES ‘The Upstream canal wings are splayed at 1 in 1, Here also the width of water way in the canal at F.S.L., is kept as the distance between the splayed wings at the end of splay. 2_45 2 (45+ 2.25) .25 meters. «Length of transition = { Adopt 2.5 meters 13.9 PROTECTIVE WORKS Revetments and Bed Pitching (4) Upstream side ofthe drop: The length of side revetments is taken as 3 times the upstream side full supply depth, ie. 3% 1.5 5 meters Bed pitching is generally restricted to half the length of the Side revetment, () Down stream side of drop: The length of the downstream side revetments is taken as 3 times the downstream side full 3x15=4.5 metersGlacls Type of Canal Drop Length of Bed pitching is generally restricted to half the tengihof the side revetment, ie. 45 =2.25 meters. Inthe present case, the detailed drawing in plate 6-A, shows belly or onion type of transitions in the canal above and below the structure, The side revetments and bed pitching are continued upto the end of the transitions, irrespective of the Jengths arrived at by these thumb rules. The lengths actually adopted are more than those arrived at by the thumb rules. Generally, side revetments, varying in thickness from 45 ‘ems. to 30 ms, are laid on a well consolidated gravel backing. Instead of mere dry packing with rough stone itis better to form these side revetments in random rubble masonry in ean mortar, Jaid on well consolidated gravel backing. This will reduce the disturbance to the rough stone revetments during the function- ing of the canal and reduce maintenance costs. ‘Similarly, for the bed pitching also, instead of restricting the length to half the length of the revetment, it is better to take it to the all Iength ofthe side revetment. 1310 UPSTREAM SIDE CURTAIN WALL ‘The depth of the curtain wall at the end of the upstream end of the sloping glacis is given as 1/3 of the upstream side full supp- ly depth. ie, $x 1.5 =0.5 meters below the upstream canal bed. However, to reduce the uplifts at downstream of the curtain, ‘wall, it is better to keep it a little deeper. So, keep the bottom level of the curtain wall to one meter below the upstream canal bedi. to a level of + 9.00. 13.11 DOWN-STREAM CUT-OFF WALL BELOW DEFLECTOR WALL ‘This is generally taken down to a depth of 1/2 the full supply depth below the canal bed level down stream. ie.,+8.00-0.75 = +7.25 1312 SCOUR DEPTHS ‘The depths of curtain walls upstream and downstream of the drop are governed by Scour depth. While the upstream curtain wall is taken down to 1.00 to 1.25 times the scour depth, the downstream curtain wall is taken down to a depth of 1.5 times the Scour depth. Scour depth is given by the formula one) where, is the depth of Scour below the maximum water level, = is the discharge/meter run in cumecs f= silt factor usually taken as 1.00. (a)- Checking the upstream curtain wall for scour depth: As- suming the length of the curtain wall, same as that of the weit crest, i.e, 4.5 meters. R Discharge/meter ru 67 cumecs 18, 45 2 R= 13741678 = 1.374 x 1.408 = 1934 1.25 times R= 1.25 x 1.934 = 2.42 meters. Reduced Level of the bottom of the curtain wall = + 11,50 -2.42 = 49.08 ‘This is against the level of + 9.00 assumed earlier. . The level + 9.00 can remain. (b) Checking the downstream curtain wall for scour depth: The length of the curtain wall is equal to the length of the deflector wall, .e., 9 meters. R=1374x 0.83339 = 1.374 x0.8855 = 1.22 meters. 1.5 R= 15x 1.22 = 1.83 meters. -:. Reduced Level of the bottom of the downstream cut-off wall +9,50~ 1.83 +767 This is higher than the level of + 7.25 assumed earlier in Section 13.11 However, the downstream cut-off has to satisfy the exit gradient consideration, also. 13.13 EXIT GRADIENT ‘The length of floor should be such that with the two curtain walls at the upstream and downstream ends, as fixed above should give a minimum exit gradient of 1 in 3 in case of clayey soils and 1 in 4 to 1 in 5 in case of pervious soils, like fine to coarse sand. If, however, the length is found inadequate, the downstream curtain wall may be deepened. The exit gradient is given by the formula, where, A ‘b= Length of the impervious floor d= depth of the downstream cut-off wall‘4= Total head, which is taken to be the difference between the cerest level and down-stream bed level, In this ease, the length of the impervious floor is 17.90 meters, ‘The depth of downstream curtain wall is (+ 8.00 7.25 )= 0.75 meters. 3.87 +Vi+2387 142389 2 2 1245 H = (+ 10.58 8.00) = 2.58 meters d= (+8.00~7.25) = 0.75 meters *075%3.142 3.53 =031 against a safe value of 0.33 of 1/3, ‘So, increase the depth of downstream cut-off to +7.00, we b_ 17.90 have 5= 178 2 a=179 14 Vive? _14Vieis . 2s 46 2G OTS abe 258 342 «3.076 27 This is less than 1/3 and hence may be adopted So, from Exit gradient considerations, the downstream cut- off is taken down to + 7.00 instead of + 7.25 fixed from above considerations. However, as the bottom level ofthe baffle plat- form has been taken down to + 6.70. It is better this curtain wall is also taken to that level ora little below, as shown in plate 6A. Separate calculations again adopting this depth of curtain wall are considered unnecessary. 13,14. ENERGY DISSIPATION ARRANGEMENTS ‘The C.W.P.C. recommends the following arrangements. “Though the standing wave itself isthe best form of energy dissipator, various other types of energy dissipators are used from time to time. Each has sucess ing upon its shape an ising the flow Water Resources Engineering Providing Friction Blocks is one such effective arrange- ment. These serve the following purposes: ’ () to fan out the flow and thus prevent return flow at sides causing eddies and scour. (©) to deflect back the high speed flow above the bed which reduces scour. (©) to withstand impact of high speed jet and thus dis- sipate its energy. @ to assist in the formation of standing wave in the ccase of glacis fall without baffle. (a) In case of a vertical fall, for discharges exceeding 10 cumecs, two rows of Friction blocks staggered in plan may be provided in the cistern so that the downstream side edge of the downstream side row is at a distance of Lf from the end of the cistern floor. (b) Glacis fall (without baffle): Four rows of blocks may be provided in the case of flumed falls only. These may be stag- ‘gered in plan. The upstream side edge of the 1st row of block may be at a distance 5 times the height of the blocks from the Toe of the glacis. The suitable dimensions of the blocks are as follows: i & Height, h= Length =3h Distance between rows = h (©) Glacis fall (with baffle): Two rows of friction blocks may bbe provided only when the drop exceeds 2 meters. The ‘upstream side edge of the upstream side row may be at a dis- tance of L/3 from the end of the cistern floor. These are stag- gered in plan, Height, t= 2 0.857 x de = 0.262 de Length =h Top width = 2 h Distance between rows = h. (d) Glacis Blocks: The effect of these is to reduce the tur- bbulence in flow which in turn reduces wave wash, thus ensuring, uniform flow. A single row of glacis blocks of the same dimen- sions as friction blocks may be provided in the case of falls with drop more than 2 meters, (e) Deflector wall: The deflector wall of height 3 provided at the downstream end of the cistern helps in piling up the bed ‘material against the curtain wall, which ensures, the safety of the curtain wall. The minimum height should be 0.15 meters. ‘The top of deflector wall is joined to the cistern floor with a gentle slope of 1 in 5. In the present exercise, no friction blocks are provided as the drop is just 2 meters.Glacis Type of Canal Drop 13.15. DESIGN OF BAFFLE-WALL AND FRICTION BLOCKS (a) Baffle wall: The baffle wall is designed as an R.C. can- tileyer wall, well keyed into the baffle platform and cistern plat- form. The projected length above the platform will be the length ofthe cantilever. Inthe initial stages of canal filling up, before the tail water builds up, downstream of the drop, the entire impact ofthe jet cof water cascading down the glacis will hit this wall and this wall has to withstand this force as a cantilever. It must have sufficient anchorage into the platform. (0) Friction blocks: Each block is taken as a separate entity. “The design isthe same as that in baffle wall. The reinforcement of the block must be sufficiently anchored into the platform concrete 13.16 CHECKING THE THICKNESS OF BAFFLE PLATFORM, CISTERN AND THE GLACIS From the curtain wall, down the glacis to the downstream cur- tain wall below the deflector wall, the entire structure acts as ‘one solid floor, the front and downstream curtain walls acting or cut-offs ‘The maximum uplift head acting on the floor of the structure is, when the canal is empty with upstream water level at weir ‘rest and downstream water level at canal bed level. i.e, the uplift head = + (10.58 - 8.00) = 2.58 meters ‘The residual uplift pressures under the floor, at various key points are determined using Khosla’s theory of “Independent variables,” but taking only 75 per cent of the pressures ob- tained since the soil is not pervious. Applying this permeable theory for such small structures founded on hard soils is not justifiable even though we take ‘only a percentage of the pressures obtained. Inthis book, the pressures are determined both by the above method and also applying Bligh’s theory, giving some ‘weightage for the vertical creep. (a) Using Bligh’s theory: In this case the total horizontal creep is 17.90 meters, the vertical creep is from the upstream bed Level upto the bottom level of the downstream curtain wall and then back to the downstream canal bed level. i.e., + 10.00 to + 7.00 and from + 7.00 to + 8.00 3+ ‘Assuming a weightage of 2, for the vertical creep. the total creep = 17.90 +24 = 25.90 meters +: The creep gradient established along the floor 2.58 a7 ‘This is considered very safe even ifthe foundations are pet- vious. ‘The key points where residual uplift pressures are to be determined are: (1) Under the te of the glacis (2) Under the baffle wall ) Centre of the cistern (4) Downstream end of the cistern, i. just upstream of the end curtain wall. (1) Under the toe of the glacis ‘The horizontal creep from the upstream curtain wall = 3.95 m, ‘The vertical creep = + (10.00- 8.10) = 1.90 m. <1 Total creep = 3.95 +2 1.90=3.95 +3.80=7.75m 1.15 =077m Head lost in the creep. 10.04 Residual uplift head = 2.58 - 0.77 = 1.81 m. 181 225-1) (2) Under the baffle wall = 1.448 or 1.5 meters. ‘The horizontal creep increases by 2.40 meters. «+ Total creep upto the point = 7.75 + 2.40 = 10.15 meters. vat inceep = 2225 «101 mete, = 2.58 - 1,01 = 1.57 meters. 157 (225-1) (3) At the centre of cistern Residual uplift head ‘Thickness required = 25 meters. 11.25 ‘Ada. horizontal creep beyond point (2) = 0.30 + 5 = 5.93 meters + Total creep upto the point = 10.15 + 5.93 = 16.08 meters. 16.08 He 16.08 ead lost in creep = 5,4 = 1.60 m. Residual uplift head = 2.58 — 1.60 = 0.98 meters. 098 Thickness required = 998 97 required = Gog 70.78 oF say 0:80 meters. (4) At the downstream end of cisterm ‘Add horizontal creep beyond point (3)=—3~ ~ 0.30 =563-030 = 5.33 meters Total creep upto the point = 16.08 + 5.33 = 21.41 meters.Residual uplift head = 2.58 ~2.13 = 0.45 meters, 0.45 (225-1) (b) Using Khosla’s theory: Length of the floor from upstream Curtain wall to downstream cut off wall = 17.90 meters. ‘Thickness required = 0.36 or say 0.40 meters (2) At the upstream curtain-wall 6=1790m. 4= (10.00 -9.00) = 1.00 nied. alae 1799788 (E) = 20 % 9 (c!) = 100-20= 80% (2) At the downstream curtain-wall b=1790m 4 =(8.00-7.00) = 1.00 No correction for floor thickness has been done as the amount of correction is quite small ‘The pressure varies from 80 to 20 per cent along the bottom of floor in a linear way. PRESSURES AT THE KEY POINTS (1) Under the toe of the glacis 13.95 20+ 607555 = 20 446.8 = 66.8 % ‘Taking 75 per cent as effective, the percentage of pressure is, = 0.75 x 66.8 % = 50.1 % = 501x258 + Uplifthead = 504 %2 = 1.29 meters, 1.29 (225-1) =1.03 meters or say 1.05 m ©. Thickness required = (2) Under the baffle wall 15: 17.90 Uplift pressure = 20 + 60 x "=> = 20+38.7 = 58.7 % Taking 7 % as effective, the pressure =0.75 x 58.7 % = 44% 446X258 114m, (00 :. Uplift head = 114 =——— = 0.91 mor say 0.95 m ++ Thickness required = (95 —j) Water Resources Engineering (@) Atthe centre of the cistern Uplift pressure = 20+ 60 353 = 20 + 189 = 38.9 4 ‘Taking 75 % as effective, the pressure =0:75 x 38.9% = 29.2.4, 292x258 _¢ d 2 Uplit ead = 22.2258 6.75 m i vt ae gpg +: Thickness required = 95° 5 = 0.60 m (4) At the end of the cistern Pressure is 20 % ‘Taking 75 % as effective, the pressure is 15 % 1 . 58 x15 Uplift head = 25915 0.40 m. ; Thickness required O35 m. 25-1) Generally, itis a custom to take 10'to 15 per cent thickness ‘extra as obtained by the above theory. The thicknesses arrived at by both the theories are tabulated as follows: By Bligh’s theory] By Khosla’s theory 1.50 meters 1S (1 Under the toe ofthe gacis (2) Under te bafe wall 125meters | 095 + 1056 = 1.05 a! (©) Underthe centre of the cistern] 0.80meters | 060+ 10%=0.70m (4) Under te end of the cistem | 040meters [0.38 + 10% =0.40-m| ‘Thus, itcan be seen that the thicknesses obtained by Bligh’s theory are not far too excessive and are about 1010 15 per cent ‘over those obtained by Khosla’s method. (c) Checking the thickness of the baffle platform at the toe of the glacis for the unbalanced head due to formation of the standing wave: This happens when the canal is flowing full, At this point, the uplift head is equal to the (upstream FSL. - downstream FSL) = (+ 11.50-9.5i 1.244 meters. Average pressure head in the region of formation of stand 244 2 Taking 3/4 as effective we get the additional pressure 622 x 3/4 = 0.467 m. «++ Total pressure head = 0.467 + 1.290 1g wave due to unbalanced head = 0.622 meters. So provide the following thicknesses: (i) At the toe of glacis 1.40 m. and continue this to end of baffle wall.Glacis Type of Canal Drop (ii) Reduce the thickness after baffle wall to 1.10 m. (ii) Reduce the thickness further to 0.80 m, from the Centre of the cistern and continue it to the end. By adopting a thickness of baffle platform as 1.40 meters, the bottom level will be + (8.10 ~ 1.40) ie. 6.70. To be in conformity, the bottom level of downstream cut-off is taken down to a level of + 6.50. Calculations again adopting this depth of cur- tain wall are considered unnecessary. Glacis: From the toe upwards to the crest the thickness can be uniformly reduced to 1,00 meter (asthe uplift will correspond- ingly get reduced), Continue the same thickness of 1.00 meter for the weir crest and the upstream glacis. Note: ‘The entire glacis and the platforms will be of mass concrete cof proportion, say 1:4: 8 or 1:3 :6(M 100). Out of this tctal thickness the top 15 ems, will be in rich concrete, say 1:2: 4 (M 150) to act as wearing coat in preventing the concrete from getting pitted due to the high velocity. Drainage Pipes: Drainage Pipes are provided in the crest at the upstream bed Level, to facilitate dewatering the canal upstream of the drop upto tanal bed, and thus facilitate inspection and repair. The downstream and upstream edges of the pipe should be flush with the glaci There is no harm in leaving the pipes open and need not be closed after repairs 13.17 ABUTMENTS AND WINGS lease see plate 6A (Glacis Drop) for a detailed drawing of the slacis Drop, designed in this exercise. ‘The upstream wings, Abutment, downstream sloping and level wings and returns have been clearly shown in the draw- ing. (@) Upstream Wings The Top is kept at T-B.L.. ie, 12.50. ‘The foundations are taken down to + 7.40 (Hard soil is available below + 8.00). ‘These wings are splayed at 45° and keyed well into the canal banks upstream as in plate 6A. ‘The wing has a vertical face, at junction of the abutment while it has a face batter of I in 12 at its end. The wing is thus ‘warped with its face better changing from vertical at the start to in 12 at the end of the Transition, ‘The details of the sections adopted are shown in the plate. ‘The canal wings are splayed such that, atthe end of the tran- sition, the width between the wings is equal to FS width of ceanal,_As shown, in the plate, a pot belly transition is formed in canal banks with side revetments and bed pitching till the canal bed width is obtained at the end of the transition. (b) Abutments ‘The foundations of abutments are taken down to + 6.50 as shown in the plate 6-A. The top level is kept at + 12.50 (BL) The abutments have a vertical face batter and are taken straight so that the distance between the faces of abutments is kept same as the length of the weir. The section adopted is shown in plate 6-A. (©) Sloping wing ‘The section of wing at junction of abutment is the same as the abutment taken down to level at foundation + 6.50 with top level of + 12.50. The face batter is vertical in continuation of the abutment. ‘The section of wing atthe end of slope and the junction with level wing also is taken down to + 6.50 (foundation). The top of level wing is kept at T.B.L. downstream, i. at + 10.50. ‘The level wing also has a vertical face till the end of the baffle wall. Please see plate 6-A for details of sections adopted, (@) Level wing and return The level wing and return beyond the baffle wall are taken down to a level of + 6.50 (at foundation). The top level is kept right through at + 10.50. ‘The wing wall is warped withthe face batter changing from a vertical face batter at the baffle wall, to a face batter of 1 in 12 at the end of the splay, ie. atthe deflector wall. The returns have a face batter of | in 12 right through and are well keyed into the canal banks downstream of the drop. ‘The details of sections adopted are shown in plate 6A. Just asin the case of upstream side, the distance between the returns downstream, i. atthe deflector wall, is Kept as the canal width atFS.L. A pot belly transition is formed beyond the deflector \wall with side revetment bringing the canal to its normal width at the end ofthe transition. ‘Note: In the above exercise, the sections of the retaining walls have been adopted using the thumb rule of 0.4 hfor the base width. However, all the sections are to be adopted based on detailed calculation adopting ‘L.V.A. method assuming the back-fill as saturated. Weep holes in the retaining walls are to be provided both upstream and downstream above the canal. F.S. LL. with in- verted filters in rear to relieve the hydrostatic pressure exerted by trapped water, due to saturation of the bank-fill and thus reduce the pressure of the back-fill. ‘Sometimes, instead of a mere hoisting platform, it may also ‘be combined with a bridge. Such structures form a combina tion with a canal lock in negotiating a drop on a ridge canal catering to navigation also. 13.18 REDUCING THE LENGTH OF DOWNSTREAM CISTERN ‘Model studies have indicated that by splaying and warping downstream wings, straight from the glacis itself, instead from the baffle wall as has now been indicated in this exercise,Figure 122 ‘The photo shows aglacis type of drop, Water ean be see owing over the drop and how the ‘energy is geting dissipated atthe toc ofthe glacis. the length of the cistern and consequently the length of down- stream wings, could be reduced, thus economising the cost However, this depends upon the discharge and depth of flow over the glacis and model studies are required to determine this effect. Once the length of the cistern is reduced, revised cal- culations are required to check the thickness of apron floor and the downstream cut-off. 13.19 SPECIFICATIONS (a) Foundations, glacis, downstream cistern apron and upstream and downstream cut-offs The foundations of upstream and downstream wing walls and abutments are all laid in cement concrete | : 4 : 8. The sloping glacis in between the abutments is however laid in cement con- crete 1:3: 6 (M 100). Economy can be effected by replacing 20 per cent of cement with fly-ash. The top 15 cms thick coat (wear- ing coat) on the crest and sloping glacis and the cistern and apron is laid in a rich mix, ie. either in CC 1 : 1'/:3 or in CC 1 :2:4 to withstand the super-critical velocities that develop due to the drop. ‘This wearing coat is laid when the main base concrete is still green, so that the wearing coat will act monolithically with the rest of the concrete. The crest and the sloping glacis have to be rubbed smooth, so that the desired coefficient of discharge is attained at the crest and also to prevent any negative pres- sures developing on the sloping glacis if the surface is uneven and not to the designed shape and smoothness. The negative pressures have.a tendency to pull out the concrete of the sloping glacis and thus cause damage. (b) The baffle wall and the friction blocks These two items will be in reinforced concrete 1 : 1'/2: 3 or 1:2: 4 matching with the proportion of the wearing coat. The reinforcement has to be designed to withstand the impact of the jet and has to be anchored well into the base concrete. (©) Abutments, upstream and downstream wings and. returns ‘The specifications for these items is the same as for the exercise of “Notch Type Drop”CHAPTER 14 CANAL REGULATOR 140 GENERAL Regulators across canals are necessary to maintain water levels in the canal along a particular reach. Generally they are con- structed below a major off-take, or at a place where the canal hydraulic particulars change. Below a major take-off, the dis- charge in the canal gets reduced and so the canal section is reduced by either reducing the depth of flow or by reducing the bed width or both. This change-over is negotiated through a regulator. These are also constructed at places in a canal while negotiating drops. In such cases, they are called drop-cum- regulators. In order to regulate the flow from one reach to another, the regulators with shuttering arrangements to control the flow, play most important part. Generally, they are also coupled with road crossings. In this example, the design of a bridge-cum-regulator is given. A bridge-cum-regulator is essentially a road bridge on piers and abutments with enough clear ventway to pass the necessary discharge into the canal from its upstream side to the downstream side. 14,1 EXAMPLE Design a regulator-cum-road bridge with the following data: Hydraulic particulars of canal upstream: Fall supply discharge: 20 cubic meters/second. Bed width: 15 meters; Bed level: + 20.00 FS. depth: 2.00 meters; F.S.L.: + 22.00 Top level of bank: 23.00 The right bank is 5 meters wide and left bank is 2 meters wide. Hydraulic particulars of canal downstream: Full supply discharge: 16 cubic meters/second Bed width: 15 meters; Bed level: + 20.00 FSS. depth: 1.75 meters; F.S.L.: + 21.75 Top level of bank: + 22.75 Top widths of banks are the same as those on the upstream side. ‘The regulator carries a road way single lane designed for LR.C. loading class ‘A’. Provide clear freeboard of one meter above F.S.L. for the road bridge. Good foundation soil is available at + 19.00 ‘Assume the ground level site as + 22.00 14.2 DESIGN In this case, the bed level of the canal both upstream and downstream is the same. The depth of flow upstream is 2 meters while on the downstream itis 1.75 meters. Thus, there is a drop of 0.25 meters in the F.S.L, at the site of structure. This difference in levels at the structure can conveniently be made use of in the design of ventway for the regulator. The ventway of the regulator will be a rectangular opening with its sill at the canal bed level. If A be the area of the opening and h is the difference in water elevations on both sides, then the dis- charge through the opening (submerged orifice) is given by the equation: = CaA V2gh, where is the discharge in cubic meters/second Ca= Coefficient of discharge ‘A= Area of vent in square meters, and ‘= difference in water elevations in meters. A value of 0.75 is usually taken for Ca 14,3. VENTWAY OF THE REGULATOR ‘Quantity of water to be passed through the regulator into the downstream of canal is 16 cubic meters/second. Depth of water in the canal below is 1.75 meters. Depth of ventway is therefore 1.75 meters. Applying the above formula, we have Q= 16 cubic meters/second h=0.25 meters 16 =0.15A V2 x 9.80 0.25 16 A=— $= 9.64 59, meters 0.75Na9 Height of vent = 1.75 m. Instead of having one span of 5.50 meters, it is better to adopt smaller spans both for economy of the top roadway and also for the convenience with which the smaller shutters can easily be operated. So adopt two spans of 2.75 meters each.Canal Regulator ‘Top level ofthe road slab witha 7.5 ems, thick wearing coat will be + 23.275 of 23.28. On either side of the roadway, steel hand-rails as shown in the Plate 7 may be provided. 147 PIER ‘The pier has to be checked for stability. The forces acting on the pier are as follows: (a) Weight of pier itself (6) Weight of roadway with thé live load (©) Horizontal. thrust transmitted by the shutters on either side of the Under these, the pier must be stable. Generally, the weight ofpierand roadway give the stability to the pier in overcoming the horizontal thrust. So, the worst case is to check the stability of the pier when there is no live load on the road with the regulator shutters completely closed, water on the upstream side at FS.L. and no water downstream, The live load on the roadway will increase the stability of the pier. 148 LENGTH OF PIER ‘Maximum length of pier will be to cover the roadway with its kerbs, wth additional length for the shutter operating platform, ‘Assuming 1.50 meters as the width required for the shutter ‘operating platform, the length of pier required (omitting the cut waters) is 3.65 +2 x0.23 + 1.50=5.61 meters, ‘The top of pier under the road slab is a a level of + 23.00. ‘The top of pier under the shutter operating platform will be higher and this depends upon the height of shutter to be used. 149 SHUTTERS The dimensions of the ventway are 2.00 and 1.75 meters Downstream F.S. depth is 1.75 meters whereas the upstream FS, depth is 2.00 meters. The shutter top is to be at least 30 ‘ms above the upstream F.S.L. Assuming that the shutter rests ina7.S cms deep groove in the sill the total height of shutter is tobe 2.00 + 0,30 + 0.08, ie.,2.38 meters Ifa single shutters provided, when a ventway isto be clear- ly opened, the bottom of shutter will have tobe lifted clear over the upstream F'S.L. Assuming that the bottom of shuter is lifted say 25 ems, above the upstream F.S.L. the top of shutter willbe at a level of 22.00 + 2.38 + 0.25, ie., 24.63. Assuming a clearance of 30 cms above the shutter to the botiom of the hoisting platform, the pier has to be raised t0 a level of 24.63 + 0.30 = + 24.93, ic, this portion of the pier will be 1.65 meters above road level. This will lok awkward. This ‘difficulty can be obviated to some extent by adopting a two tier shutter, bottom shutter being 1.38 meters high and the top shut- ter being 1.25 meters with 25 ems as the overlap between the shutters. They will be arranged in two grooves operating side by side ‘The arrangement of shutters is shown in Figure 14.1. Each Shutter is operated separately by a hollow screw non-rising TOP SHUTTER BSLtZIT5 igure 14.1, stem type in an independent groove. When the ventway is to be operated fully, both the shutters will be lifted clear above upstream FL. In that contingency, the bottom tier requires more clearance than the top shutter and bottom of the operating platform will have to be at + 22.00 + 0.25 + 1.38 = 23.63 or say the top of pier for the portion need be at a level of + 24.00. This is very reasonable and can be adopted. ‘The stability of pier is now checked for these levels (Figure 142) Figure 142 Hard ground is available at + 19.00 Assuming a thickness of 60 cms for the apron, the top of foundations for piers and abutments can be fixed at 19.40. ‘The bottom of foundations will be at 18.80. ‘Thickness of pier is 1.00 meter. ‘The load taken by the pier will be for a length of 2.00 + 1,00 = 3 meters of lineal roadway. 14.10 LOADS (1). Weight of road slab:20, = 5918 ke. = 800% 4.11 X-795 % 2400 23, 30 23, 30.2400 = 994 ka: Kerbs: 2 x 3.00% 7595 * Fog * 2 (5475) ,, 9400 = 1643 kg. Total ‘Wearing coat: 3.00 x3.65 57199 8555 ke. @) Weight of pier under the road portion 11 x 1,00 x 3.60 x 2100 = 31,072 ks, (3). Weight of pier under the operating platform = 1.50 x 1.00 x 4,60 x 2100 = 14,490 kg. (4). Water thrust on the pier (horizontal thrust) 2 1000 x2 x 3.006000 Ke, ‘Taking moments of all forces about toe water Resources Engineering t due to earth and al80 su to the sideward thrust ( h f charge due to live 1oad. etc.) a a at that doe, ead and live loads transmit : Keep the top width of abutment a 10 mee otf wh so ems wil be bearing for the RLC. $8 The bottom width meters. In accurate design, the ay be kept ce sme may RT cece 0 ty amd he geonomical section adopted Vide {in addition Figure 14.3. Figure 143 14.12 WING WALLS ‘The wing walls both on the upstream and downstream side of Description Force inkg | Lzverarm | Momentin FFencar Monzonan| (mee) |Ke.(meter) 1. Weight of oad slab et. | 8.555 20s | 17538 2 Weight of pier under oad] 31,072 205 | 6.608 3,Weightof pier under | 14490 46 | 70421 operating platform 4, Movizona thst soo | os _| e400 rns vential force S47 Ne 147.637 14 ‘Arm of resultant = =273 meters, tecemiciy 58! 2.79 - 007 mee S S61 | 7094 meters. Hence, the resultant falls within middle third and no tension {develops in masonry of pier and length of pier is quite enough. Maximum compressive stress atthe toe Allowable eccentricity = 54,117 6x00 1.00% 1000%541 S61 y =9.64 x 1.075 10.36 tonnes!sq, meter. This is within safe limits of masonry. Hence the design is safe and the length of pier as proposed can be adopted. 14,11 ABUTMENTS ‘The top level of abutment is + 23.00, ie, the bottom le ie ve the RE. slab ofthe roadway. The batom of foundation cone crete is + 18.80. Adopting 60 cms thick foundation concrete the top of foundation concrete is + 19.40, ‘The height of abutment is thus +23.00— 19.40 = 3,60; “The abutment will have its front face vertical to faci working of the regulator shutters inthe verical grooves the regulator will be ofthe sloping type, sloping from + 23.28, ie, junction with abutment to + 23.00 (ic.) top of bank level ot the upstream side and 22.75 on the downstream side. Top of wall: + 23.28 ‘Top width: 50 cms. Top of foundation concrete: + 19.40 + Height of wall: 3.88 meters. Adopt a section as shown in Figure 14.4 080 +2320 if ie he +1940 +1880 k—220 Figure 144De Canal Regulator 14.13. SECTION OF LEVEL WING AND RETURN ‘The top level of level wings and returns on both sides will be at the respective TB.Ls on either side. Since the difference in levels of T.B.Ls on either side is only 25 cms, the same section will be adopted on either side except that the top level of level wing and return on the downstream side will be kept at 22.75, and top level 23.00, top width 50 cms, top of foundation con- crete + 19.40 for the upstream side, Height of wall = 3.60 meters. ‘Adopt the section shown in Figure 14.5. Figure 145 14.14 SPLAY OF WINGS ON BOTH SIDES This depends on the length of solid aprons provided on both sides of the regulator. ‘The canal bed width is 15 meters. Atthe end of solid aprons, the distance between masonry returns will be kept at 15 meters as shown in Plate 7. 14.15 SOLID APRONS FOR THE REGULATOR Solid aprons are required to prevent seepage when the regulator is closed with canal at F.S.L. on the upstream side and no water ‘on the downstream. This solid apron will be laid with its top level atthe canal bed level. ‘Assuming the bed material ofthe canal as sandy and also the hydraulic gradient in that soil as 1/10, we require 10 x 2 = 20 ‘meters length of apron, as the head of flow is 2 meters. ‘This 20 meters of floor is provided as 6.00 meters on the upstream side, 5.6 meters under the regulator and the balance downstream. The maximum uplift is experienced just downstream of shutter. Assuming that the shutters are located in the centre of the operating platform, the head lost in creep by the time the seepage reaches the shutter LS 75 meters, 6.15 Head lost in creep = °s-> 0.675 meters = 1.325 meters. 0.675 meters. Residual upli ‘Assuming thatthe tail water is at the downstream bed level, the thickness of apron required (06 meters or say 1.00 meter. ‘This can be gradually reduced to 60 cms thick at the end of the apron, ‘The upstream apron never experiences any uplift. So, the thickness of apron can be nominal and can be limited to 30.cms. ‘Aprons can be in mass concrete. 14.16 REVETMENTS Both upstream and downstream provide in continuat solid apron some 5 meters in length of rough stone bed pitching 45 cms thick as shown in the drawing. Provide forthe same length of rough stone revetments on the ‘canal slopes to a thickness of 45 ems. Detailed bank connections are shown in the Plate 7. In case of canal regulators, there is no necessity of checking the stability of pier for cross thrust. When one vent is flowing and the other vent is closed, the rear water backs up, and the water level will practically be same on both sides of the pier. Hence, there is no cross thrust. In case of river and spillway regulators when all vents are closed and one vent open, there will be water standing against the pier on one side only. Itis then necessary to check the pier for stability against cross thrust, and to provide enough thick- ‘ness of pier to see that no tension is developed across the thick- ness of pier. 14.17 ARRANGEMENTS OF ENERGY DISSIPATION In the initial stages of opening of the regulator shutters, when there is no water in rear, the water will shoot out downstream Lill the tail water builds up. So itis possible in the initial stages for the bed to get scoured out. In order to dissipate this excess. velocity, two or three rows of friction blocks may be provided on the solid apron. ‘These will arrest the excess velocity and make the flow streamlined beyond the apron. This will even- tually reduce scours downstream of the solid apron. ‘The actual position and type of friction blocks can best be decided by hydraulic model experiments only. 14.18 GENERAL Incase of river regulators where the head is high, itis necessary to guard the structure against piping action of the flow beneath the aprons, So, the exit gradients at the end of the D/S apron will have to be kept as low as possible. To achieve this we may have to provide a D/S cut-off either by sheet piles or by mass concrete. To reduce uplift on the floor. an upstream cut-offveloping also may be required. In all such cases, the pressure develop under the floor may be calculated by Khosla’s method and thicknesses computed. 14,19. SPECIFICATIONS 1. Foundations: As the stresses on foundation concrete are ‘generally higher compared to other structures like drops etc.» especially under the abutments and piers due to the road slab ‘over them, the concrete has tobe richer in proportion. General- ly, CC. 1:3 : 6 will do. For regulators of smaller height and those that do not carry road slabs, a leaner proportion of concrete, say 1:4: 8 will suf- fice 2. Upstream and downstream aprons: Depending upon the bearing capacity of the soil, sometimes the foundations of abut- ments, wings and returns and piers may be below the canal bed level and may not form a monolith with apron concrete (as shown in the present exercise). Imperviousness and weight are the prime considerations in solid aprons. These can be in the proportion of mud mat, ie. 1:4: 8, Use of fly-ash will effect, economy in the apron concrete 3. Abutments, piers, wings and returns: Piers could ix: in course stone masonry in cement mortar 1 : 4 and joints pointed with cement mortar 1: 3. Alternatively, they could also be in mass concrete poured into form-work with cement concrete I: 4: 8 Abutments, wings and returns can be in coursed rubble ‘masonry and joints pointed with cement mortar 1:3. For piers and abutments, the top 30 cms height is made up with 1:2 : 4 cement concrete with the top surface rendered smooth, forthe road slab to rest uniformly. Before laying the ‘oad slab the top surface of the piers and abutments is painted Water Resources Engineering with one of two coats of hot bitumen. Instead of this craft paper may be laid just before laying the road slab concrete, This ax. rangement will facilitate free movement of the slab over the ‘supports while expanding or contracting during variation temperature, This will prevent developments of unsightly cracks in masonry just below the road slab, due to pulling effec, of the road slab. 4, Road slab: In the present case, there is @ continuous road slab overall the three spans. With the calculated reinforcement, the road slab and kerbs are laid in cement concrete 1:2: 4 (y 150), ‘The wearing coat is laid as a separate entity a long time after the road slab is laid. The wearing coat is laid in cement con. crete 1: 1'/z:3 (M 200), with a maximum thickness of 7.5 cms) at centre of road slab, sloping down to a thickness of 5 cms towards the kerbs. This is to facilitate easy draining of rain water towards the kerbs where drainage sprouts are inserted. Before laying this wearing coat, tell-tale steel sheet strips or 5 mm tell-tale rods are spread at intervals over the road slab, Sometimes hot bitumen is also applied on strips. The idea be- hind this arrangement is that due to vehicular traffic, the wear ing coat will slowly wear down resulting in reduction thickness, Sometimes, the wear may be so much that the tell tale strips or rods iay yet exposed. This is an indication that the wearing coat is almost gone and has to be relaid. If this is not done, damage will encroach into the main road slab and this is not desirable 5. Weep holes: These are left in the wing walls and abutments above canal F.S.L. with inverted filters, so 9s to drain off any saturation from the earthen embanki..ent under the road.CHAPTER 15 ESCAPES 15.0 INTRODUCTION ‘These structures are divided into broadly two categories: (1) Canal Escapes or Out-let Escapes. (2) Surplus Escapes. Canal escapes: As the name implies, these are structures lo- ‘cated on canals, both main canals and distributories, to dispose fff any excess water that accumulates in its course during a ‘storm, There are various other reasons for this accumulation of ‘water in excess of its capacity. These are enumerated as under. 1. During excessive rainfall over the ayacut area, the sluices in the upper reaches may be suddenly closed toavoid submersion of standing crop. This results in sudden rise in canal F.S.L. in the lower reaches. If the canal is a short one, it is possible to cut-off the supply by throttling the head regulator immediately. But in a Jong canal, most of the time, this would not be possible, due to the time lag. In all such cases, safety devices are necessary to dispose off this ex- cess water from entering the lower reaches of the canal by surplussing it out at suitable points along the canal and letting off this surplus water into the natural drains. 2, Sometimes, in contour canals, the canal may run in a high embankment for a considerable distance to negotiate a valley by an aqueduct. Embankments, of such magnitude are vulnerable places in a canal for breaches. Once a breach occurs due to any reason, it will go on widening and will present a very difficult problem to tackle in its closing. In all such cases the first thing is to close the canal completely or partially depending upon the nature and extent of the breach. This is achieved by having a cross regulator across the canal before the canal enters the embankment. Upstream of the regulator, at a convenient place, an escape is located so that the canal discharge can be diverted or let out into a nearby drainage course, which is capable of taking this discharge without spilling and inundating lands in adjacent villages. So, across regulator and an escape, go as a team and these are required at suitable intervals for the safety of a canal. While cross regulators are required at ‘more frequent intervals for the regulation of water supplies in the canal, they also serve in conjunction with the escape in saving the canal below that point times of danger. 3. On contour canals, sometimes, it may not be pos- sible to construct cross drainage works for all the streams crossing them. At some places, the canal may have to run in a single bank absorbing the flood discharge from the catchment. Sometimes, in hilly terrain, it is economical to absorb small catchments into the canal by means of inlets and let the dis- charge down by means of an outlet at a convenient place lower down. These absorptions naturally, in- crease the flow in the canal, raising its full supply level. It is always necessary to let down this excess flow thus ab- sorbed into the canal, into any natural stream by means of a suitable outlet or an escape. ‘An escape is a big structure resembling a regulator with regulating arrangements. Anoutlet or asafety out-let, will be something like a surplus weir without regulating arrangements, located in the canal bank, with its top at canal F.S.L. or slightly above, so that any water above F.S.L. will spill over this escape and finds its way down a natural drainage course. Generally, these are located where good hard ground at canal F.S.L. is available with the ground gently sloping down to the natural drainage course. 15.1 LOCATION 1. Outlet: It is generally a weir type structure located in the centre of the bank of the canal with it top level at F.S.L. or slightly above F.S.L. ‘The length is determined by the quantity of discharge it has to send down with a head equal to the dif- ference between the high canal water level likely to arise due to the absorption of certain catchments in the upper reaches, and the sill level of the weir. The rest of the design is the same as, that of a surplus weir. If good hard ground is available at the desired level, this outlet could as well as be a natural ground escape. 2. Outlet Escape or Escape Regulator: These are generally structures similar to the cross regulators. While the cross regulator is located across the main canal, this escape is located in the canal bank, upstream of the cross regulator with its sill slightly lower than that of the cross regulator. By doing this, itWater Resources Eng METHOD Figure 151 le to flush the canal of any silt accumulation now and ‘Sometimes instead of locating it perpendicular to the cross regulator, the escape is located at an angle to the canal align- iment (0 avoid eddies, etc., in the canal while functioning. ‘These methods are indicated in Figure 15. 1 In method III (Fig. 15.1), the advantage is, that if the cross ‘regulator, carries a road way then by locating the escane in the same line, the road way can be carried over the escape, instead of constructing a separate road bridge over the exit channel below the escape. In all these cases, the angle of skew is best determined only by hydraulic model studies and angle must be ‘such that the eddies at the entrance are the minimum, 3: Scour sluice: In case of canals, taking off from an anicut or aversion work, itis a practice to locate the Escape Regulator also, a the head of the canal before its take off, the main por. Dose in this case is only to Scour the approach channel of any accumulation of silt now and then, and keep the channel before {he head sluice clear. In such cases, the escape is called a Scour Sluice. ‘The capacity ofthe scour sluice to discharge will be Such that, when the scour slice is fully opened it will erea rou velocity in the approach channel. As this scour sluice ischarges into the main stream below the anicut, or wei ‘ear water level builds up and the effect However, care has to be taken in of + ANGLE ENERALLY Between Sosa" ‘0 avoid any deep scours in the exit channel and rear aprons the structure, In this case the sill ofthe scouring sluice will be sufficient lower than the sill of the off-taking head sluice, to ensure flu ing of silt ready been given. Generally, these escapes, carry a road way also in addition to the shutter hoisting platform, The design ofthe aprons below these escapes requires care ful consideration. Energy dissipating arrangements below the of opening of shutters, there will be shootin, water level builds up to form an effective destroying the excess energy, igning the energy dissipation Pale nents ill be of considerable help. In cases where the Sat Course is very low compared to the canal bed, neces! Wein r1ot of drop, the escape can be designed as a cloced wife 2 weir with clear over-all conditions but with choc ae 12 contol the depth of low over the weit) the rear char has to be carefully designed with drops tll the discharge is| Properly let down into the natural drainage course,CHAPTER 16 DESIGN OF CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS 160 INTRODUCTION ‘When a canal is aligned on contour, for the sake of maximum command, itcrosses a number of streams, asthe alignment runs along sidelong ground. Unless suitable steps are taken to dis- pose off this drainage, the drainage water will head up and con- equently breach the canal, The structures that are built for the dispostl of this drainage across the canal, ate called *Cross Drainage Works’ If the longitudinal section of a contour canal is examined, we find a lot of depressions, Some shallow and others deep even to a level below the bed level of the canal. The small depressions could be the stream courses with small catchments ‘while the deep ones could be big drainage courses with bigger catchments. It will not be possible to construct cross drainage works for each of these streams. Some of these small drainage courses could be clubbed and diverted into the big drainage course by means of diversion channels dug at a safe distance from the canal bank. Where there is no possibility of diverting or clubbing, or ‘where the cost of diversion becomes costlier than providing separate cross drainage work, it is better to provide an In- dividual cross drainage work. ‘The difference in height between the drain Maximum Flood Level and Canal Bed Level is called ‘Headway’ While aligning a contour canal, we have to take into account that there is enough head way at all points where cross drainage works are provided. However, it will not be always possible to stick to this principle rigidly and we meet various hydraulic conditions at the points of crossing. The structure also under- ‘goes change to suit those conditions, so that we get an efficient CONDITION 1 BED LeveL MEL ——___ team teven CONDITION 1 Figure 16.1 and effective crossing. The various conditions that are general- ly met with and the various types of structures that are con- structed, are discussed below. In this case (see Fig. 16.1), the canal bed level is higher than the drainage maximum flood level and there is thus enough clear headway. In this case, the drainage course can be dis- posed off by a structure below the canal without depressing the drainage bed for obtaining enough drainage water way. Generally, while designing these structures we do not provide the existing drainage water-way. We design such that, the drainage is passed through with velocity of 3 to 4 meters/second. This will economise in the vent-way for the drainage. But in doing so, we have to create an afflux head upstream so that the flow in the drainage barrel can be in- creased to 3 to 4 m/sec. ‘The roof of the drainage barrel, is generally built as RC slab. Top of slab is kept sufficiently below the canal bed level to allow for remodelling of the canal ata latter date to send down extra discharge. Sometimes, if the headway is sufficient enough, the roof of the drain could be of concrete arches either plain or R.C. In all such cases, the springing of the Arches, should be kept above the upstream M.FLL. of Drain, (Natural M.F.L. + Afflux). In designing of all cross drainage works, it is wise not to distur’ the natural stream conditions below the crossing. This will enable normal functioning of the drain below the crossing. This is achieved by keeping the maximum flood level of the drain Just below the crossing, same as the natural maximum flood level. If for any reasons this is not possible, a tail channel has to be excavated and joined to the existing drainage course within a reasonable distance so that, once it joins the natural drainage course, it presents no problems. Generally, cross drainage works for major stream and hill crossings come under these categories. There has to be enough clearance between the canal trough and the drainage MEL. ‘The next condition is that the drainage M.F.L. is higher than canal bed level but sufficiently below the canal F.S.L. The headway is not sufficient at the crossing. So in order to create enough headway, the drainage bed is depressed (Fig. 16.2) before the crossing and gently lifted at the rear. Since, the MEL. of the drain is higher than the canal bed, the drainage has to be syphoned under the canal. While designing such structures, the lift of the drainage bed in rear is to be limited to190 DRAIN BED IN REAR WITHOUT LIFT igure 16.2 ‘one meter, since excessive lift may mean stagnant water when there is no flow in the drain, and accumulation of silt and detritus resulting in growth of vegetation and ultimate chocking of the drainage barrel. ‘The structure, if the drainage is a small one, is called a syphon culvert or under-tunnel, and if the drainage is suffi- ciently abig one, economy is effected by fluming the canal also and passing it through a canal trough. Such, structures are called Syphon Aqueducts. ‘When a contour canal is running in a deep cutting, ie., with ‘ground level much above canal F.S.L., the drainage from the high contour side to the low contour side, crosses the canal above the canal F'S.L. (Figure 16.3). The bed level ofthe drain itself will be above canal F.S.L. In all such cases, the drainage will be taken over the canal and the canal will run normally without any fluming. Such a structure is called a Superpassage. The drainage will be taken over the canal bed. This will be typical to a type III Aqueduct without any syphoning. The dif- DRAIN BED CONDITION-IT igure 16.3 ‘ORAN BED CONDITION- Figure tot CONDITION - IT Water Resources Engineering ference is that the drainage will take the place of the canal with trough, inlet and outlet transitions with wings and returns. The canal will flow through the vents under the drain without any fluming. Sometimes, if the drainage trough is wide, it will be designed to carry a cart track also, since most of the drains in such cases will be drain-cum-cart tracks, ‘There are cases where one canal crosses another canal by| ‘means of a super-passage. These can be called Superpassages or Viaducts. ‘The drainage bed in this case (Fig. 16.4) condition IV is above canal bed level and drainage M.F.L. much above the canal F.S.L. In such cases, itis the canal that is syphoned under the drain, ‘The design is that of a typical type III Syphon Aqueduct, in which the drain passes over and the canal is passed under. In order to effect economy, the canal vent-way is constricted increasing the velocity to not more than double the normal velocity. Both the canal and drain will have wings and returns for transitions. Because of the increase in velocity and syphoning, some| ‘canal head is lost at the crossing and this has to be provided for in the hydraulic particulars of the canal. Sometimes, the crossing will be such that, at the point of crossing, the drain and canal bed levels and canal F.S.L. and drain M.FLL. are same. In such cases, it will not be possible to adopt a structure that comes under any of the conditions I to IV. ‘The crossing is negotiated by means of a level crossing cor- sisting of a number of regulators, as shown in Figure 16. The level crossing consists of: 1. A cross regulator across the canal to prevent the| drainage discharge entering the canal, lower down. ee mer. ‘oe com O_o, CONDITION-¥IN LET ourter REGULATOR REQULATOR Figure 16.5 2. An inlet regulator to allow drainage the canal when the drain is in flood. 3. Outlet regulator, to pass down the discharge into the drain below the crossing. The capacity of this regulator will be equal to the sum total of the drain and canal. This out-let regulater will also act as a safety surplus escape for the canal. In times of any breaches in the canal lower down the crossing when the drain is in floods, the cross regulator can be com- pletely closed and the outlet regulator fully opened to facilitate closing of breaches. 16.1 PRESSURE AQUEDUCTS Inhilly areas, sometimes very deep ravines have to be crossed, Here the catchment area of the stream will be small and the bed level and M.FLL. of drain will be very much below the channel to be crossed. In such cases, naturally, the channel will pass over the ravine by means of a trough or a conduit. But to sup- port the trough piers will have to be unusually high. This is not desirable. Inall such cases, pressure Aqueducts are preferred. Figure 16.6 shows a typical layout of a Pressure Aqueduct ‘The channel is let into a well whose diameter suits the average width of the channel, Fsu | W-LeT wect : ‘TRUSS OR T-BEAM: “CANAL BL PRESSURE SONDUIT | ‘OUT-LET WELL | RAVINE PIERS SUPPORTING ‘THE CONDUIT ‘BED Lever PROFILE OF A PRESSURE AQUEDUCT 101 ‘The foundations are taken to hard ground. The positioning of the wells on either side is such that, they it will not get un- dermined by the scour at a future date by the ravine. Piers are built in the ravine course such that their tops are sufficiently above the M.FLL. of the drain. They are taken deep to rest on hard foundation. The span is so chosen that the ravine is crossed with minimum number of spans. Figure 16.7 Figure 16.6102 a pressure conduit is run resting on steel Tubeam. The conduit could be either & Meat pipecor RCC. pipe capable of taking the pressure of the flowing water init. The difference in levels between the Pot- tom of the conduit and the F.S.L. of channel upstream of the ‘aqueduct will be the pressure inthe conduit ‘This conduit is connected to another well on the downstream side as shown in Figure 16.6. The channel after crossing takes off from the top of this well. The difference between the chan- nel F'S.Ls. upstream-side and downstream-side of the crossing will be the loss of head in the conduit. This will depend upon the velocities to which we design the cross-sectional area of the conduit, This loss of head can be calculated by using Bernouli's theorem or by “Flow Through Pipes’. (On top of the piers trusses, oF a concrete n cases of canals, carrying sufficiently big gy] not be possible to cross By Pressure pipes We. Above are pictures of 1Wo such aqueducy first carrying the discharge in R.C. toughs. supported py RCC. columns and braces, and the second supported by Columas and braces supported on Arch ribs (open spandgi ‘Arch). In both cases, the foundations are rocky, and for th ‘arch aqueduct, the abutments are solid rock (Granite). Figure 16.8 shows, a typical super-passage. In this case, distributory is taken over a branch canal with an R.C.C. trough supported on piers and abutments In case of a drainage crossing with supper-passage, the only difference will be that the drainage will take the place through the R.C.C. trough instead of the distributory. However ccharges, it indicated abo Figure 168CHAPTER 17 UNDER-TUNNEL-CULVERT OR SYPHON AQUEDUCT — TYPE TWO 170 PROBLEM Design a cross-drainage work to suit the following hydraulic data Canal: Discharge: 15 cubic meters/second Bed width: 15 meters Bed level: + 65.00, Full supply level: + 67.00 Fall supply depth: 2, meters Ultimate bed level: + 64.75 Ultimate F.S.L.: + 67.50 Velocity of flow in canal: 0.49 meters/second ‘Average bed level of drain: + 63.00 Left bank top width: 5 meters Right bank top width: 2 meters Top of bank level: 68.50 Drain: Catchment area: 3.4 sq. kilometers, Estimated maximum flood discharge: 34 cubic meters per second ‘Maximum flood level of the natural drain at the site of ‘work: + 64.00 Soil is hard gravel below: + 62.00 111 DESIGN With the above hydraulic particulars a type Il Syphon ‘Aqueduct (syphon culvert) which is also named as ‘Under- ‘tunnel’ is designed. Since the head room between the ultimate canal bed level and MEL. of drain at site is not sufficient, the floor of the ‘drainage barrel will be depressed under the canal, and covered with an R.C. roof slab. ‘The ML. of the drain in the natural state at site of structure Wille kept as the M.F.L. in rear ofthe structure so that there is Heirs disturbance for the drain to function normally in its ing course below the structure. Fixing the water-way for the Aqueduct: ili Catchment area of the drain: 3.4 sq. kilometers. Assuming a coefficient of 15 in Ryve’s formula. = 15. M23, where M =3.4 sq, kilometers : Q= 15x34? = 34 cubic meters/second MEL. of the drain atthe site 6? work = + 64.00 Natural bed level of drain = + 63.00 Ultimate bed level of Canal = +54.75 ‘Assuming an overall thickness of roof slab of 27 cen- timeters, the bottom level of roof slab is + 64.75 — 0.27 = + 64.48, In order to make the syphon barrel flow full, keep the bottom of roof below 64.00 say 63.75. The top of roof slab will be below ultimate bed level which does not effect the canal as this additional depth below ultimate bed level may get silted up in due course of time. Since hard soil in foundations is met with at an elevation of about + 62.00, we can depress the drainage barrel floor to about 61.75 as indicated in Figure 17. to get a depth of flow of 2.00 meters in the barrel. Assuming a maxi- ‘mum limiting velocity of 3 meters/second in the drainage bar- neal water way required will be 2+ rel, the lineal water way required will be => ‘Adopting 2 vents of 3 meters span each, the velocity of flow in 34 the barrel wll be 355 7 meters. .83 meters/second 17.1.1 Barrel Roof ‘The drainage barrel roof consists of an R.C. slab continuous over 2 spans, each span being 3 meters. Since the design is for a type I Aqueduct the canal as itis, (without any fluming, with its embankments between the two hheadwalls) will be taken over the barrel roof as shown in Figure 1. ‘The design of the R.C. roof for the barre! is di portions BC and AB and CD which are similar, (1) Portion BC, supports only water load above the top of slab, (2) Slab for the condition occurring under the top of bank, ie. slab supporting the earth up to T.B.L. to2Figure 17.4 Portions AB and CD, both are ofthe same nature supporting the earth load upto T.B.L. NNo live load is taken into consideration, as itis assumed to ‘get greatly dispersed over a wider area, since there is plenty of ‘earth cushion over the slab {mn practice, construction joints with copper sheets will be rovided at B and C. 17.12 Portion BC (Supporting only water load above the top of the slab) Assuming a depth of slab of 26 cms. with 4 ems. thick wearing {coat over the slab, top level of the wearing coat = 63.75 + 0,30 = 64.05 ‘The slab is continuous over the pier, hence the effective span is taken as the clear span which is 3 meters. 1713 Load Self weight of slab including wearing coat 30 = 799 *2400= 720g. ‘Water load = 3.45 x 1000 = 3450 kg, ‘Total = 4170 kg/m? Maximum bending moment atthe pier: wi? 4170 x 3x 3 x 100 oe em 69,125 kpfem, Since it is a water bearing structure, take ¢ = 42.2 kglem? (600 Ibs/sq. inch) and 1 = 84 kg/cm? (12,000 Ibs/sq. inch), m = Is. This gives the resisting moment Rr = 7.80 b d2 fears 7.8x100 Adopting acover of 2cms, and 1S mm rods, thickness 24.50 + 2.00 + 0.75 = 27.25, of 28 cms. Since the slab is continuous over the pier, the main reinfore ‘cement of slab over the pier comes on top face of the roof slab, i.e. to the water face. So in order to prevent cracking of con, Effective depth required 24.5 ems, adoptan overall crete onthe tension face, the tension in concrete is limited to 1] kg/cm’ (200 Ibs/sq. inch) and this requires additional thickneg ‘The slab is thickened over the pier by haunching the slab og cither side of the pier for about 75 cms. as shown in Plate 9 ‘The top of roof slab under canal portion will thus be 63.75 +0.28 +004 = 64.07. 17.14 Portions AB and CD Spans etc. are all same as in the above. Assume an overal thickness of 35 ems. In this case wearing coat is not ‘The weight that is coming on the slab may be taken as that dry earth 1520 kg/m’. “As a worst case, the slab will bel designed right through as supporting earth upto T.B.L. TBL.=68.50 Top level of slab: 63.75 + 0.35 = 64.10, ++ Height of earth standing onthe slab = 68.50 ~64.10 =4.40 meters. 11S Load 5 3 Self weight of slab = 755% 2400= B40 kg Weight of earth =4.40 x 1520 = 6688 kg. ‘Total = 7528 or say 7600 kg/m’ Maximum bending moment atthe pier 7600 = 7g %3x3 x 100= 855,000 kg. em, + Effective depth required = “\j -855:000_ = fective depth required 1 -B5000- 3Boms. Adopting 2 cms. clear cover and 15 mm. main rods, an over ‘sumed will be sufficient and may beUnder Tunnel Culvert or Syphon Aqueduct—Type Two ‘The design of abutment is the same as that previously made inthe design ofa sluice bare! using Rankine's theory of earth pressures. since in the structure impervious canal lining is adopted, we cean safely adopt weight of earth 1520 kg/m? (110 Tbs/eft) and angle of repose, @= 30" "Assuime the abutment section as indicated in Fieure 17.2. +08.50 Figure 17.2 172 STABILITY OF THE ABUTMENT 1. Barth pressure at 2158 65,5064.10)= 20440209044? 1520 1520 B= A X(68.50 — 61.75) =~ 6.75 = 3420 kg/m? ‘The total horizontal pressure acting on the abutment = PRIDE 3420 59.35 = 2925 «2.35 = 6540 This acts at a height of 230 x 2.35 + 5650 2.35 _ 7880x 2.35 3 x(2230 + 3420) 16,950 = 1.09 meters above C 4M, Weight of R.C. Slab and weight of earth on slab (P2) Weight of R.C. slab coming on abutment 3x35 2400 _ 100x2 ‘Weight of earth over the slab 1260 ke. = 4x 1520 4.40 = 10032 ks Total = 11,292 kg. oF 11,290 kg. Thisaets ata distance of (24252 ) lat iza] 0.50 meters from C I, Weight of earth standing over the abutment (P1) -(200-22") 1520 x 4.40 = 11704 kg.or 11700 kg. -125 m from C This acts at a distance of “25 4-025 1V. Weight of abutment (Ps) qe )r23sx200= 7004 This acts at a distance of (1x025 43x 125422) 3x(1+2) V. Weight of earth standing on face AB (Ps) 205 5 120%235=1MOkg 590 0.88 meters ‘This acts at adistance of (1.25 +0.50) = 1.75 meters from C. ‘Table 17.1 Moment of forces about C s. Deseription Load in kes Lever | Moment pies erica! | Horizon | .™_ | | (te Vertical | Homer | omc | meters) (meter) 1. [Horizontal earth # 6640 | 1.09 | 7.238 pressure 2 |Vericaltoads Pr] 11,700) 125) + 13,163 Pa 290) 050 | +5645 Ps | 7403 oss | +6515 Pe | 1.340] 17s | +2345 et | 31,7331 Nett 20430 | 20,430 ‘Arm of the resultant = 3-733 = 0.64 meters from C. Eccentricity = (29 00 Allowable eccentricity 2 = 0.33 meters. 6 ‘The resultant is just outside middle third. ‘The maximum stress in masonry: = 31733 _¢ , , 6%036 = 200 x 1000 2 += 15,87 (1 + 1,08) = 33.01 tonnes/sq. meter. This is allowable in masonry. ) Minimum stress (Tension) Ae (1 = 1.08) = 1269 kg./sq. meter or 0.127 kg/sq. em. This is allowable and hence safe. “The section as indicated in the sketch may be adopted.WEARING COAT 75CMS THICK igure 173 17.3. PRESSURE UNDER PIER ‘Taking one meter length of pier under the maximum height of the embankment: Height of earth standing on the slab = 4.40 meters. ‘Weight of earth transmitted to the pier = 4.40 x 4.00 x 1520 = 26752 kg. Weight of R.C. slab transmitted to the pier FS x2400= 3360 kg. Weight of pice = 1.00 x 2100 x 2.00 = 4200 kg. Total weight = 34,312 kg. oF 34.312 tonnes. Pressure on masonry atthe base ofthe pier 34312 00x 1.00 4.00% = 34,312 tonnes sq. m. This is very much within the safe limits for masonry, hence the pier is quite safe. 173.1 Fixing the Maximum Flood Levels The natural M.FL of the drain at site of work is given as + 64.00. So, this will be kept as the MIF. ofthe drain in rear ‘of the structure after construction, so thatthe drain will function practically normal below the structure. However, for a suitable length, a clean cut tail channel will be excavated, 173.2 Tail Channel The average bed level of drain at the site of the structure is given as + 63.00 and in order to economise the ventway, the bed is depressed to 61.75 at entry and is lifted up agai + 62.25 as shown in Figure 17.1. So the tail channel wt commences at the exit of the downstream wings of the drain starts with a bed level of + 62.25 with a depth of 64.00 ~ 62.25 = 1.75 meters. The drain will have a bed slope flatter than the natural slope of the drain so thatthe length of tal channel to be excavated is not unduly long, It isto be kept in mind that the velocity of flow does not exceed a limit of 1.6 meters/second (5 feetisec.) ‘Assuming a velocity of 1.6 meters/second, area of section 1.25 sq, meters with a depth of 1.75 meters and required 1/2 10 1 side slopes. SLAB 35CMS. Water Resources, SOCMs a he FOUNDATION CONCRETE (6+4B) 15-2125 ¢. b= 11.26, say 11.50 meters. Using Manning's formula, calculate the necessary bed slope to develop 1.6 meters/second, velocity for the above section, and if the bed slope is not flatter than the actual bed slope of drain, alter the section suitably. In this design, let us adopt tail channel width of 11.59 meters. The same will be adopted in the front also (between returns). 17.4 UPSTREAMM.F.L. ‘The downstream M.F.L. atthe lift wall is + 64.00. The bottom level of the R.C. roof of barrel is + 63.75. So under conditions of maximum flow, the barrel runs full. ‘The upstream MEL. will be higher than the downstream M.F.L. by an amount which will be sufficient to drive the maximum flood discharge through the drainage barrel. This head required can be calcv- lated by Unwin's Formula as already done in the case of the syphon-well drop. Maximum flood discharge = 34 cubic meters/second Ventway provided: 2 vents of 3.00 m x 2,00 m ‘Neglecting the space occupied by the abutment slope, ‘Area of barrel provided = 2.x 3.00 x 2.00 = 12 sq. meters. ‘Velocity to be developed in the barrel = 2+ .83 m/second. ‘The afflux is calculated using Unwin’s Inverted Syphon Formula, (teres) where, h = head required to drive the flow ‘L= length of Barrel in meters R= Hydraulic Mean radius of the barrel clocity of flow through the barrel in meters/second Ai =0.505 for unshaped mouth of the same cross- section as that of the barrel, For a Bell Mouth entry, fi =0.08ender Tiel Culvert or phon Aqueduct-—Type Two pov L400 8) where, a 00016 and B= 0.10 rcs design, de long the bare 39.5 meter, (vide droit he barrel «2X 12 0 0.60 pai ean ri of the are TE 3 ete oaxo.0 00033 pao 148042) wa00 24 2x9RI 39.50 * 43x 140,505 40.0083 x9 6 Lows of head = 28 2x 98L UF just upstream ofthe barrel = 64,00 +0.71 = 64.71 = Lax = 0.71 meters. 178 AFFLUX OVER DROP WALL Length of drop wall between wings # 10 meters (approximate: 'y from the drawing) «Discharge per meter length of drop wall = fhe Sa cubic meterssecond 4 dn! 41.770 ‘Affux over drop wall i given by Q = where, Q= discharge for meter length of drop-wall d= depth of til water above crest of drop-wall ‘hafflux over drop wall = (64.71 ~63.00) = 1.71 meters. 2342 3.54 1.71h"2 + 1.77H = 6.05h"? + 1.77 This gives the value of A approximately at 0.30 meters, = The MEL. upstream of drop-wall will be = 64.71 +0.30 = 6501. or say = 65.00 The top levels of returns at either end of the drainage barrel ae kept 0.50 m above the respective M.'s, Top of return wall upstream side of drain = 65.00 + 0.50 = 65.50 Top of return wall downstream side of drain = 64,00 + 0.50 = 64.50 176 CALCULATION OF LOSS OF HEAD BY TOTAL ENERGY METHOD ‘The los of head in the syphon or the driving head required iscaleulated by total energy method instead of using Unwins's formula, which is an empirical formula. i, Siteethe Maximum Flood Level downstream ofthe lift wall 'nitially fixed the upstream M.F.L, is worked out with refer- ‘708 this downstream M.F.L. (0 Section of water way just atthe lift wall, downstream end 107 “The water level over lift-wall is + 64.00. The top of lift-wall in + 62,25 and its length is 11.5 meters. The front batter of the return walls is 1/8 ‘Therefore, uren of water-way +[11sor tft) .75q205 5:meen Velocity developing = 5.°4> = 1.66 mise, locity developing» 52; = 1.66 mise, Velocity head Wetted perimeter of the water way = 11.50 +2 x 1.008 x 1,15 = 15,03 m :levation of the Total Energy line (T.B.L.) = + 62.25 + 1.75, 40.14 2+ 64.14 tion just outside the exit of the Syphon Barrel mn (i) isa the starting of the downstream transi and the loss of head between the two sections is due to friction toss and loss due to change in velocity. The loss due to change in velocities may be neglected. The distance between the faces ofthe abutments at + 61.75 level is 6.5 meters. Sill ofthe drainage barrel at exit -(r-24241 sme Assume a maximum water level of + 63.85 at this section. x 2.10 = 14.20 sq. meters. sso tera [o5+2I0 Veli deveoing = 345239 mir. 239 x98 Wetted Perimeter = 6.5 + 2 x 1.008 x 2.10 10.7 meters. ‘Therefore, Elevation of total energy line at section (ii) as Velocity head = ‘This should tally with the TEL obtained by adding the fric- tional loss to TEL at section (i) ‘The frictional loss is obtained by taking the average of all parameters between sections (i) and (ii) 2050+ 18.29) - 17.35 54, meters ‘Average area = - Avenge weed prineer= USE2102 - 12 96 mae Average velocity = 1562.29) «2.09 meterssec.108 ‘The frictional slope is calculated using Manning's formula ‘The coefficient of Rugosity is taken as 0.018. 1 _ Vn _ 203 x 0018 _ 9 99995 an Likes ‘Therefore, $ = 0.000895 or ‘Therefore, nis ‘The length of the downstream transition is 10.5 meters. ‘Therefore total frictional loss from section (ji) to section (i) ‘Adding this frictional loss to the T.ELL. at seotion (i), TEL. at section (ji) becomes 64.14 + 0.01 = 64.15 Thus the two T.EL's obtained individually tally (ap- proximately equal). Hence the water level of + 63.85 assumed at section (ii) may be adopted. (iti) Section of Water way just inside the syphon Barrel at Exit: ‘The section of each compartment of the drainage barrel is 3 ‘meters at top, 2.75 meters at bottom and depth 2 meters. ‘Therefore, total area of the drainage barrel water way <2x 02279 26115059 Wetted perimeter can be taken as 2(3 +2.75+2+2)= 19.50 meters. ‘Hydraulic mean depth (R) = +2 = 0.59, R*? = 0.703 Velocity developing in syphon barrel = = 296 meters/second ‘There is no distance separating sections at (ii) and (ii). The loss between these two sections is only eddy loss, ic. due to change in velocity. This is taken as 0.25 times the difference between the velocity heads at sections (if) and (i. 2.96 _ 2397 ‘Therefore, =025( 296 _ erefore, eddy loss = 0.25 ( POR - 29 TEL. at section (ii) with reference to section at (ii) = TEL. at section (i) + eddy loss) = 64.15 + 0.04 = 64.19. 2 The velocity head a section iis 29 = 0.45 2x9, Deducting this from the TEL, we get the water level which is = 64.19 -0.45 = 63.74, It is nearly the bottom level of the drainage barrel. Hence the drainage barrel flows full (iv) Loss of head in the Drainage Barret The drainage barrel is 39.5 meters long. The drainage flows through the barrel with a uniform velocity of 296 Water Resources Eng recond from entrance to exit. The loss of head Cig arbre is only due to frictional slope and this i tained by Manning's formula. Slope necessary to develop velocity of 2.96 meters/second is calculated: 3 20.703; V = 2.96 miseci n= 0.018 an fore, SM? = ‘Therefore, z ‘Therefore, frictional loss = ‘Therefore TEL at section (iv) ie. just inside the dri barrel (at entrance) = TEL at section (ii) + frictional loss 64.19 + 0.23 = 64.42. (v) Section just outside, before entrance tothe drainage barre ‘Assume a water level of + 64.27 just before entry into the drainage barrel ‘Area of section of water-way would be = (65+ 232) 2.52 = 17.17 94 m. 4 Velocity developing = wh = 1.98 m. sec. 1.98? 29.80 ‘Therefore, TEL = 61.75 + 2.52 + 0.20 = 64.47 This should tally with the TEL obtained with reference to the TEL just after entry into the drainage barrel. The loss hhead between these two sections is the eddy loss due to change in velocity and is equal to 2 oas[ 298 1 Velocity head 120 F598 ~ 229.8 | 925 045 - 0.20) = 0.06 ‘Therefore, TEL just outside the barrel with reference to the TEL just inside the barrel = 64.42 + 0.06 = 64.48. ‘These two values more or less tally. Hence the water level just upstream| of the drainage barrel assumed as + 64.27 may be adopted. (vi) Section just downstream of the drop wall: ‘The loss of head between the section just downstream of drop ‘wall and the section upstream of the drainage barrel at entry i} the loss due to friction in the entrance transition. The length of the entrance transition is 10.0 meters. The frictional loss is cal culated on similar lines for value already calculated in the exit transition. As already seen, the frictional loss in thel downstream transition is 0.01 and the same may be adopted it the upstream transition also. (assuming that the bed level ‘ransition right through is at + 61.75). ‘Thus the TEL just D'S of the drop-wall can be taken as 64.48 +0.01 = 64.49, Assume water level of 64.44 just D/S of the drop-wall. ‘Area of sectior (u #0428) 2.69 = 31.85 sq, metersser Tunnel Culvert or Syphon. Aqueduct—Type Two velocity developing = 5-45 ~ 1.06 meter/second Lae Velocity head: 59 99 "90° TEL = 64.44 + 0.06 = 64.50 ‘Thus the TEL’s approximately tally. The level of 64.44 just Di of drop-wall may be adopted. The afflux over the drop Matican be calculated using the formula, = 3.54anl? + 177? Inthis case, the value d = (64.44 ~ 63.00) = 1.44 ‘Taking the length of drop wall as 11.5 meters (as shown in the Plate 8) the discharge per meter length of drop wall will be 1296 cubic meters/second. 296 =3.54% 1.44 AN? 4 1.77? ‘This gives ha value of approximately 0.3 meter. The water level upstream of the drop-wall will be 64.44 + 0.30 = 64.74 as agtinst a value of 65.01 obtained by Unwin’s formula Unwin’s formula gives a little higher value and for purposes of rapid design calculations, will serve the purpose, In this example, while calculating the frictional loss, only two sections, one at end and one at barrel entrance have been taken. However, if rigorous calculations are to be done, sec- tions at every point where the bottom levels change have to be taken and losses worked out to get at accurate values 1.7 DEPTH OF FOUNDATIONS OF RETURNS ‘These are decided by the respective scour depths. The scour depth below the Maximum Water Level which is given by, R= 1.3749" (assuming Lace’y Silt factor as 1.0), where R is the scour below M.W.L. and Q is the discharge in cubic meters/second per meter length of entrance or exit transition (Gistance between the two returns). In this case the distance between the returns is fixed as 11.50 meters. 41 Discharge per meter length = 4 = 2.95 cubic meters ber second. ‘Scour depth = 1.374 x 2.9579 = 2.826 or 2.83 meters (1) On the upstream side, the scour will be upto 65.00 - 2.83 ie. up to a level of 62.17 (2) Onthe downstream side, the scour will be upto 64.00 2.83, ie. upto a level of 61.17. However, provide the foundations of returns, wings etc. both upstream and downstream same as that for the abutments, ‘tamely Bottom level of foundations 61.15 Depth of foundation concrete: 0,60 meters ‘Top of foundation concrete: 61.75 178 DESIGN OF WING WALLS AND RETURNS On both sides the wing walls slope down from + 67.00 to the Fespective return levels. 109 17.8.1 Upstream side (1) Section of wing wall at the junction with head wall ‘Top of wing wal is at the same level as the head wall i.e. at + 67,00 Top of foundation + 61.75 +. Height of wing wall = 67.00 ~ 61.75 = 5.25 meters Figure 17.4, ‘Adopt a section as give Figure 174 (2) The Section of wing wall on the downstream side It also will be same as above, as the top levels and foundation levels, etc are all same. (3) Upstream side return Top level of return: + 65.50 ‘Top of foundation: + 61.75 <- Height of wall = 3.75 m. ‘Adopt a section as shown in Figure 17.5. oes noe + +6175 +OnIs 210 at igure 37A%RA_Dowastroaan sd return ‘Typ level of oun # 480 ‘Vpot foundations = 01,78 eight of wall 2.78 wioters Adopt a ection a shout tn Pipe 126, aCe \ £94.00 q + e078 sone ere rawr 8 VAN Section of hend walls ‘Top level of head wall: +67.00 orton level of head wall + 64,10 Height of head wall « 2,90 Since the wall is supporting aslo tase width of 1.28 mvoters wi Make the earth face vertical ng surcharge, provide a h 50 ems. top width as shown, Figure 2.9 17.84 Uplift on the syphon barrel Noor ZToking the worst case, Le. when there is no water in the hainage barrel nd canal wing ful, water i kely to oe ‘aun sening bythe sie of the abutment, percolate under the foundations and then exert pressure with the residual hen A100 pe Figure 1.8 Water Resources Engineg om A then goes down to poine er starts percolating from A the ° ‘on the xyphon floor from C onwards Maxim lifrence in elevition between the bottom of floor and the canal F.S.L, # 67.50 ~ 61,15 = 6.35 meters, "This i the overall pressure head available, 17.88 Creep loxt in percolation Prom A toC #295 + 2,808.25 meters, ‘Assuming a creep gradient of 1 in 4 head lost in percolation 525 S250 1.1 meters Pe 1.31 met ‘The barrel oor cun resist 2 x 0.60 = 1.20 meters of uplit (approximately) Total uplift accounted for = 1.31 1.20 = 2.51 meters, Residual head to be accounted for = 6.35 ~ 2.$1 = 3.4 meters, ‘This is avoided by providing a solid apron in continuation of the abutment with a copper sheet construction joint, "This can also be in the shape of lining both in bed and sides of canal section Length of solid apron to be provided for = 4 x 3.84 = 15.36 meters or provide 16,00 meters, ‘The uplift resisted by arch action of the floor is not taken into aceount. By providing solid apron alone percolation can- ‘ot be attested. ‘The canal inner slopes also have to be lined ‘with masonry or conerete to the same extent, {mn the Plate 9 masonry lining 30 ems. thick laid on 15 ems. thick well-Iaid gravel backing has been provided on either side of the abutment 17.9 ANCHOR! ARRANGEMENTS Since the barrel flows full witht above the top of roof slab, ther ‘on the roof slab, So, the upstream drain M.RL, wel re will be an upward thrust acting the roof slab has to be anchored to the canal empty. MEPL. just upstream of roof stab = 65,00 Bottom level of roof slab = 63.75 Difference = 1.25 meters, ** Upward thrust acting on the roof stab = 125% 1000 kg./sq, meter of the sI ‘This is partly resiste Foot slab (canal 2 {199 * 2400 = 768 kg, lab = 1250 kg /sq. meter. “by the weight of roof slab, Weight af Portion) including wearing coat # Halance to be resisted = (1250 — 768) = 482 ky /sq, meter:Under-Tunnel Culvert or Syphon Aqueduct—Type Two ‘This is resisted by providing anchor bolts fixing the slab and abutment. Details of anchor bolts are shown separately in the case of syphon aqueducts. Uplift thrust to be resisted per meter length of pier = 4.00 x 1.00 x 482 = 1928 kg, Uplift force that one 20 mm dia. M.S. holding-down bolt can esist assuming the safe tensile stress of 1260 mild stel = 1260 x 3.14 = 3956 kg. kgsq..em. in mt Itis enough to provide one bolt per every 2 meters length of pier approximately. The holding-down bolts on the abutment can be at 4 meters interval, since only half the uplift experienced on the slab will be communicated. No holding-down bolts are necessary for slab under bank Portion. However, the bolts may be provided in this portion also at the same spacing as worked out.CHARTER 1S. SYPHON AQUEDUCT— T 'YPE THREE SN A CROSS DRAINAGE WORK TO SUIT ou YDRAULIC PARTICULARS Comal Discharge: 45 cubic meters per second ‘Nes wid: 20.00 meters a level: $40.00 ull supply level: +.42.00 Utimate Bed level: + 39.75 (ULB {UtGimate Fall Supply level: + 42.50 (ULF SL.) Average velocity inthe canal 0.83 meters per second ‘Loft bank top width: 5,00 meters Right bank top width: 2,00 meters ‘Canal side slopes both inside and outside are 2: 1 in em- bbankment with a minimum cover of one meter over the ‘hydrautic gradient ‘Top of canal bank: + 43,50 Average ground level on flanks of drain; + 38.00 and the bed level of the drain may also be taken as + 38,00 at the point of corussing, Drain: Catchment area = 8.0 square Kilometers, The maximum computed discharge is worked out at 60 cubic meters per second using a coefficient of C = 15 in Ryve's formula Maximum flood level ofthe drain at the site of crossing is +39.75 (observed), Average bed level of the drain at the site of crossing is + 3800, Hard sol suitable forthe foundation is met + 37.00. 181 DESIGN nical to go ir aqueduct as the extra cost of barrel poaage gee will be more than the cast. of ot n ther works necessary fora type So, whenever an aqueduct is to be act ly poe actually constructed, {0 be worked out fora type It and a type IM and whichever is economical ist be chose, and adopted, ease ofa type TI aqueduct, the canal willbe fleg andtaenthooghat ny enforced concrete rough up ported on piersand abutments. ‘The maximum velo owt the trough is generally taken as twice the normal velocity oF 1 meters per second whichever is lex In this case the normal velocity in the canal ix 0.83 ieters/second, Twice the normal velocity will be 1.66 meters/second, So design the canal trough restricting the velocity of flow through the trough to 1.5 meters per second, Pull supply discharge » 35 cubic meters/second. Keep the sill of canal trough at the ultimate bed level of the canal, namely + 39.75. 18,2 LOSS OF HEAD IN THE CANAL DUE TO FLUMING OF THE CANAL WATER-WAY. THROUGH THE TROUGH In a type | or Il aqueduct, the canal water-way is not reduced and is taken over the drain as itis. Hence, there is no loss of head in the canal, However, in case ofa type Il aqueduct, the canal water-way is fumed or reduced, resulting in an increase in velocity through the trough, Unless there is a difference in water levels before entry and after exit, attainment of increased velocity in the trough isnot possible In aqueducts of short lengths, by limiting the velocity to twice the normal canal velocity, the loss of head may be very small or almost negligible and hence it is generally ignored. The assumption is that the upstream water surface will in course of time assume a flatter slope to the extent required to (rive the flow through the trough with that bit of extra veloc. However, in larger and longer aqueducts it is not so. In order {© economise in cost of the canal trough, we may be forced to increase the velocity through the trough, In addon, the length ofthe trough isan additional factor. These two faz tors combine to indicate a significant loss of head, which will have to be provided for, while formulating the canal hydraulic Particulars, Structures constructe ring this en ed ignoring this aspect will not In the present case, to illustrate this aspect, the loss of head inthe canal is computed, Normal canal section before entry —AA Canal bed level: + 44.004—Type Three sone sbi 42.00 si- Discharge: 35 cumecs. average velocity: 0.83 meters/second jority head = 2 9.81 ~ 19.62 035, - TEL (Total energy line) at AA = + 42.00 + 0,035 = A 82.085 secion just tthe upstream transition — BB qmsesectional area at the transition = 20 x 2 = 40 sa, ees. _, Velocity developing = 3 70.88 msec. ‘he velocity from section AA to section BB increased from 183 mfsec to 0.88 m/sec. “1 dy loss due to change in velocity 0.88" “(8 O77 = = 0.004 19.62 of 14.62 n is abrupt and not siooth. ne} (On the upstream end the transit Sothe entire eddy loss is taken into consideration, The TEL. at BB = TELL. at A ~ eddy loss + 42.035 - 0.004 +42.031 Section atthe entrance of trough — CC Area=12x2=24 sq. meters 1.46 misec. + Velociy developing = 35 Change in velocity from BB to CC is from 0.88 m/sec. to 1.46 msec, [Neglecting the frictional loss between BB and CC, eddy loss ‘between BB and CC with a smooth transition 5( 1462 _ 0.887 (19.62 19.62 213 0.77 =025( 213 _ 0.77 “(i 3a) 018 #025 136 196; + TEL, at CC with reference to section at BB =+42035-0.018 442017 Th pets headin inthe RC. trough is uniform and the loss of fe oushs only friction loss which manifests itself as to sustain the velocity. ee 3 This loss of head is calculated using Manning's formula, using the value of 0.014 for n. Length of RC. trough =3 x 2.5 +2x 1.00+2x05=10.5m. (centre to centre of abutment) ‘Sectional-area (water-way) in the trough = 12x2.= 24 sq. m, Velocity developing = 35 Wetted perimeter =2 2+ 12= 16 meters. (R) Hydraulic mean depth RB a1 Applying Manning's formula, we have 1.46 msec. 1 un $+ 1M6= a yygX 31S! 46 x0.014 131 = 0.0158 100024336 0.02044 s ot or Slope is 75 -. Total surface fll required in the trough = 105 = 0.0025 or 0.003, ‘Total energy line atthe exit of the trough with reference to the section atthe entrance of the trough T-E.L. =+ 42.017 - 0.003, +42.014 Neglecting the frictional loss in the exit transition, the eddy Joss in the transition is calculated as follows: ‘The velocity just inside the trough at exitis 1.46 m/sec. ‘Section atthe exit ofthe transition wr0¢beax2qm, =21%2=42 sq.m. Velocity developing, (This section is same as that of the canal with "to 1 side slopes) 1.46 _ 0.83? dey es 02 (85 -s 25143 025% 19 62 = 0.018 . TEL at end with respect to the end section of trough =+42.014-0.018 =+41,996 Deducting the velocity head in the canal, the canal ESL. in rear of the structure should be = + 41.996 — 0.035 = + 41.961us jn ear of the This sag isthe sional Ba. f+ 2H ES is is agains nthe canal, the canal structure. fi f flow: Inorder to have 2 meter depth of se ted level in tear has tobe +41,961 ~ 2.00 Pe (+ 42.00 - 39: of head in the canal is ligible. structures in the © iderable effect on ‘Thus the loss (0.039 meters. This is quite ne But if we have a series of such cama fect may ave 8 cons charging capacity of the canal. “There are long aqueduets ike the Hagari aqueduct scsi Hagari River on the Tungabhudra Low level candi aqueduct on the Nagarjunasagar Left canal, the Gannavitt axueduet onthe Vasita arm of the Godavari, and the Com ettauct cross the Krishna River, In al these eases, the ot joss of head is provided as longitudinal slope in fToor of the canal trough itself Generally, excessive velocities a trough, as energy dissipation problems will arise atthe d stream end of canal F.S. depth in trough is 2.00 meters. anal, the the dis- re not advisable in the canal jown- Width of trough required 35 a 2.00 Tope Tso = -67 mor 12.00m So, provide an R.C. trough with a clear width of 12 meters as shown in Figure 18.1. The top of the side walls of trough is, kept at 0.50 meters above ultimate F.S.L. 182 DRAINAGE WATER-WAY ~ Assuming a4 ems. thick wearing coat and a 25 ems. thick R.C. slab for the roof of the drain, the bottom level of the R. C. trough will be + 39.75 -0.29 = 39.46, Keeping the natural drainage M.FL at sit as the MRL. in rear ofthe structure, after construction the dain will be flowing full through the ventway. ‘The average bed level ofthe drain at site is 38.00. To reduce the number of vents of the aqueduct, the bed of the drain is depressed to 37.00, as shown in Figure 18.1 and is taken ‘straight. Since the drainage barrel flows full, the depth of flow in the drainage barrel is 2.46 meters. Limiting the velocity of drain in the barrel to 3.25 meters/second, the length of water- way required 60 246 x 3.25 Hence, provide 3 vents at 2.50 meters each. The actual velocity obtaining in the barrel wil ore than 3.25 meters per second andcan be ance ety 7.506 meters. So, the aqueduct is designed with 3 vents a vents of clear forthe drainage way while the sill of drinage feet at + 37.00 as shown in Figure 18.1, este 3ocms DRAIN <—_— +36-00, Figure 18.1 18.3 R.C. TROUGH ‘The entire R.C. trough over the three spans, will be designed ‘one continuous monolithic structure. Sometimes each trou over a span is designed as a simply supported unit with structions and expansion joints alternately over the piers. The R.C. side walls of trough will be designed as cantil and the bottom slab as continuous over the three spans. 184 R.C. SIDE WALLS ‘The top of the cantilever wall will be kept 0.50 meters Ultimate Full Supply Level and will be 15 cms thick ‘The cantilevers and the bottom slab will be designed for timate conditions only. ! ‘The maximum bending moment of the cantilever | Where, = 2.75 meters and W = 1000 kg. 1000 x 2.75* x 100 6 42.2 kg/em?, t= 844 kg/cm? and m = 15, we +. Bending moment = = 3,46,500 kg. em. Assuming have Rm=7.8 bd Th i ired = 3:46.50 effective depth required = \V SFO = 21.08 cms. As the main cantilever reinforcement comes to tne wate! face, itis necessary to increase the thickness of concrete so th! the tensile strength in concrete is limited to 14 Kg/em? and tht Concrete does not crack. An overall thickness of 30 cms ma) be adopted. The top of side wall is kept 0.50 meters above the USL. at + 43.00 with a thickness of 15 ems. Provide in a dition tothe extra thickness at the bottom, 15 em haunches it- Side the trough as shown in Figure 18.2.Syphon Aqueduct—Type Three ae Pyas00 184 BOTTOM SLAB ‘The bottom slab of the R.C. trough which is also incidentally the roof slab for the drainage barrel is designed as a slab con- tinuous over three spans. Effective span inthis case is the span which is 250 meters. Assume a 25 cms thick slab with 4 ems thick wearing coat 185 LOAD 29 Slab + wearing coat = 755 * 2400 = 696 ks, Water = 100% 2.75 = 2150 Toul 3446 or 3450 kg/sq. meter. Maximum bending, moment (three continuous spans) is we 7p Oeuing athe intermediate supports 100 =3450x2 100, 2,75 X2.15 x5 60,900 kg/em. Effective depth required 18.3 ems, ‘Assuming a clear cover of 2 ems. and 15 mm. rods an over- all thickness of 21 ems. will be enough. However, provide 25, ms. thick as assumed. Since the negative bending moment oc- us over the supports, the negative see wil be onthe water fc. In order ose that racks donot develop on the water fie of concret the thickness ineeated to limit he tensile fessin concrete toes than 14 k/s.cm, Ths extra thickness scttned by hunching the slab a the botom over the pies as in Figure 18.3. However, detailed check for cracking stress in cone A Beg ones hear and he shoes sted a 1g 4. ems AMINO COmT 28CNS R.C-ROOF SLAB. ‘SLAB HAUNCHED OVER /SUPPORTS. igure 383 -The wearing coat 4 cms thick is laid on top of the R.C. slab as shown in Figure [8.3. This will be laid monolithically along with the R.C. slab to act as a water sealing coat 18.6 FIXING THE MAXIMUM FLOOD LEVELS OF DRAINAGE ‘The total length of syphon barrel is equal to the width of the canal trough outside to outside and is equal to 12.0+ 2% 0.30 3712.60 meters. Under maximum flood conditions, the velocity ‘of flow through the drainage barrel has already been calculated as 3.25 meters per second. ‘The MF. of the drain in rear of the syphon barrel is 39.75. So. the barrel flows full under maximum flow conditions. The necessary afflux required to push through 60 cubic meters/second with a velocity of 3.25 meters per second is cal- culated by Unwins’ inverted syphon formula 2 h -(' +fit. ni} ._ neglecting the velocity of approach where, fi = 0.505 zal +2) where a = 0,003, R and. ‘L=12.60m. _ __3X2.5%2.46 Hydraulic radius = 3 423% 250 — ydrauic mean radius = 555-65 5 9,46) 7 OO mete V=3.25 meters per second. 0:30.10) _ a ) 0.00348 12.60 0.00348 x 12-60 8x O62 0.003 ( + 0707 or 0.071 = 325 =(1+0505 +0071) : +0071) 9 9.81 2 = 1576 x 325: 2x98 Aflux required on the upstream side ofthe trough to push through the maximum flood discharge = 0.85 meters. = 0.8486 or 0.85 meters.6 ++ The maximum flood level of the drain atthe entrance bi the barrel, ic., upstream of trough = Downstream M.F.L. + af- flux = 39.75 + 0.85 = +40,60. 187 TAIL CHANNEL Incase of al eross drainage works, design of til channel ofthe drain is one of the utmost importance. Generally, the structure {is so located that the tail channel is straight for a considerable length. kis always better to fix the natural M.F.L. ofthe drain asthe rear M.FLL. ofthe structure, such thatthe natural hydraulic par- ticulars of the drain in rear are not disturbed. AS long as the natural water levels are not tampered with, the drain in rear will function normally. In this case, the M.F-L of 39.75 has been fixed as the ear M.FL. ofthe structure, So, the water surface ‘elevation isnot disturbed. However, inorder to economise the ventway of the structure, bed level of the drain has been lowered to + 37.00 whereas the natural bed of drain is at + 38.00. Inonder to drain off the water efficiently, the drain in rear of the structure has tobe slightly trained to suit this new depth of| flow. Prior to the construction ofthe structure, the bed level is 38.00 and the MFLL. is 39.75. So, the depth of flow of the drain was 1.75 meters. After construction of the structure the Figure 18.4 188 AFFLUX ON THE DROP WALL a mn the upstream side is + 38.00. This has been ses in 3700, So, on the upsteam side ofthe da, before entering the barrel, the drain has to negotiate a fall of one meter at the drop wall (Figure 18.5). Treating it as a drowned ‘weir, the afflux over the drop-wall is calculated. +40-94 + 40.60 260d) * sore 1 ——__+ 38:00 Figure 18.5 Length of drop wall between wing walls is 11.00 meters (approximately, as measured from Figure 18.5) harge per meter length ofthe drop wall = ©? = 5.45 cubic meters. Applying the drowned weir condition, we have = 3.54 dh! + 1.77? d= 40.60 - 38.00 = 2.60 meters a= afflux, 545 = 3.54 x 2.60 A! 41.77 92 29.2 4!2 +177? This gives a value of = 0.34 (approximately). ‘Therefore, the afflux over the drop wall is 0.34 meters, ‘The ML. over the drop wall is 40.60 +0.34 = 40.94, The top level of wing and retur upstream and downstream the respective M.F.L.’s, ms of the drainage both are Kept at least 0.50 meters above Therefore, keep the top level of ‘upstream of drain at + 41.50 and return on the downstream of drait f wing and return on the keep the top level of wing and in at + 40.50.‘syphon Aqueduct—Type Three 189 INSPECTION TRACK -qhe inspection track on the left embankment of canal aso has {obetaken across the drain by means ofa bridge just by the side ofthe canal trough. ‘The width of roadway between Kerbs may be kept large enough to meet the demands of traffic proposed on the canal ppanks. In this case, itis kept as 3.65 meters (12 feet wide). Depending on the traffic, the road bridge may be designed. In the present case, the roadway is carried over plain concrete ar- ches since there is enough headroom above water level. The springings of arches are kept above water level inthe drain ‘Semi-cireular arches or reinforced concrete deck slabs can be adopted. Inthis case, the thickness of 50 cms adopted for the arches isquite enough and the detailed design of arch is not attempted. Keep the springing level of arches a little above the rear MEL, ie. +40.00. Bottom level of arch (intrados) is 40.00 + 2° 1.25. ‘Thickness of arch = 0.50 m. ‘Therefore, top of arch (extrados) = 41.75. ‘The top level of road surface may be kept at + 43.00. ‘The space in between the road level and top of arch is covered with cart to act as cushion over the arches. The road width between kerbs is kept at 3.65 meters with suitable parapets. ‘The inspection track over the arches is suitably connected to the canal banks by canal transitions (vide Plate 10) 1810 FOUNDATIONS OF ABUTMENTS AND PIERS Foundations of piers and abutments are to be taken down to tard ground. As per data, hard ground is available below +37.00. So, the foundations of piers and abutments are taken down to +36.40. Adopting 60 cm thick foundation concrete, the top level ‘of foundation is + 37.00. Assen from the plan, the drainage sill is kept at + 37.00 and. with a depth of drainage floor as 60 cms, the bottom level of ‘drainage apron also is at + 36.40. So, the drainage apron, foundations of piers and abutments will all be laid as one block of concrete of 60 cms. thick (for the ‘rainage barrel portion) as shown in the plan. ‘This distributes the load of the structure evenly on the soil low and drainage apron will also be capable of acting as an inverted arch to take care of extra uplift pressures. ‘Where the soil of enough bearing capacity is met with at a ‘eepe level, the foundations will be taken deeper andthe drainage Willbe a higher levels. In such cases, the acuual pressures foundations of abutments will have to be checked and $0 that they do not exceed the safe bearing capacity. Mi 17 ‘The drainage aprons in such cases, not being monolithic the foundations of abutments and piers, will not be able to take care of any extra uplift pressures by arch action. ‘The uplift pressure that can be resisted is only due to the weight of con- crete apron. In the present case, for safety the thickness of pier adopted. is 1.00 meter. Abutment under the road arches has a bottom width of 1.75 meters and top width of 1.00 meter. The abutment under the road arches has a bottom width of 2.25 meters and a top width of 1.25 meters. The abutments have a uniform face batter 1 in 8. ‘These abutments, in actual construction, will have to be carefully checked for the stability taking into account the earth pressures, surcharge, ete. acting on them. ‘The maximum toe pressures on soil have to be checked so that they do not exceed the safe bearing pressure on the foundation soil. 18.10 ARC LENGTHS TO FIX THE LENGTHS OF DRAINAGE WINGS Downstream side of drain: Canal FS.L. Drainage bed Difference Arc length = 5 x 4 = 20 meters +42.00 +3700 + 500m Upstream of drain: . Canal F.S.L. Drainage bed Difference +42.00 + 38.00 4.00 m ‘Are length along which creep may occur=4 5 4= 16.0 meters. ‘Since the downstream transitions of canal will be Tined with masonry even beyond the canal wings, the creep length is fixed from the end of canal aprons upstream and the arc length along which the creep occurs is shown in the plan. In the drawing, keeping the distance between returns as 14 meters both upstream and downstream and keeping the lengths till the hydraulic gradient cuts the proposed drain bed level, the actual arc lengths along which the creep occurs are more than the required. Hence the proposed splays as shown in the draw- ing are adopted. Solid aprons in the drainage bed will be provided up to the end of drainage wings. The length of the drainage wings is limited by the hydraulic gradient as shown in dotted line in the drawing, 18.101 Length of canal wings and aprons: In between the canal wings, concrete is laid as a solid apron to prevent water percolating by the side of the abutment and exert pressure under the drainage apron. The uplift is maximum when the canal is full and drainage empty. In this case, the gross head causing uplift at FS.L. = 42.00 ~ 37.00=5 meters.us Before the water creeps f0 the botiom of the drainage ‘aprons some head isos. Assuming tat the cal apron se sloping from the top of wough sib + 39.75 toa level + 38.0 (ground level) fora length of L meters, as shown in Figure 18.6, the vertical creep is neglected ICON" JOINT WITH COPPER SHEET el tetera tp WNAL SOLID APRON +3700 +3640 Figure 186 Horizontal creep to travel up to end of abutment, masonry, assuming creep is along the lines of separation (Bligh’s ‘Theory) = L +205. Assuming that the drainage floor consists of a 60 ems thick ‘mass conerete, the total head resisted by the concrete is 0.60, (®~ 1) = 0.60 x 1.25 = 0.75 meters. Residual head = 5.00 — 0.75 =4.25 meters. Assuming that the creep gradient is 1 in 4, and that no uplift pressure isto be exerted on syphon floor, we have the elation 4.25 x45 142.05 This gives L = 17-205 = 14.95, say 15 meters. So provide both on the upstream side and downstream side of canal, solid Aprons to a length of 15 meters from the abutment as shown in Figure 18.6, ‘The Canal wings upstream and downstream willbe splayed Such that by the time the end of apron is reached, the distance between their faces is equal to the theoretical bed width of canal i.,20.00 meters. This decides the splay of canal wings 18.11 CANAL TRANSITIONS ‘The upstream canal wings: The bottom of foundations is the same as that of the abutments, etc. Assuming 60 cms depth of ‘concrete foundation, the top of concrete foundation is kept at + 37.00. ae The top level of wing may be kept SOcms above UF.S.L. of al i. at 43.00, These sections will have to be checked for stability and adopted. The height of the wall above top of foundation cone crete is 6.00 m. The upstream canal wings have the same see. tin throughout anda junction of apron and retaining wall they are splayed at 45° into the canal banks as shown in Plate 1@. Rough stone revetments wil be provided fora sufficient length ‘on the canal slopes butting the returns. ‘The space between U.B.L. + 39.75 and the existing ground level + 38.00 is likely to be filled up soon. A section as Water Resources Engineering may be adopted. The water face of hy sketched (Figure 18-7 0) vel is Kept vertical wall above the ultimate en =A Si, 4300 v.8443075 +3700 +36-40 ke-2t0—, * Figures87 18.12 DOWNSTREAM TRANSITION In order to minimise the eddy losses, a suitable exit transitions necessary after the R.C. trough. To achieve, this what is called a ‘warped transition’ is adopted. ‘The idea is only to make the transition from vertical side walls of trough to the 1'/2 to 1 canal slope gradual in stages. The change from vertical to '/2 to 1 is brought about by the ‘masonry canal wings. From '/ : 1 to 1: 1 and then to 1'/p:1 is brought about by masonry revetments as shown in Plate 10. This is called a ‘warped transition’. In case, the canal slopes are 2 : 1, the transitions from 1'/2 : 1 to 2: 1 can be brought about in roughstone revetments. ‘The proposed section of canal wings downstream side at end of warped transition is shown it Figure 18.8,yphon Aquedict—Tyre nies he downstream side wing wall atthe starting section of t _ the same as that ofthe canal wing upstream of the transition is side. 18.121 Canal F.S.L-: 42.00 ‘Canal discharge: 35 cubic meters per second. discharge per meter width ‘Apron retaining wall at the end of sloping canal ‘aprons ‘assuming maximumcontraction, 35 2493 cubic meters/sec. may be taken 85 3 Depth of scour v8 21374 () 374 x 2.93% = 2.76 meters. ‘The foundations are to be taken down to 42.00 ~ 2.76 = 39.24. ‘The existing ground level is 38.00 and nominal foundations are enough for this apron retaining wall. 18122 Design of wings and returns of drainage: Upstream of drain (1) Wing wall at junction of trough ‘Top of foundation: +37.00 ‘Top of wing wall: +43.00 Total height of wall: + 6,00 meters ‘Adopt a base width of 2.40 meters with a top width of 50 ‘ems and a face batter of | in 8. (2) Level wing and return ‘Top of foundation: +37.00 Top of return: +41,50 Height of wall: 4.50 meters ‘Adopt a base width of 1.80 meters with a top width of 50 coms and a face batter of 1 in 8 18.123 Downstream side The section of wing wall at junction of road abutment is the same as adopted on the upstream side. Level Wing and Return Top of foundation: +37.00 Top of return: +40.50 Height of wall: 3.50 meters. Adopt a base width of 1.40 meters with a top width of 50 ms and a face batter of | in 8. 1813 CHECKING THE DEPTH OF FOUNDATIONS OF DRAINAGE RETURNS BY SCOUR DEPTH Upstream side Maximum flood discharge: 60 cubic meters/second. Maximum flood level: + 40.94 Length of apron retaining wall: 14 meters (say) 19 harge per meter length of apron retaining wall: ©. 43cbie meen, Depth of scour: 1.374 x 4.3? = 3.562 meters. “The foundations of returns and apron retaining wall are to be taken down to 40.94 ~ 3.56 = 37.38. However, the foundations have been taken down to + 36.40 and are quite safe. ‘On downstream side also, the foundations are taken down to ++ 36-40 and as the distance between the returns is also more o fess the same, the foundations as adopted are safe. “Anchoring arrangements: Since the barrel is flowing full and the drain MEL. on both sides is above the bottom level of the roof slab there will be an upward thrust acting on the roof slab. So, the roof slab has to be well anchored to the piers and abut- rents to prevent the upward movement of the R.C. slab. This uplift is maximum when the barrel is full and canal empty. The worst condition is atthe upstream end ofthe roof Slab, M.FL. just upstream of the R.C. trough = 40.60. Bottom level of the trough = 39.46 Difference 14 Thickness of roof slab =25+4=29cms. = 0.29 x 2.25 Roof slab will counteract ‘65 meters of uplift head 14-065 = 0.49, say 0.50 meters. Net uplift head So, necessary anchoring arrangements are provided as hold- ing-down bolts fixed on to the pier through the R.C. slab. Design of anchor bolts: Ciear span of the slab = 2.50 meters. ‘Upward thrust acting on one span along the entire width of slab = 2.50 x 12.60 x 0.50 x 1000 = 15,750 kg. ‘Assuming 20 mm dia. rod, the thrust that can be resisted by ‘one holding-down bolt = 1260 x 3.14 =3,956 kg. 15,750 3.956 So, provide 4 holding-down bolts on each pier. Itis enough to provide half the number on the abutment, but in this case provide 3 bolts, one at each end of trough and one in the middle. Details of holding-down bolts: In order to have a little play for the anchor bolts, the bolts are fixed in masonry with an anchor plate atthe bottom as shown in Figure 18.9. A40 mm dia. G.l tube is put round the bolt while masonry is being built. After the masonry is completed, the tube is removed thus creating @ space around the bolt. This space is filled with asphalt. The, top of bolt is fitted to a longitudinal M.S. channel as shown in Figure 18.9 and the whole fitting is concreted. Number of bolts required = = 4 Nos. (approx.)120 The bolts fixed on tothe pier take care of the upifts coming ‘on half the span on either side, The rest half span is taken care of by the bolts fixed to the abutment. Rough stone aprons and revetments are provided both in canal and drain upstream and downstream and those details can ‘be'seen in the drawing (Plate 10). Note: In the two designs of type IT and type Il structures, the foundations of piers and the drainage barrel floor are one and the same. However in places where the foundation soils are poor, the foundations of piers and abutment will be taken down (o hard soil capable of taking up the loads, while the drainage barrel floor will he laid at a higher level 75mm 4 450m FCHANNEL. 7omm 45mm ASPHALT FILLING ‘ALROUND BOLT fe 100%e—H Figure 189 In some aqueducts inverted arch foundations are used both to serve as foundations of piers and abut- ‘ments as well as the drainage barrel floor. If the soils are sandy, well foundations are also adopted for piers and abutments, taken down to scour depths. To reduce loads on the foundations, R.C. boxes are used as drainage barrel if it is an aqueduct and as canal barrel if it is a canal syphon, R.C. Hume pipes of diameter up to 1.20 meters (i.e. 4 feet max. size) are used as drainage barrels in type I and type IL aqueduct. As many as 4 rows of pipes are also used in some such structures with necessary binder walls, 1s shown in the case of the syphon well drop. 18.14. CAUSES FOR FAILURE OF CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS ‘The main causes are as follows: (1) Imperfect or defective investigation and supply of ‘wrong data (2) Defective foundations and improper location of the structure (3) Improper quality control during construction (4) Improper maintenance after construction. Water Resources Engineering ‘These are explained in detail as follows: (1) A proper investigation must give a detailed site survey wi block levels so that contours at 0.25 meter intervals could be drawn showing the drainage course and the canal alignmen, and the point of crossing. The location of trial pits dug for ob. taining foundation soils must be correctly shown. ‘A longitudinal section of the drain along its course to a length of 1/2 kilometer on either side of the point of crossing is necessary, Three cross-sections of the drain, one at 1/2 a km, upstream, one at the point of crossing and another 1/2 a km, downstream are necessary. Any tell-tale marks of high flood observed during site inspection will be helpful in fixing ‘drainage flood levels. ‘Computation of the correct catchment area, ofthe drain upto the point of canal crossing is imperative, as all details like fixing drainage ventway, fixing flood levels, etc. depend upon the accuracy of this one factor. The importance stressed on this, aspect in case of a surplus weir holds good for the cross drainage work also Generally, in all irrigation projects, depending upon the location, rainfall intensities, etc. the designs directorate issues instructions on the various flood discharge formulae to be adopted, depending upon the area of the catchment. ‘These directions have to be scrupulously followed. Based on this flood discharge, and taking into account the bed slope of the drain obtained from the drain L.S. and with suitable rugosity coefficient in the Manning’s formula, by trial, and error method, the Maximum Flood Levels may be com- puted atthe three places. Ifthe surface fall as obtained from the three M.F.L.s differs widely from the bed slope, finer calcula- tions may be made with the M.FLL. slope. The M.FLL. at the site of crossing with a correction made by taking into account the approximate length of the structure, may be fixed as the MEL. downstream ofthe structure. So, all our further calcula- tions depend wholly on this assumption, However, all these calculations will go wrong if the basi factor, namely the catchment area is not correct. If the actual ‘catchment area is in excess of the given value, in actual prac- tice, in times of maximum flood, a greater discharge than the designed one will occur, causing higher flood levels both upstream and downstream of the structure. This may result in manifold damages. They are as follows: (a) Dangerous velocities downstream of the structure scour- ing the tail channel, protective works and undermining of downstream returns and solid apron, (©) Excessive velocities, more than permissible may develop in the drainage barrel, damaging or washing out of the drainage barrel. (6) If the structure is a syphon, excessive uplift pressures may be experienced on the drainage barrel roof, and if the anchoring arrangements cannot cope up with this excess uplift.syphon Aqueduc—Type Three he anchoring arrangements may be blown out, eausing racks inthe of slab. {@)lf the flood discharge entering the work is considerably yer than the designed one, the upstream MLF.L. may rise to ii perous proportions, with a view to force the water through drainage bare ata high velocity. IF the high discharge con- trues fora considerable time, then the drain may over-top the tank, Once this occurs, the canal will breach and ifthe eanal not old this discharge any more it will breach, outflanking ge souctue, During ths process, the structure may be com pletely damaged. "Anirrigation canal running as contour canal is analogous to anilvay track. If the catchment above has a fot of tanks, and inacyclonic storm, the tanks breach, we may get a momentous and high discharge, many more times the designed flood dis- Gharge. The canal with its cross drainage works unable to ‘withstand the sudden fury, may get completely washed out. (0) Defective foundations and improper location ofthe structure (a) Te foundation soils must be sufficiently hard to take the suesses coming upon it. The structure must never be located on ‘alareous and shrinking soils. Structures standing on such foundations develop cracks due to uneven settlement after con- suction ‘The foundation soils for abutments, wings, and returns, must beable to withstand the toe pressures that develop with a factor, of safety. Otherwise, the retaining walls will collapse. Daring construction of these walls, weepholes with inverted fiters may be provided over the respective M.F.L-s to release the seepage, and thus reduce the earth pressure to some extent. (0) Improper location of structure: All streams may not cross, the canal square, Some drains may cross with a large skew. It is always better to choose a position such that the drain in rear of the structure is straight in line with the drainage barrel, re- ‘iting minimum training on the down-stream side. Sometimes, the main drainage course may not have proper foundation sols at reasonable depths. In such cases, ther ‘emative to shifting the site along the canal alignment, till ‘00d foundation soils are met with at the desired levels. In Sch cases, suitable approach and exit channels are to be ex- ‘avated forthe designed discharges. (©) Improper quatity control during construction: With proper ‘vestigation, design, etc. if the quality of construction is not Pope the structure ater construction will presenta Tot of oe from the specifications being strictly adhered Irth sensiive and important aspects that are general Hith 4 O lightly are the construction and expansion joints. ches ne 16-gauge copper sheet for expansion and con- Ioteagits, Now we are using PV.C. robber stoppers. A fon and sag stl equired in fixing them property in posi ety ‘concrete flows around itso that they act effec- 14 For example, if the joint in R.C. slab is not proper, canal water will go on leaking. Remedial measures will not be as effective as proper joints. If the rubber-stopper (construction joint) between RC. trough and canal solid apron is defective, water will start per- colating behind the abutment, and slowly it will start building up hydraulic pressure (uplift) under the drainage apron floor causing initially cracks and later on blowing off. Once the solid apron is gone, the drainage barrel flow may cause scours below abutment and pier. If this is unnoticed, the structure may ultimately collapse. (@) Improper maintenance after construction: Maintenance of all irrigation structures properly and promptly is of utmost im- portance. A stitch in time saves nine, is aptly applicable in this respect. 8.5. code has laid down certain guidelines for a systematic. inspection and check of cross drainage works every year. ‘Some of the important aspects are: (i) Regular observation of drainage M.F.Ls both upstream and downstream of the structure and com- pare them with the designed levels. Gi) Similarly, F.S.L.s in canal both upstream and ‘downstream are observed. To facilitate these obser- vations, enamel gauges could be permanently fixed to the return walls, or gauge readings are painted on return walls. In big cross drainage works, a link foot bridge is constructed, on the abutment across the canal. This is only to facilitate inspection of the drainage barrel both upstream and downstream, during high floods. ‘Sometimes special watch and ward is kept round the clock at big structures with telephonic communica- tion, (ii) In case of drainage barrels which are designed as syphons, debris is likely to collect on the floor upto the downstream side lift wall level, during a receding flood. It is possible that for one or two seasons, the syphon barrel may not flow full, developing velocities with which the deposited debris could be washed out or flushed out. In such a case, weeds may grow in profusion resulting in the drainage bar- rel getting choked up. In that condition of the drainage barrel, even with a designed flood, the upstream M.FL.s may go up to dangerous propor- tions, causing damage to canal bank and ultimately the structure. (iv) Construction and expansion joints are to be scrupulously inspected to see that they are right without any leaks. Bitumen filling, etc. are replenished to stop any outside agency from piercing the copper sheet, rubber stopper for pilfering canal water.2 1818 SPECIFICATIONS (Common to Chapters 17 and 18) 1, Foundations: The foundation soil must be capable of taking the pressures coming on it under the piers, abutments, wings and returns. The foundation concrete is generally in Cement Concrete 1: 4:8 or 1:3: 6. 2. Solid aprons: As weight and imperviousness are the main criteria, cement concrete in 1 : 4 : 8 used for mud-mat might suffice. The apron retaining walls both upstream and downstream both in the drain and canal could be laid along with the solid apron in the same concrete. ‘The use of fly ash will effect economy. Wearing coat over the drainage barrel floor and aprons, could be in arich concrete mix 1: 2:4 using 20 mm aggregate. Water Resources Engineering 3.R.C. trough: The R.C. trough is in cement 1: 1'/2:3 (M 200), as water tightness is of the utmost impor. tance. 4, Abuiments, candl and drainage wings and returns: All thegg could be in coursed rubble masonry in I : 6 cement mortar, anj joints pointed with cement mortar 1 : 3. Altematively, ‘could be in mass concrete poured in from work with cemen, concrete 1:4: 8 using 40 mm graded aggregate, 5, Road arches: In Chapter 18, road arches have been proposed for the inspection track over the drain. ‘They are plain cemen concrete arches of mix 1 : 3:6. ‘The haunch-filling is with lean concrete of mix 1 :4:8. In. stead of arches, R.C. deck could be used to withstand LRC, Class ‘A’ loading, similar to the one over the cross regulator,CHAPTER 19 SOME IMPORTANT AQUEDUCTS (In South India) ot GANNAVARAM AQUEDUCT aanavaram canal of Godavari Central delta crosses the we river, a branch of the Vasista river, which itself is af the river Godavari (Akhanda Goutham) below the atest Dowlalswaram. ; "nis aqueduct which is nearly “74 of a Kilometer in length scemstrcted in one season itself while the anicut and head ss yere under constuction. It is a type IZ aqueduct, with wana rough Supported on arches, catering to navigation 1 in addition to irrigation. Tt was builtin the year 1852 at a ost of Rs. 1.68 lakhs. ‘The river at this site carries a discharge of nearly 3.5 lakh cose with a depth of about 23 feet above bed level ‘The salient particulars of the structure are given as follows: ‘The piers and abutments are founded on 5’6” dia round vel builtin brick and clay sunk 7’ deep into the sandy bed of the river. The arches supporting the trough are 2/6” thick at crown and 7 at springing level. The arches were built in spe- cially made large bricks of size 14 "vp" x3 '/2” in surki mortar. Theentie structure was plastered with surki mortar. ‘The canal trough is 19°6” wide at bottom and 23°6” at top with toe paths on either side. The height of trough is 7 8. Velocity through the trough is 4.6'/sec. ‘The drainage ventway has 49 arches of 46” each. ‘The canal trough carries a discharge of 600 cftJsec. ‘The sill of canal trough is + 17.42, while the M.F.L. of river 1s observed in 1953 was + 27.70. So, in times of high flood the drainage is syphoned. A portion of the structure collapsed in the year 1944. ‘The collapsed portion was rebuilt immediately after and was strengthened by adding another trough 11 feet wide on the downstream of the structure (in R.C.C.) to carry an additional discharge of 300 cft/sec. It also carries a road way of 19° wide to.cater to2 lanes of traffic. The old aqueduct was strengthened by providing a pile cut off to the drainage aprons and grouting the cracks in the old arches. Figure 19.1 shows the view of the aqueduct from the upstream side of the river. Figure 19.14 19.2 HAGARI AQUEDUCT [Nextin importance and carrying capacity comes the aqueduct across the Hagar river carrying the low level canal (right canal) of Tungab- hadra Project in its 8Ist mile, There is no navigation on this. is 2286'6" long between the abutment faces, It consists of 58 spans of 35’ clear, pier being 46” thick. This aqueduct is longer than Gannavaram aqueduct. The piers were built in coursed rubble masonry in cement mortar 1: 4. The foundations of each pier consist of 4 0c- tagonal wells of 9° (external) with the thickness of steining being 2’ of concrete is 1:3: 6. These wells are plugged at bot- tom and top. Their top is covered with an R.C.C. slab of 18” thick over which pier is constructed. The superstructure consists of 2 vents of R.C.C. 12° wide and 10’6” high, One vent is covered and carries a single road 12’ wide, The other trough is open. The side walls Water Resources Enginerg designed as beams to carry the water load and the ronda, Except for the road slab which is in | : 2: 4R.C.C, the resgg the trough, slab, and beams are in R.C.C. 1 Nn 3 concrete, ‘The reinforcement used is ofthe order of 22 pounds/cf. of con, crete, Except the piers the entire construction was in RCC. ‘The head way here for the drainage is more than n tnd the river flows much below the canal trough slab even iy maximum floods. The river is carried as it is under the canal trough without drainage aprons. This was built ata cost of out Rs, $0.00 lakhs in 5 years, construction having been completed in the year 1952. ‘The two pictures (Figure 19.2) show two views of the aqueduct, one side view showing the piers and trough beam in n from the upstream side and another showing the road. elev: way and hand railing, ete, Figure 19.2 ‘Hogari aqueduct ater completionImportant Aqueducts |) PULIGEDDA AQUEDUCT 193 moran aqueduct on the ver Krishna to feed the ay sland. Thi is an RCC. aqueduct with win. ring te canal andaoadway on top. This doesnot wero mvigation es 193 and 194 sow ical pe I aqueduct on the i gtr, Lett main caval (Lal Bahadur Cana). One is er valia i ile 27 Figure 19.3). ‘The canal trough is Mreonorete arches with masonry cae eed ey SIO cses in the ultimate phase set ALFL sow the singing level ofthe aches. The Tere 94 sabres He of Ye M aquest acess oeainon he same can Figure193 Arch Aqueduct 125 Figure 19.4 |A Syphon Aqueduct Viewed from down-steam side carrying an RCC. Trough. Instead of designing the side walls of the R.C.C. trough as cantilever walls, due to the great depth of canal water nearly 21 feet. the side walls of the canal trough are kept slanting, i.e. resting on the sloping piers acting as buttress supports. This reduces the thickness of slab on the sides. A link foot-bridge is constructed across the canal connecting both the canal-banks. This enables inspection of drainage M.F.L.s in times of high flood and also enables conduction of canal gaugings whenever required,CHAPTER 20 RIVER WEIRS 200 GENERAL Weir is a dam over the crest of which water is discharged. So there is always a certain depth of water standing on the downstream side. Protective works in the form of aprons. etc ate required to keep the bed from erosion. Where the founda- tion is hard rock no protective works are necessary. Diversion weirs are usually 3 to 10 meters high and their primary function is to raise the river level for diverting the water into the canal, ‘A weir is generally placed at right angles to the direction of flow of the river. A skew weir has a tendency to cause currents parallel to the weir axis, which on soft foundation will be dis- astrous. A skew weir may be used only if the foundations are firm and hard. ‘The required height of weir must be determined from the consideration of the stream flow during low flow period. is necessary that the crest of the weir or the minimum low water level be built or raised to a minimum elevation above the full supply level in the canal by a difference equal to the head necessary to give the desired velocity through the head-gate opening. 20.1 CLASSES OF WEIRS Diversion weirs are classified under two broad categories: (a) Closed weirs (b) Open weirs. Closed weirs are usually comparatively low dams built (with crest gates fitted) as complete obstructions across the river so that the entire stream flow passes over them. ‘The waterway is usually divided into a number of openings separated by piers. ‘The openings are closed and regulated by the horizontal lift gates. Open weirs are built across the rivers to produce the least possible obstruction to the flow. 20.2 CLASSIFICATION OF RIVER WEIRS These open weirs are also called anicuts. Sometimes these also will be fitted with small falling shutters Each type of weir is again classified under sub-groups: (a) Weirs built on pervious foundations like sand, sit and gravel 3 (b) Weirs built on impervious foundations like rock. “The forces acting on a weir built on impervious foundation, may be static or dynamic. 20.2.1. The static forces 1. Normal water pressure on weir. 2, Normal water pressure on the downstream side face the upstream side face of of the weir. 3, The weight of water supported by the crest and the weight of weir. 20.2.2 The dynamic forces 1. Erosive or the scouring forces on the downstream side of weir produced either by high velocity or by the impact of water pouring over the weir. 2. The force of impact of floating matter against the crest on the upstream side of the weir. ‘The forces acting on weirs built in pervious foundations in- clude, in addition to the above, the following underflow forces: 1, The transporting or erosive forces due to the flow in the stream bed under the weir floor. 2. The upward static pressure on weir floor produced by the water flowing under the floor. 20.3 CONDITIONS FOR STABILITY OF WEIRS 1, There must be no tension in the masonry or in the contact plane between the weir and the foundation. 2. There must be no overturning. 3. There must be no tendency to slide on the joint with the foundation or any horizontal plane above the base. 4. The maximum toe and heel pressures on foundations should not exceed the prescribed safe limits. Failure Hd Crushing is not considered here as it generally loes not occur, being a low structure. The desi i : weir n, Jsigh of the theoretical profile of an overflow mason" Tollgcpresistthe static forces requires the consideration ofthe following hydrostatic pressures; 1 A een ‘Water pressure on the upstream side face. e oe ‘water pressure on the downstream side fac - Weight of water on the crest of the weir.ff goer Weirs ese pressures must, with the weight ofthe weir wall, give a esant pressure which will all within the middle third of ihe weit Base. ‘Treoretical profile of an overflow weit on impervious foun- ations ‘a= Width of weir at crest b= Width of weir at the base = Height of weir above base ‘D=Depth of flow over the crest of the weir ‘h=Head due to velocity of approach =Depth of tail water above base Pj =Normal water thrust on the upstream side 2 =Normal water thrust on the downstream side Wi=Weight of water over the weir crest W,= Weight of masonry of weir p=Density of masonry of the weir | Fiure20. ‘The approximate dimensions of the weir wall may be deter- ined by assuming it as a simple triangular profile extending upto the water face, its height being equal to (H + D1 + hy. ‘The crest width a of weir (at a depth of D1 +h below water fice) Pith (H+ Di +h) = and the base width b =. cy : ‘b ‘The crest width a obtained by the above relation is usually Smaller than what is used in practice. A greater width is Ecrerally required if any shutters are to be installed, and also to ee the impact due to dynamic forces exerted by the ing matter. The above formulae are applicable only when agate of weir is vertical. Bligh recommends a crest siven by the equation, *= (1H + YI) 0.55, where a, H and D1 are in meters. 24 OVERTURNING MOMENTS CAUSED BY WATER THRUST sin ¢4P820idal section of weir as shown in Figure 20.2, Water Pt Of water D over the crest of the weir with no tail ve base of weir H+) x4 x reaps g XD) ‘If the water surface is at the level of the weir crest, then D = Hw 0, and Mae horizontal force Ph above the base is equal to 20.5 CONDITION OF MAXIMUM STRESS ON WEIR In case of a dam the condition for maximum stress is when the water level above the base is maximum, i.e., when the head is ‘maximum. Incase of a weir, when the discharge increases the rear water level also builds up and the difference between them will be- come less and less. So, the weir is subjected to maximum head when the water level on the upstream side is maximum and no er orth128: 206 DIFFERENT STATES OF WATER PRESSURE ON WEIRS ‘State J. When the upstream water or head water is at crest level (orif there are crest shutters, at shutter crest level). In this state, the downstream water or tail water level will be about the low or summer water level and the conditions of ‘water pressure will be similar to that on a dam. State 2. When the water is passing over the crest. AAs the depth of water passing over the crest increases, the eases and the tail water level also in- is submerged, i water level is above the weir crest, and (b) when the weir is discharging with a clear overall. In state (1) when the water upstream side is at the weir crest level and there is no overflow, the overturning moment M on we the weir due to the water thrust= “ assuming the base of weir at low water level. the weirs fitted with crest gates of height S over the weir : 7 cratshe maximum veruing moment witb M = 225 Under State 2, when water is flowing over the weir crest such that the difference between the head and tail water eleva- tions is f and the height of water flowing over the weir crest on the upstream side is. D, then (D —h) is the height of tail water above the weir crest ‘Moment of water thrust on the upstream side 4 H (H+3) _ 4 er) x2. we 2 4422) 3 Girea) 7g H+3D) “Moment of water thrust onthe downstream side Haba WAIDEH a =P 42h x4 (H+ 3D=H) =f eH (#+2D=h) 6 These two moments are opposite to each other andthe resul- tant overturning moment acting on the weir is a1 Ws 30-11-300- m=! ap 1 2h This overturning momentis maximum when 'f Hh is max imum: H being constant, it is maximum when h (the difference of level between head and tail water) is maximum, The maximum overturning moment under State 2 (a) oceurs when the weir is ust onthe point of submergence, ie. wher the tail water level i just tthe weir crest level State 2. (b) The depth of tail water is He above base when D is the depth of flow over the crest. The resultant overturning moment, i Water Resources Engine, $e +3018 ~ 2, +30) - When the weir extends over the whole width of the 5 then the depth of flow over the weit is proportional tothe water depth, that i, D is proportional to Hz or D = KE of x DiHla where K.is constant. 1. Fora weir just submerged H = Ha 2. Fora weir discharging with a clear overfall, M t UB + 3A — He) This is maximum when a is zero, Hz being the variable aM A an6 . UP K-3H?=0 Kan? = HVK This gives the condition for the maximum overturning mo- ‘ment when the weir is discharging with aclear overfall. Th, itis possible to determine the maximum overturning momen ona weir under all conditions. If the base of the weir stands on a platform higher than the tail water level, then unless a depth of water t flows over the weir, the tail water will not be level with the base. In this case (D ~ 1) = KHz when the weir overflows with a clear overall, Hy being the tail water depth of water over the weir base. ‘Ha, D= Kita +t; and K =(D~ iF, ‘The resultant moment is maximum when #2 = H VK wo He a #D-1 ‘Substituting this value, we get D=KHYVK +torD=HK? 41 ‘The maximum moment, (0+3H? K-3H27)=0 Since D~1= He = K= Hy (i434? — 13) UP +3? HR +9 — HP (D-9) UP +3P 1? a 3H Ds Hy) (A SPR _ ay? 44H} (OP + 3K PRP aro) UP 142K9)) 410iver Weirs ‘Thos the maximum overturning moment exerted on a weir isobuined. This moment is resisted by the restoring moments isto water standing on the slopes and the weight ofthe weir. “assuming thatthe resultant cuts the base atthe middle third tpsatiafy the law of stability, and restoring moment willbe the tostfotl of moments due to weight of water standing on the Sjopes and the weight of weir about the mide third point inthe base. 207 STABILITY ANALYSIS ‘rote 1. Water on the upstream side only: ‘There is no wateron the downstream side. Height of shutters is ‘Smeters over the crest of the weir. Foundations are impervious and tere is no floatation. Crest width of weir Base width of weit ’ H Height of weir above base s Height of shutters above weit erest 1H = Frontslope or the horizontal component of the upstream face of the weir p = Specific gravity of masonry. W.L- | s rea i A B 4 i L D c k— bal Figure 20.3 _ Taking moments ofall restoring forces about a point at a distance of 26/3 from D, we have: 1. Moment due to the triangular portion of water standing ‘on the upstream slope of weir 1H (26 mh 2 a} 2. Moment due to the rectangular portion of water above the weir crest level rH] 2 3. Moment due to the triangular portion of the masonry ‘upstream face ri x He [2b _ 2eHt Des raxs{ 4. Moment due to the rectangular portion of masonry w=! won(th-ra- 5. Moment due to ts triageler portion: of seaeory, downstream face o-annnxpxttfB-ni-o-P= A=} ‘Adding al these items, the total moment of all restoring for- ces about the middle third of the base By simplifying the expression in a quadratic and assuming b as the variable, we get restoring moment Mra} (pHb? +b ip (a— rH) + 20H (H +25) api (a+ 2H) — PH? (H+35)] If the upstream face is vertical, i., r= 0, the above expres sion reduces to put? + orpa—dpt=eg @ +ab—2) If both upstream and downstream slopes are equal, i.e. (b— 1a) = 2rh, the expression reduces to “Peet [-atou-1-99-52 439] State 2. When the weir is just submerged taking the founda- tions as pervious, ic. taking full floatation, a similar expres- sion can be obtained for the moment of resistance about the ‘middle third of base. The general form is raf 221] [02+ (a—rH) b-a(a+ 27H) ‘When the front face is vertical, ie, r= 0, we get ran =] W+ab-2) If both the faces have the same side slope, we Bet 1) a] 6 + ab} Mr= r= Condition of greatest stress on a weir built on an impervious soil130 When a weir is founded on an impervious soil and con- structed of impervious masonry, the weight of masonry is not affected by the variations in water levels upstream side oF downstream side. So the conditions of maximum stress on weir ‘on impervious foundations will be: 1, Head water at crest level of the weir shutters. 2. Tail water at HVK above the base. im (2) gives maximum over- If the weir has no shutters, turning moment. 20.8 DESIGN OF WEIRS ON PERVIOUS FOUNDATIONS : All masonry submerged will have weight (p ~ 1) kg/m? and above water p kg/m Generally, itis safe to assume that in weirs subject to floata- tion, the condition of greatest stress occurs when tail water is Just atthe crest. Sand is the soil on which river weirs are most commonly constructed and so the foundations are permeable. When the foundations are impermeable, generally special features like aprons, ete. are unnecessary, but still protective works downstream of the weir to protect it against erosion are re- quired. For all weirs founded on permeable soils, it is neces- sary to protect the foundations of the masonry weir wall from injury, by masonry aprons on the downstream of the weir wall and some times on the upstream side also. Causes of Failure of Pervious Foundations Sand is incompressible and forms a good foundation for masonry works if it can be protected against erosion, etc. and the protective works like aprons of a weir are designed to cater to this. ‘The two ways by which the sand foundations under a weir can be disturbed are (1) underground flow, called percolation, and (2) scour or erosion. 20.9 APRON DOWNSTREAM OF THE WEIR WALL This fulfils.two functions: (1) Where there is an overfall on to it, some of the excessive velocity due to the head over the weir is dissipated by the impact. (2) The zone of scour in the river bed caused by the flow over the weir is transferred from immediately below the weir wall to the downstream orto the end of the apron. Therefore, the width of apron must be sufficient to ensure that any scour formed below the weir shall be sufficiently far away from it so as to leave the soil on which it stands absolutely unaffected Te is not possible to have very wide aprons so that the water that flows off. is free from eddies. The downstream section of the aprons is, therefore, made of loose stone or blocks of con- crete which will conform to any deepening of sand in river bed. The tail apron stones settle and conform to the face of the sand slope and form protective covering for the same, preventing Water Resources Engineering scour from working back upstream towards the Solid apron ayy the body wall ‘The greater tl the deeper will be the scour ar required. 20.10 TYPES OF WEIRS OR ANICUTS Broadly, they can be divided into two categories: 1 The water flowing over the weir can be dropped from the crest on to a solid apron built nearly atthe low water level of the river below. By this method, most of the excessive velocity of the flow is dis sipated at once. 2. A whole cross-sectional width of apron can be formed as a sloping surface from crest level to the dry packed downstream side apron, the level atthe lower extremity of slope being at about the low water level. Bligh divided weirs into three distinct categories: Vertical drop on to a horizontal floor downstream whose level is at the L.W.L. ‘The surface of apron is below L.W.L. The surface of apron is partly or wholly above LWL. Water is dropped on to a sloping masonry apron from the weir crest to the L.W.L. The sloping apron is entirely of rock-fill. Jocity and turmoil at the toe of the tthe ind a greater depth of talus willy, Type A: Type At: Type Az: Type B: Type C: 20.11 APRONS UPSTREAM OF THE ANICUT In addition to a downstream apron, the weir sometimes requires Protection from scour on the upstream side also. If the weir is situated in a river where the flow is not parallel to the axis, there are likely to be a lot of cross currents. Such currents aft dangerous and they can be checked by upstream aprons. 20.12. CONSIDERATIONS GOVERNING THE DESIGN OF APRONS The width of aprons required cannot be mathematically caleu- lated. This width varies with the type of foundation materia. The pervious soil or sand is classified with respect to its powet of withstanding percolation without Piping. If 1/C is the steepest slope of the percolation gradient which ensures safety against piping in any particular soil, then the length L, ie., the shortest line of percolation under a head H should not be Jess than Hx C, Knowing the values of C from the classification given under, the length of impervious apron and the distribu- tion of uplift pressures can be calculated, 20.13 CLASSIFICATIONS OF PERVIOUS FOUNDATION SOILS Class. Light sand and mud (Nile valley) C= 18. Class II. Fine micaceous sand (Himalayan rivers) C = 15.ever Weirs os. Course pines sds (Central and Deccan rivers) C 12 cast. Boulders or shingle and gravel, sand mixed with them, the value varies from 91 5. gash THEORIES OF PERCOLATION Fae iw of flow Wf water teough permeable wis was Fink Ta aet ty H. Darcy in 1856 a8 2 rest of experimems ‘Fos law in expressed by the equation: a vekeT pce, ¥= Velocity of flow trough the pervious medium = Head of flow Le Length of flow path -=A.constant called the permeability constant. ‘This law states thatthe velocity of flow varies inversely a8 se iaghh of flow and directly 28 the head of flow. “Te vali ofthis law in relation to the design of weirs on ‘foundations was tested by Col. Clibborn, Principal Fecrice Enginering College in connection with the proposals for be epasto the Khanki weit. These experiments gave taiy qealesive indications and the relationship obtained from ex experiments between velocity. head and length of path of (Bow were in Keeping with that of Darcy. except at very high eats : ‘These investigations afforded the first rational basis for desig ad affirmed that failure takes place by undermining and by opi oe to flow of water through the pervious foundations ater the weit. Next came the hydraulic gradient theory for weir design. xigaated by Si John Oxley and Thomas Higham. This theory ‘ges that in cases where the chief danger to a weir is from ade scour and 904 from parallel currents, the true measure of security of a weir in a permeable bed isthe distance through the soil which 2 current of water would have to travel before it con sise up below the weir igh's Creep theory. frst Bligh believed thatthe stability A 3 weis emirely depended on its weight. But afterwards sealing the fallacy of the above belief, enunciated his theory kcsomn 25 Biigh’s creep theory. He stated that the length of the path of flow had the same Hectiveness, length for length in reducing uplift pressures whethe t was along the horizontal or vertical. He assumed the perchation water wo creep along the contact plane of the base Pele ofthe weir withthe subsoil losing head enroute, propor tonal to the length ofits travel. All these assumptions of Bligh ‘wee based only on some field observations of Narora weir Became of its simplicity. this theory found general acceptance. Taking the case of a weir with two piles; Figure 204, the ‘tiem theories are discussed 131 Figure 204 Le AB be the profile of the weir supporting a head of above it and let the tail water elevation be at the evel of the ses floor AB. As per Bligh, length of travel or the creep is Tong the line of contact and ultimately the water appears st 8 which is atthe elevation ofthe tail water. ‘Therefore, total length of creep =AC+CD + DC+ CE+ EF + FE+ EB BLytdi edi tlt det tls 2[(Li4 Lat la) +2(di +2) If H be the total head over the wet, ie. the difference in cle tions ofthe head and tail water level, then the loss of head per unit length of creep would be ciel Ue C7 Gist hy sade) “This loss of head per unit length of creep or what is called as the average hydraulic gradient, he termed it as “Percolation Coefficient” which may be termed as 1/C. He assumed safe values of Cfor various types of soils which were already mentioned. As long as the value of UC is lew» than the safe value assigned to it forthe given class of soil, the design is considered safe. ‘Some works designed on this simple theory failed while “others stood, depending upon the extent to which they ignor ce took note of the importance of vertical cut-offs at the ‘upstream and downstream ends. Neat, Col. Ellis made a slight modification on the above theory and suggested that water will not travel exactly along Tine of contact, but may travel along the shortest route. He sis> gested the design of structures based on this principle. For the same weir shown above as per Elis, the ereep i be along ADFB AD=NLV+d1 p= NLP Maids) FB=NLs+d2 «Creep Gradient ee: = ta TGaatniaarar ee?132 Next came Lane’s weighted creep theory. This is nothing new but Bligh’s creep theory corrected for vertical cutoffs and sloping faces, ‘Lane was of the opinion that vertical creep is more effective than horizontal creep. Therefore, Lane Proposed a weight of three for vertical creep and one for horizontal creep. Though these two later theories were slight improvements over Bligh's theory, they were empirical in na- ture and lacked the theoretical background for a rational bi for design. Actual pressure observations made on models dif- ‘ered from the uplift pressures obtained by these theories. After a lot of research made on models in the Punjab by Sri AN. Khosla, a number of important conclusions were arrived at: 1. Undermining of floors stars atthe tail end. Ifthe hydraulic gradient at exit was more than the critical gradient forthe par- ticular soil, the soil particles would move withthe flow of water, thus causing progressive degradation of the subsoil resulting in cewities and ukimate failure. This is called failure due to piping. The same thing was proved by Karl Terzaghi by a number of laboratory experiments, He stated and proved that failures ‘occurred by undermining if the hydraulic gradient at exit was in excess of what was called “The floatation gradient". This ‘was the same as the critical gradient enunciated by Khosla states that the soil mass at the toe of the weir is subjected to.a state of floatation if the exit gradient there exceeded the limit of 1 : 1 at which the upward force due to the flow of water was almost exactly counterbalanced by the weight of soil 2. The outer faces of end sheet piles are much more effec tive than the inner ones and the horizontal length of floor. 3. The intermediate piles, if smaller in length than the outer ‘ones, are ineffective except for local redistribution of pressures. 4, It is absolutely essential to have a reasonably deep verti- cal cut-off at the downstream end to prevent failure due to un- dermining. 20.15 POTENTIAL THEORY Pavlovsky approached this problem of the flow of water through subsoils of hydraulic structures from the analogy of: flow of electricity through a conductor. According to Ohm’s law, R . This is identical withthe Darcy's equation for low of water through sand, V= Kx ie This theory called potential theory was responsible for making rapid strides in arriving ata rational basis for design of weirs on permeable foundations. ‘The flow of water through a homogeneous pervious medium is assumed as irrotational. ‘The water does int flow along the underside alone of the weir floor but also flows along a number of paths starting much ahead of the weir and reappearing very much lower down Water Resources Engineering ne of waters called a stteamline which sak to ca cae ald ‘along which the potential flows Fig, tre 20:5). In Fluid Mechanics the irrotational flow is governed by Laplace's differential equation which for two dimensional flow, takes the form 9 Fb _9 8x2 8? where, @ denotes a function of the coordinates X and ¥ and is called the “Velocity Potential”. There is a specific relation- ship between the function 6 and the velocity components in the X and ¥ directions as given below: - =) Vom Be and y= St In certain simple cases, the expression for @ in terms of x and y can be written as @ = (x? — y?), ‘The velocity potential can be verified by substitution of this value in Laplace's Equation. By choosing successive values of 61 as 2, 93, etc. itis pos- sible to plot a family of curves shown in Figure 20.5 which are called equipotential lines. They have the property as the name implies that along any one of those lines, the potential will have {he same value, though line to line this value differs Another family of curves orthogonal to this system exists and they are called the streamlines along which we assume that water flows. + For the above'family of curves (= (x? —y”}'we have another family of curves r = xy which cuts the abaye system of- thogonally. ris called streamline functior jl ‘Thus assuming various boundary Tine conditions, for the ‘weir wecan mathematically obtain these curves. Mathematical solutions have been obtained already for elementary profiles and based on these, we have now the nevesational theory enum ciated by Sri A.N. Khosla, known as Khosla's method. For a rigorous mathematical approach, the reader is advised ‘o study the C.B.I, Journal no. 12._ atbaiionsiestninaonntinath iver Weirs KHOSLA’S METHOD OF INDEPENDENT ‘VARIABLES Maipematcal solutions have been given only for simple cases Mafaemine the uplift pressure andthe exit gradients. A com- pee mathematical solution ofa wer withall sors of level and ping aprons is a laborious task {© achieve. However, Shesla's method of independent variables, anew method wrolved with the theoretical and practical background, enables mo determine uplift pressures and exit gradients under com- plicated weir sections with almost mathematical accuracy. Say complicated weir form is split up into three types of ‘Sonentary forms, the entire length ofthe floor with or without sny one of the ple Tines making up one such form for which mathematical solutions are available. Each elementary form is then treated as independent of the others. The pressures at the ey points are then read off from the two graphs given. From these, the pressure distribution under the composite weir form is obtained by super-imposition of the pressures ob- itined individually by applying suitable corrections which will beillstated now. Though this method for all purposes looks very empirical, itis very rational and has given results almost to the mathematical accuracy. The results obtained by this method and those obtained by electrical analogy method are found to agree practically within 2 to 3 per cent of variation, ‘Thus this method finally gave the most rational basis for design ‘of weirs on permeable foundations. The three simple elemen- tary forms to which the complicated weir form is to be split up 016 1. Depressed floor with no piles under it 2. Floor with a pile at end (either at entrance or at exit) 3. Floor with an intermediate pile. ‘The key pressures for these three elementary forms can be read from the graphs (Plate VII. 6) given in C.B.L. Journal (Pub- lication no. 12). 13 (1) Depressed floor: Considering the case of a weir floor of length b and depth d with tail water atthe top ofthe floor, cal culate the value += 4. a" ‘The two key points under the floor are the bottoms of floor ‘upstream and downstream. ‘The upstream point is Di and the downstream point D’. ‘The residual pressures exerted by the percolating water at these key points are merely expressed as a percentage of the total head on the weir, i... difference between the upstream and downstream water levels and these are read off from the graphs. In the above case, calculate the value of 1/a, i¢., db and for value of 1/a read the corresponding value of @ (D’) using the ‘curve marked “‘depressed floor’. ‘This gives the pressure at the key point downstream side of the floor, The key pressure at the upstream side key point is obtained by deducting the value of 6 (D’) from 100. ie, (D1) = 100-4 (0) Between these two points, the pressure distribution is as- ‘sumed to be linear Example (1) Assuming a depressed floor 8 meters long and 0.60 m thick, as shown in Figure 20.7, storing one meter head of water, the values of pressures at key points can be obtained as follows: Value 075 a 8.00 Reading values of 6 (D’) from the curve, we get percentage pressure at the downstream side key point as 13. . Percentage pressure atthe upstream side key point Di’ = 100-13 =87 Uplift pressure atthe point Dy’ =*2 131.00 913m, Sift pressure int Di = Uplift pressure atthe point D’ =o ‘The exit gradient at the end is given by: ose pressure at the downstream key point, where d = thickness of the depressed floor. ‘The exit gradient in this case works out toery Water Resources Engineering ogy ———_a}}, ue e B 4.—s.0m +—5:00m > Figure 208 ‘The pressure distribution from upstream key point to the downstream key point is linear. The pressure at a point 3 meters from the upstream of the floor is 13 +(87~ 13 ) x 5/8 = 13 +463 = 59.3 per cent The uplift pressure at that point In cases where the weir floor is not of uniform thickness, the method of determination of pressures is illustrated as follow: The floor is having a thickness of 60 cms for the first 3 ‘meters length, and thereafter it is having a thickness of 20 cms. ‘The pressures are to be calculated at the points A, B, Cs, ‘Das indicated in the figure above. First assume the entire floor to be of thickness 60 cms. Then La 0.075 This gives the pressure at A as 87 per cent previously caleu- lated. Since the pressure varies from 87 per cent to 13 per cent along the imaginary depressed floor of 60 ems. thickness, the pressure at B is equal to 13+ (87-13) x30 = 59.3per cent To get the key pressures at C and D, assume the entire floor as a depressed floor of 20 cms. thick. Read the value (D’) from the graph for the above value of 1a and this straightaway gives the value of pressure at D. This value as obtained from the graph is 7 per cent Therefore, the corresponding key pressure at the upstream side key point is 100 ~7 = 93 per cent. Assuming linear variation between these two points, the pressure at C =7+(93-7)x 5/8 =7 +538 = 60.8 per cent Thus the pressures between B and C vary from 52.3 percent to 60.8 per cent and between these two points vertically, this pressure is also assumed to vary uniformly in a linear way : 084x7 1 “The exit gradient inthis case i8 5595199 = 34g (2) Floor with pile at end: In this case the pile can be either at the entrance or at the exit, The key points are the points of junction of pile with the horizontal floor upstream and downstream and the bottom point of the pile. Imagine the horizontal floor to be without any thickness, ‘Measure the depth of the pile from the horizontal floor to the bottom of the pile, Calculate the value 1/a = d/b. Read the values of $(D) and 4(E) from the Table VIS on Plate VII 6 of C.B.I. Journal no. 12. These give straightaway the pressure at E and D, ice, for the two key points with the pile, at exit, the pressure at the key point C being zero since it is at the tail water level. Similarly, for the pile at the entrance, the key pressure at E) is 100 per cent since itis at the floor level, and the key pressures at Di and C1 are given below: (D1) = 100 - 9 (D) and 6 (C1) = 100-6 (E) Generally the floor will always have a thickness and we have to get the pressures only at key point below the depth of floor. If di is the depth of the floor then a depth correction is applied to the pressure obtained in the elementary form at Ci, assuming the pressure to vary uniformly from Dj to C1. There- fore, the pressure at the bottom of floor at the upstream junction of the pile is Pile ot entrance Figure 20.9ae i NE iver Weirs: ‘is value willbe les than @ (D1) and more than @ (Ci) ‘The key pressure atthe bottom of the floor of thickness at the ext is obtained as usual treating it independently as @ sepessed floor of length band thickness dh ‘similarly, the key pressures with the pile at exit are caleu- tated (9) Horizontal floor with intermediate pile: ‘The key points are E, C and D. Caleulate, a= 5. Read value from the curves ‘sheet pile not at end” ‘To find 0(E) for any value of a and base ratio b’)/b, read the value of (C) for base ratio (1-b'b) for that value of a and sub- tract from 100. we ths? toh EIc 4 too Value of 9(C) is obtained straightaway from the graph To get 6 (D) for vaiues of b'/b less than 0.5 read @(D) for a base ratio of (1-b’)/b) for that value of a and subtract from 100, The key pressure at the bottom of floors, if there are no piles atexitand entry, are determined treating it as a depressed floor. Necessary depth corrections are applied to the values of $(E) and 4(C) already obtained to get the true pressures under the floor atthe junctions of piles. Mutual interference of Piles: ‘The mutual interference of piles is, (d+D) b Where, C= Correction to be applied as percentage of head ven by the simple formula: D c= 19 b = Distance between the two piles D = Depth of pile whose influence has to be determined on the neighbouring pile of depth (d) }epth of pile on which the effect of pile (D) is sought to be determined a +b =Total length of floor. __ This correction (C) is additive for points in rear and subtrac- tive for points forward in the direction of flow. The equation does not apply to the effect of an outer pile on ‘intermediate pile if the latter is equal 10 oF smaller than the 135, igure 20.11 former and is at a distance of more than twice the length of the outerpile. ‘The mutual interference of piles is purely local. It mainly extends to a distance equal to the depth of the pile, beyond which it falls off. ‘The residual effect at twice that distance becomes negligible in most cases. Where the spacing is close and the depth of piles great, the residual effect may be considerable. ‘The third correction to be applied is called the correction for the slope of the floor. By using the curves in plate XI, in the C.B.L Publication no. 12, suitable percentage corrections to be applied can be obtained. This correction is plus for the down slope and minus for the upslope according to the direction of flow. * The illustration in Figure 20.12 shows how to apply’ the slope correction. Up slope of underside floor at C= 1:1. From Figure 3 plate XI for 1 : 1 stope correction is 11.2 per cent. Length of slope is a (along the horizontal). Spacing of piles is x. Correction at F =~ 11 2per cent Figure 20.2 20.17 CONCLUSIONS OF KHOSLA’S THEORY OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES ‘The two essentials to be considered in weir design, therefore, are the residual uplift on the floor and exit gradients. ‘These two essentials are interconnected. For any given foundation profile of a weir in a given class of soil there will be adefinite distribution of pressure and the exit gradient must not ‘be allowed to exceed a certain definite safe limit (generally 1/5. to 1/7). The uplift pressures must be kept as low as possible, consistent with safety at the exit so as to keep the floor thick- ness at a minimum, 20.17.1 Function of Piles 1. End piles: The upstream pile is relatively more effective to destroy pressure head and reduce the uplift pressure under136 the weir while the pile line atthe downstream end is more ef- fective to reduce the exit gradient. 2, Intermediate piles: The intermediate piles are required nether to prevent the undermining of the floor atthe upstream side or downstream side end nor do they materially alter the uplift on the downstream floor. But they act as important secondary lines of defence so that even if the floor is damaged cither upstream side or downstream side ofthe pile by failure ‘of the end piles under normal scour, the est ofthe floor will be saved from collapse by the intermediate piles. Thus a major structure can be saved. The upstream pile has a relatively smaller importance in relieving the uplift pressures downstream of the pile. The downstream pile, however, has a tendency to increase the uplift pressure upstream of i Opinions differ about the number of intermediate piles to be adopted. However, itis best advocated to have at least one deep pile directly under the weir crest. 20.17.2 Weir on Permeable Foundations Example: ‘A weir isto be constructed on coarse sand (C = 12). ‘The weir wall is 3 meters high above the L,W.L. and is fitted up with one meter high falling shutters. The weir will be of type ‘A, with main apron surface at L.W.L. The maximum discharge over the weir is 4.00 cubic meters per second per meter length ‘and at such time, the maximum depth of water passing over the crest is 2.4 meters. The corresponding afflux is 0.70 meters. Design the weir with suitable aprons and cut off piles (Adopt both Bligh’s theory and Khosla’s theory). 20.17.3 Design Assume a crest width of HL where H'=2.4 meters being the \ depth of water flowing over the weit. This gives a width of 24 vh25 test gates are also to be fitted upon top of weir. The weir will be built with equal slopes on both sides with necessary bce. Width such that the resultant pressure under states I and 2 falle within the middle third. Sate 1: The weir is ited with crest shuters one meter high, ‘The overturning moment is maximum when the upstream wares level isto the top of shatters and downstream water level at the base of the weir. Height of weir above base is 3 meters. Maximum overturn- ing moment on the weir is ; eS tr where, H = 3 meters, S= I meter. a Aya SENS pert 60 meters, or adopt a crest width of 2.0 meters, since 6 ‘The restoring moment is given by the formula Water Resources Engineering Supt A) H+2 2S) 4a(pH-H-S)b-432 (H+35) ‘Substituting values p =2.25, H=3,5= 1,a=2, we get Mea ay M254 1.5)3425% 1) Crema stn bee easy jhus7s + 55-12) For equilibrium, we have rr 6 ? + 5.5 b- 12) 3.75 +s ) 2x43 = 13.75 82+ 55-12 “ 13.75 0 45.5 b-140=0 =554V55? 44x 140% 13.75 2x 13.15 = =55+88_4 = pet 3 meters This gives a base width of 3 meters. ‘So, a weir of 3 meters high with a top width of 2 meters and a base width of 3 meters will suit, for stability under State 1. ‘Sate 2: When the weir is just submerged. ‘Under maximum flow conditions, the flow over the crest of Weir is 2.4 meters, and the afflux observed is 0.70 meters, ie. when 2.4 meters of water passes over the weir, the depth of flow in rear is equal, 0 3.0 + 2.4 ~ 0.70 = 4.7 meters. From this relation, depth of flow of water over the crest when the tail ‘Water is just at the weir crest is calculated as follows: D= Kita, where Ha = 4.70 meters and D = 4 meters. 24 G7 *3= 1.53 meters i's. when a depth of 1.53 meters of water flows over the weir. the weir gets just submerged, ‘The difference in w: ‘ater levels upstream and downstream ‘when the weir Just submerged is 1.53 meters. If His the height of weir above base, h is the difference in water levels ‘upstream and downstream, then the maximum ning moment experienced by the weir is given by 2 Hhe'pxxx, 1.53 meter units = 6.9 meter units. ‘The moment of resistance offered by the weir in this sub- ‘merged condition is given byiver Weirs m= 2PEY OF + ab), where H=3, p=2.25 and For equilibrium, we have 69-4 (125074256) 1.25 b? +25 b-27.6=0 =252V25744x 125x276 2x 125 25+12_95 Pe = 7g 738 meters Hence a base width of 3.80 meters is required ‘Thus, itis verified that the worst condition for stability is ‘when the weir is just submerged. Adopt the dimensions of the top width as 2 meters, base width as 3.80 meters, and slopes on cither side being equal. 20.18 DESIGN OF APRONS Based on the experiments on Narora weir, Bligh evolved a ‘number of empirical equations for computing widths and thick- ness of different parts of aprons of weirs founded on sandy soils. The width of main solid apron in rear of the body wall is siven as Ho waac where, W = width of solid apron in meters ‘C=Classification number of the foundation sand Ho= Height of the weir wall above apron in meters. ‘The total width of apron downstream of body wall including rough stone apron is given as =wcWHe Va PEM Naat where, q is the discharge/meter in cumecs in maximum flood conditions, and Hp and are in meters, The minimum percola- tion length required is given by L = C x Hs where Hs is the 137 ‘maximum difference in levels of water betweén the upstream side and downstream side. In the present example, the maximum possible head occurs when tail water is at the apron level and the head water at the top of shutters, ic., when He=3 +1 = 4m. Minimum percolation length required = 4x 12 = 48 meters. ‘Width of solid apron required downstream of the body wall, is [He af 3 W=4c\ 55 24x 12x Vag = 1447 or 15 meters. Making the floor 15 meters excluding the base width of the body wall, we get a length of (15.00 + 3.80) = 18.80 meters from the upstream heel of the body wall to the downstream end of the main apron. ‘Thus there is still a balance 48.00 — 18.80 = 29.20 meters of creep to be provided for. This is done by providing two piles, one at the heel of the body wall and the other at the end of the main apron downstream side and also by providing an additional solid apron on the upstream side as shown in Figure 20.13. ‘Assuming one meter uniform thickness of main apron, 3 ‘meters deep piles below the bottom of aprons as shown in Fig- ure 20.13 and an upstream solid apron of 24 meters length as shown with 0.50 meters thickness, then the length of creep provided for is 5+ Voi? 43.2 + 19.45 +4 = 0,50-+ 24,30 + 19.45 + 4,00 = 48.25 meters. This is arrived at by adopting the modification suggested by Ellis for creep length ‘The effect of the intermediate pile is absolutely insignificant in reducing the length of creep, but if itis placed at the upstream end, it has the effect of increasing the creep length just like the downstream end pile. However, the pile at the hee! of the body wall serves as an additional protection from scour in case the upstream apron is, washed off due to any other unforeseen reasons. In all such cases it is better to provide an additional pile at the upstream end of the upstream apron also. L20,19. COMPUTING THE UPLIFT PRESSURES WITHOUT DRAWING A DIAGRAM ‘The safety of the weir against uplift is verified by computing the creep length from the diagram of the section of the weir. Referring to the above example, the percolation length from the diagram of the weir is calculated adopting Bligh's theory without any modifications. Taking only one length of pile as effective creep, L=0.50 + 24.00 + 3.50 + 19.45 + 4.00 = 51.45 meters. The average hydraulic gradient established is ae te carh 51.45" 72.8 873 NOY Starting from the upstream end of apron where the maxi- ‘mum head is 4 meters and working along the underside of the base at every 13 meters of percolation, the uplift is reduced by ‘one meter with reference to the L.W.L., the top of downstream apron level ‘Thus, the uplifts at all critical points can be computed. 2019.1 Upstream Apron ‘These are not subjected to any uplifts till the toe of the body wall is reached. The maximum thickness required in an apron is at this point, ic. toe of the body wall. Thickness thereafter can be reduced gradually as the downstream end is reached, The creep length up tothe Toe of the body wall is 0.50 + 24.00 + 3.50 + 4.45 = 32.45 meters. 32.45 1B Residual uplift pressure exerted on the apron = 4.00 - 2.50 50 meters. Since the level of the apron is at the L.W.L., the apron is submerged, and the effective weight of each one meter thick apron is (2'/4 — 1) times the weight of water, i., each one ‘meter depth of apron can resist 1.25 meters head of water. Head lost in creep up to the toe 5 meters + Thickness of apron required = 152 = 1.20 meters Instead of providing the exact required thickness, it is cus- tomary to provide an extra 10 per cent thickness, of aprons as a eS Water Resources Engineering safety measure. Therefore, the overall thickness required « 1.20 + 0.12 = 1.32 meters or say 1.40 meters (approximately) ‘The thickness provided in the above design is only one meter, ‘The solution is to increase the thickness of apron to 1.40 meter, or increase the length of upstream impervious apron. Inthe same way the thickness of apron at various points downstream, of the weir can be calculated and the thickness of apron Teduced suitably to economise. 20.20 PLOTTING THE UPLIFT DIAGRAM Draw a horizontal line ae of length 51.45 meters and mark off the lengths as shown in Figure 20.14. ab = Horizontal length of the aprons from upstream = 24.65 + 3.80 + 15.00 = 43.45 meters be = Depth of pile downstream plus thickness of the downstream-end_ =3+1=4 meters ed = Depth of pile upstream + thickness of upstream apron = 3.00 + 0.50 = 3.50 de = thickness of apron upstream, i.e., 0.50 meters, The point a above corresponds to the starting point of the upstream apron and this will be the reference point. ‘ae denotes the total creep. At a mark off an ordinate aa’ ‘equal to 4.00 meters high to denote the total head on the weir (difference between upstream and downstream water levels), Join a’e by a dotted line. This denotes the ‘slope of the average hydraulic gradient established by the Percolating water under the aprons. Draw dotted lines through d, ¢ and b Parallel to a’e. On the horizontal line ab mark off the key points m and n on weir flor with reference to the starting point. The point m at a distance of 24.00 meters from a denotes the position of the upstream pile, The point n at a distance of 4.45 meters from m denotes the position of the rear toe of the weir body wall and point b denotes the position of downstream pile. Let the parallel lines through b and e cut the vertical through m at m’” and m’ respec- tively as shown in Figure 20.14. Similarly, let the parallel line through e cut the vertical through b at b’. Now join these points an”, m’, m”, b’, by with a firm line as shown. That will be creep the diagram. The vertical line Figure 20.14‘River Weirs ‘aa denotes that the creep is vertical atthe upstream end of the pile and the ordinate a’ a” denotes the drop in head, ‘The or- dinate an’ denotes the uplift pressure under apron at a. ‘The line am’ is parallel to average hydraulic gradient line and denotes the creep line till it reaches the bottom of the stream floor atthe upstream pile and the offset mm” denotes the drop in head “due to percolation along the pile’. Again be- tween the two piles, the creep is denoted by the line mB" which is again parallel to the average hydraulic gradient and the ver- tical offset b’b denotes the drop of head by percolation from the bottom of pile to the L.W.L. ‘The ordinate at any point on the {ine ab denotes the uplift pressure under the floor at that point and knowing residual uplift, the thickness of floor required can easily be computed. 2021 CALCULATING THE UPLIFT PRESSURES UNDER THE FLOOR ADOPTING KHOSLA’S E ‘THEORY OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES ‘The problem is to find the uplift pressures at the key points B, D,Eand F. (1) Downstream end pile : Length of floor 43.45 m. Effective depth of pile line 4.00 m. 4.00 ab 43.45 From the curves at right hand top corner of Plate No. VII-6 6(D)=19 percent 6 (6) =27 per cent Since the piles are spaced at more than twice the depth of pile, there is no mutual interference. $(B)- 6 (D)=8 per cent Applying the depth correction, the pressure at E = 19+ 8%3.'1946=25 per cent ld = 0.092 “Thus the key pressure at E and F are 25 per cent and 19 per cent (2) Intermediate Pile: bf _ 24.00 43. Bi 7400 _ 9.55 and, a= jase ratio. 43.45 0.55 and, a v 1-Ge From Plate VII-6, Bottom curves: 19 For value of @ (E), read 6 (C) for the base ratio of (1 ~ 7b) = 0.45 with a = 10,86 and subtract from 100. (©) = 100-47 = 53 per cent For value of @ (D), reading directly from the graph for b//b =0.55 and a = 10.86, we get $(D)=47 per cent Value of 6 (C) reading directly from the graph for bb = 0.55 and a = 10.86, we get @ (C)=41.0 per cent. 3) The final key pressures: Upstream of pile: 53 per cent Bottom of the intermediate pile: 47 per cent Downstream of the intermediate pile: 41 per cent Applying depth correction, the key pressure at D in Figure 20.15 a 41+ 21414 15 = 425 percent ‘Along the bottom of the floor, the pressure distribution from Dito E varies uniformly from 42.5 to 25 per cent ‘The point to be checked for maximum uplift is atthe toe of the weir, ie., at point 4.45 meters downstream of the inter- mediate pit. + The uplift pressure at the point in question x (19.45 - 4.45) ITS x15 225+ = 25.0 +13.5= 38.5 per cent 19.45 ‘The actual uplift acting under the weir apron atthe point is 38.5x4 100 Thickness required with 10 per cent extra = 1.54 meters. = 798% 0 = 35 meters. This is against a thickness of 1.34 meters arrived from Bligh’s Theory. Exit Gradient: For the exit pile of depth of d from tail water depth, the exit ‘gradient is calculated from the formula, ——_—_——____— 43-45 [__24-00M—>—— 19-45 eee A 8 300M ¥ Figure 20.15140 View 1 where, ==, where a = bid Here H=4;d=4. In this case, a = b/d = 10.86 1+ Vi 10867 _ 2 a Exit gradient = Hence itis safe . However, the depth of pile has also to satisfy the cour depth ‘considerations and the bottom level of the exit pile must g below the scour depth. : ‘The scour depth below the maximum water level is given by ge a(é] where, R= Depth of scour in meters below the maximum. water level, .q= discharge in cubic meters per second per meter Tength of the weir atthe end of the impervious ‘apron, f= Lacey's silt factor. For the design of ples atends, the general practice is to take the upstream end pile to a depth of & and the downstream end pile toa depth of 1.25 R from the maximum water level " For the design of loose aprons upstream and downstream of the weir the depth of scour could be taken between 1.25 R and 2.0 R to suit local concentration of flow. 20.22. MODERN TRENDS IN WEIR DESIGN Till recently the general design used to consist of an anicut of broad crested trapezoidal section followed by a long apron, The anicut having a small coefficient of about 1.66 (Q = 1.66 x ) had necessarily to be long or the afflux had to be large ‘The aprons were designed according to Bligh’s theory of sub, (©) Providing for stabil Khosl’s method, A Hence the section can be adopted as safe. Figure 21.3 “able 21.2 Moments out the toe Dessiion Fore ink Laver am Moment eric Horio Gnmetem) oe) Wy = 185% 10.00 9409 nas 110 Oe Ws =0.60 x 10.00 x2100 12,600 Les uso | 5120022. 2109 21,000 20 shat Wp O20 799 17.000 359 im H= Earth Pressure 26,120 3m (86,980 | we e998 Net Moment = TaDeT kg wel‘Arm of the resultant from the t Eecetiy developed = 428 1.16 = 0.965 meter towable scenic = 425.011 mr Mi mum compressive stress developed in masonry = 15.99 x 2.36 = 37.74 tonnes/sq, meter Tension developed at the heel ‘Thus both compression and tension developed are within the safe limits which masonry can withstand. is also noticeable to find that the maximum toe stress developed is far less than that obtained in Method T above. Method itt Using T.V.A. procedure for earth pressure and keeping the front face of wall with a face batter of 1 in 6, the base width of ‘wall is reduced to 4.00 meters, The earth pressure is calculated ‘ona vertical plane through the hee! as shown in Figure 21.4 and 0 we have angle a = 0, and since there is no surcharge at the top the retaining wall angle, = 0. ‘The components of earth pressure when = 32" and 8 = 16" are Py = 0.038 WH, Pa =0.134 WH ‘These forces act on the vertical through the heel ata height of 0.4 H. i.e. at aheight of 4.0 meters above the base. Check the stability of the wall atthe of all forces about the toe. base, taking moments 16 meters ~ 1.16=0.84 meter Water Resources Eraineey, k— 400m —4 Figure2.4 Allowable eccentricity. “ 0.67 meter Hence the resultant falls just beyond the middle thin developing tension atthe heel. ‘Maximum compressive stress developed atthe toe 69.635 (, | 6x0.84 4x 1000, 4 17.41 %2,26 = 39.34 tonnes/sq, m Tension developing at the heel 69, T1003 109 (1 ~ 1:26) =0.45 kg sq. m ‘Thus, both the compressive and tensile stresses developedia Thasonty are within allowable limits. As the resultant cuts the 2 base of the wall outside the middle third, it is necessary (0 ‘etd Mae sb e ees aa ioear anes Vertical Horizontal Gin meters) kg. meters) 00 2100 178) 195 24,570 | av | ets ie ee ee | oy | peanostetnote? ato re | Ged: manisee iron? 270 ae 1 a iW= ais te | eon.szo = umd) + pesign of Retaining Walls Figure 215. increase the base width of foundations suitably to see that there is no tension developing at the bottom of the foundation con- crete (No tension is allowable in the foundations), ‘The proposed foundations are shown in Figure 21.5 and the stability checked. ‘The concrete foundation is given two footings as shown in Figure 21.5, The stability ischecked with the help of the resultant already obtained at the base of the wall. Now take moments ofall for- ces about the toe of the foundations. ‘The weight of foundation concrete may be taken as the same for that of masonry per cubic meter. 4.71 «2.07 of 30.45 tonnes/sq, meter. Ifthe sol under the foundations cannot take up this pressure, the foundations will have to be further spread out to reduce the ‘maximum toe pressure. ‘The above three methods show that the Bligh’s thumb rule cean be adopted to get at trial sections, and thi trial section can be checked for stability by any one of the above mentioned methods. The trial section can be suitably altered or modified to suit the conditions obtaining. ‘Table 214 Moments about the toe Force ike. Lever arm Moment " aes Vericat Horizontal Gi (ea wo few 0.035 216 150412, @ [ws ssa ease sat 8.648 3.00 16.00 x 1.00 x 2100 op 22.780 1.60 908, ‘Am of the resultant from the toe = epgy= 193 meters, Eccentricity developed = spo = 1,93 = 1.07 meters. 6.0 Allowable eccentricity 1.0 meter. 6 ‘Thus the resultant just falls near the middle third ofthe foun- dations, The tension developed will be negligible and may be neglected. The maximum toe pressure developed on foundations, i. toe ‘The sections arrived at by Rankine’s theory are slightly on the higher side and, can be economised by using the T.V.A. procedure which is considered to be more rational. The above examples worked out also indicate that sections with front face vertical are uneconomical and give more toe stresses. By giving a face batter, the centre of gravity of masonry is shifted towards the earth face and thus enables the section to resist more earth pressure. In some retaining walls, where front faces have face batters, as steep as 1/2 to 1, itis economical to provide a reverse batter on the earthfill side. The reverse batter must be such that the masonry section without earth pressure can still stand by itself146 ‘asa gravity section. Such a retaining wall section in the canal transitions of aqueducts where the transition is to bbe given from vertical 1/2 to 1 214 SATURATED FILL In many cases of irrigation structures, we get either saturated fills or partly saturated fills. In all such cases, (i) the hydraulic pressure below the point of saturation is determined as though there is no earth-fill. Water Resources Engineer (ii) The earth pressure resulting from buoyan, (1050 kgs/cubic meter) is calculated using sat values of and 8. ‘same ‘Then these two forces are combined and the stability of yg wall checked. ‘The earth pressure of a saturated fill is far greater than thay due to a dry fill. So, in order to reduce this, weep holes wig inverted filters are put in, behind the section of the reta wall to relieve at least partially the hydraulic thrust of ig saturated fill.CHAPTER 22 DESIGN OF CHANNELS 22.9 FORMULAE Inthe design of channel sections, the various formulae general- Iy used are as follows: (1) Chazey’s formula vecvRS 1 gas si (2) Manning's formula: V= = (avis coresponds to the formula, V= +486 42% 1? in FPSsystem) {@) Lacey's Regime formula : V= 10.76 R?? s'* (This corresponds to the formula, V = 16 R55! in EPS. system.) where V= Velocity of flow through the section R= Hydraulic mean depth ‘§=Bed slope of the channel (strictly speaking it should be surface slope of water) ‘efficient of Rugosity = Coefficient in Chazey's formula depending upon the nature of the channel. ‘The value of Cin the formula is adopted as given by Kutter and Gangulett. Value of C in metric system is IR Value of Cin FPS. system is 18H (ago 00%| Ss 1+[s106+8 The difficulty in this formula is the determination of the value of C each time as it changes with the values of bed slope, hydraulic mean depth and coefficient of Rugosity. e rae the use of this formula is a bit cumbersome. However, Beam ofthis equation has been simplified as shown below 12a the use ofthis formula hasbeen further simplified with the ult of values given in Table 22.1. CChazey’s equation runs as V=CNRS, where C is the Kutter’s coefficient. The same equation is put as {!a(oesms} oom) 1+|23+ 7" Ve of (a-fo-25) NR ve “The same equation is put down as V= VR+D wien, neff), ‘These values of Vand D are dependent on the values of the coefficient of Rugosity and bed slope. Thus, Chazey's equa NR tion can be represented in the modified form as V= Te > This is also known as Kutter’s formula, Values of N and D have been calculated for various values of N and S, and are given in Table 22.1. With the aid of this table, it is easy to calculate the velocities. 22,1 PROBLEM Calculate the discharge flowing through a channel of trapezoidal section of bed width 15 meters and 3 meters depth with 1/2 to 1 side slopes. ‘The channel has a bed slope of 20 so. every kilometer and the coefficient of rugosity is 2 = 16.5x3=49.5 square meters. Wetted perimeter = 15 +23 x 1.118 = 15 +6.71 =21.71 meters. ‘Area of section of channel = (1 +} 3 square meters Hydraulic mean depth = BS = 2.280 meters.Water Resources Ey natncerng 8 and D tn the formula V= Me ' Toble 22.1 Values of Wand D tn TE sD. : n= 0038 aa woomas a= 0025 92003 n= 005 Falinlilomaer ‘Fall 0120 ee a Bane sets jase | Mis oe ut se 0) 03865 2. a Hee at pan otes ano 06886 12150 6674 1350 Hamee Nee Oy 258300 10am och cates agri O766i ogeze 07278 LOIS GEEK Fe ETT ae NS ns 75 Ia Goran Hasso 07700 08290 0661 O7ESD OSES 07180 1 S OS850 19259 2am) ames ODOM 0880, O77 1.0620, 0737" 1.2990 96094 Ang) | 012s 125 8000-00110 09398 0.7080 O15 (5 wey QOS has. casso sss? anda as0l6 O05 GAIN? 0790 07610 11685 0.6555 14655) oore 07178 09st 07975 08606 09570 07982 1.1165 O6ESI 1595 09038 0.9240 0.8371 1.0780 0.7163 1 200 25000. OO1sL 1.1385 06160 1.0603, 0.6930 09989 0.7700 seat ao a it apes ogo. hls, 08724 LOK, 040S,, OOKED, OTR, OE ce aera 0280 250 4000 QOISR L2sI4 05840 1.1629 06870 1.0934 07300 (08760 0.9128 1.0220 0.7774 14609 0278 2783687 0166 1.9048 S720. 1.2118 6435 1.1388 07150 (08580 0.9490 1.0010 0.8068 1.439) asso O6MS 1.1799 07050 1.0640 0.8460 09821 0.9870 08339 14109 6950 10998 08340 1.0147 09730 0.8604 1.390) (08220 1.0466 0.9590 08864 13709 017s 17S STIS 00132 1.0RHT 0.6380 0200 400 3X HOITA. 1.3829 S640 ORS 32S 2077 OLED 14004 S560 1.2996 06255 12204 Oa 3802857 QUIET L44Td O.SARD 13427 06165 1.2604 06550 1.1388 a ae ee Tet tangy OS) 13871, O60 13007, 08775 qfTI8 GBIa0 LOROD OSHS AGIET Lem O85 5 ey ama) SIRO 05380 14260 0603 1.3880 0672S 12040 O8DTO 1094 OS415 09300 1249 ons 225 foams 15780 S120 14626 05985 1.3720 06650 1.2339 07980 1.1365 09310 0.9600 13300 0350450) cai gio? Os280 15010 05940 14077 0.6600 12656 0.7920 1.1654 09240 09857 1.20) oars a7 soe (Gaxt 05260. HsMi3 S918 14453 06875 1.2999 07890 1.1962 09205 1.0083. 13150 osm 500) sone tyote 05220 15792 05873 1480 06525 1.3306 07830 1.2246 09135 1.0326 13080 oss 925 cams Toe 08200 16122 S880 1.5114 0.6500 1.3580 0.7800 1.2457 0.9100 1.0534 1300) sso S80 IRIE ORME ~L.77AT. 05160 16827 0580S 15397 0.6450 1.3829 0.740 12723 09030 L717 12300 17150 05760 1.6072 06400 1.4431 0.7680 1.3272 0.8960. 1.1172 12800 0650 os S38 0025S 19227 OSORO 1.7799 OSTIS 1.6677 0.6350 1.4969. 0.7620 13762 08890 L157? 12700 O70) 700142900265 19928 05040 1.8448 0.5670 1.7278 06300 1.5503 0.7560 1.4249 0.8820 1.1978 1.2600 0950 7801313 OM274 20577 0.5020 19043 05648 1.7837 06275 1.6002 0.7530 1.4706 0.8785 1.2357 1.2550 0600 601696 un24S 1.8522 0120 0Ums 21197 04980 1.9612 0.5603 1.8367 0.6225 6471 07470 1.5132 O8TIS 12707 12480 0300 s00 8s0 aso fms2 21842 04960 2.0205 95580 1.8922 0.6200 1.6965 07440 1.5584 0.8660 1.3082 12550 0900 900 0.0300 22410 04940 2.0730 0.5558 19410 O6I7S 1.7400 07410 1.5981 08645 1.3410 12350 980 980 (00308 22977 0.4920 2.1252 05535 19897 06150 1.7833 07380 1.6376 0.8610 1.3737 1.2300 1000 100.0 1000 ORS 23558 04910 2.1788 05524 20398 06138 1.828) 0.7365 1.6786 0.8593 1.4078 12275 1100 1100 90900332 24701 0.4880 2.2842 05490 21381 0.6100 1.9156 0.7920 1.7586 0.8540 1.4741 12200 1200 1200 883 000346 2.5708 0.4860 23770 05468 22248 0.6075 1.9930 0.7290 1.8293 0850S 15328 1210 1300 130.0 76900360 26712 04840 24696 0344S 23112 0.6050 2.0700 0.7260 1.8997 08470 1.5912 12100 140 140.0 714 OORT 27713 O.4KO 25619 05823 23973 0.6025 2.1468 0.7230 1.9699 0.8435 1.6493 12050 1.500 150.0 667 00387 2.8638 0.4800 2.6471 0.5400 2.4768 0.6000 22175 0.7200 2.0356 0.8400 1.7028 1.2000 1.600 1600 625. 0.0400 29388 04794 2748 OSI3 25583 05999 22908 0.7191 21016 0.8300 1.7588 11985 17001700 S68 O.042-3OKSI 04782 2.8144 05389 26331 O97 23571 07173 21622 0.8369 AOD 1155S am ano $56 04 3IBI7_ Germ, 24H O88 2mTT OSE 2aR6 OTIS 22ND 083s 1.8597 1.10% 4900 0086 8ONG 32186. ox 744 OKO 276 0585S 200 O76 azMa ORT 1910 1 3.2980 04756 30476 05351 28510 05945 25515 0.7134 23400 0.8323 1.9570 118% 2m 00 te Sn 445 us Ay os Dons osm 2am arta 2asis oss sams 3 2 431183 0581S 2.7010 0.7088 6? 2 2S cee Se 0003000 Gost om aoe site 05299 33618, OsHHE 3.0074. 07055 27571 08243, 23038, LIT 7220 05292 34809 05880 3.1137. 07056 28545 08232 23849 1170 sao 00-294 005K 42827 04652 38560 O82 3097 3400 juno 263 OOSI7 45294 45k 41899 05107 39Im Gone. aml, O78 d200 4200 238064847544 OMG 43014 08258 A106 babe eee 07029 ‘ton 4600 217 00678 49725. D466 asoen sae eames QA] 36722 07011 sa won 2 A Se Sale a Sn Sais as te ogi 25337) LIT opis 2o7e4 1M ogiso 2108 16 osies 29385 16N 081s 3.0620)Peer enmmnenn er re HR, eCe eOS eee pesign of Channels Vit = ¥2.28 = 1.510 020 1 ped slope is 20 ems per kilometer = 55, Coefficient of rugosity = 0.025 Values of N and D are read from Table 22.1 for the above values of Nand S. 0.9983 and D = 0.7700 ya NR _ 09983 2.280 _ 0.9983 x2.280 Yr+p 1510+0.770~ 2280 , _ V=0.9983 meters per second Discharge, =A x V= 49.5 x 0.9983 = 49.41 cubic meters per second. ‘The use of Manning's formula is simpler and is becoming popular, Just like Kutter’s formula this is also derived from Chazey's fundamental equation. 221.1 Values of C for Manning's Formula Manning's formula is V= C-VRS, where C This when simplified becomes me sis ‘The values of coefficients of rugosity recommended for use inthe above formula are: 0.013. Ashlar and well laid brick work, 0.015 Rough brick work,@ood stone workin fair order. 0.017 The same as aboVe in‘inferior condition. 0.020 Rubble masonry, coarse brick work and masonry. 0.0225 Canals in earth aboveithe average in order and regime. (0.025 Canals and rivers in earth in tolerably good order and regime. 00275 Canals and rivers in earth below the average in order and regime. 0.030 Canals and rivers in bad order and regime 0.035 Canals and rivers obstructed by detritus and in bad ‘order and regime. 0.050 Torrents encumbered with detritus. 22.1.2 C.W.P.C. Recommendations ‘The C.W.P.C. recommends the use of the following rugosity Coefficients in earthen channels, based on their capacities: (2) In soils other than Rock Capacity Value of N (cubic meters/sec.) 015 0.030 0.15 to 1.40 0.025 1.40 to 14.10 0.0225 L__ Above 14.10, 0.020 149. (©) Rock cuts Value of N equal to 0.035 to 0.050 is assumed when rock por tion at least 15 cms above the excavated bed level is left out in ‘working out cross-sectional area 22,13 Lacey's Regime Formulae ‘The use of Lacey's Regime formulae would be applicable only to ideal cases where the channel isin perfect regime. ‘Thus the use of this formulae is restricted. Channels are broadly classified into two categories: (a) Deltaic channels (carrying silt) (b) Non-Deltaic channels (non-silt carrying) Deltaic channels are those taking off from a diversion work which merely divert the river flow directly into the channel without any detention, as the storage generally available at a diversion work is practically negligible. Except in times of low flows in the river, the river flow ‘during crop period is likely to be charged with silt (Both rolled and suspended silt). As there is no detention, there is no time for the silt to settle down with the result the flow through the channel is charged with silt. Unless the channels are designed for velocities at which the flow neither deposits silt nor erodes, picking up fresh silt from the channel surface, widening it fur- ther, there is likely to be recurring expenditure in silt clearance or restoring them to normal sections if eroded. So, it is very important to design earthen channels with such shapes (cros sections) and longitudinal slopes such that the water way is neither obstructed by the deposition of fresh silt nor injured by further erosion on bed and sides. In case of non-deltaic channels, ie., channels taking off from big reservoirs, the river flows are detained for some time in the water spread. This gives time for the rolled and suspended silt to settle down in the reservoir bed. So, practical- ly clear water with very little silt suspended is drawn through the channel. In all such cases the maximum velocity for which the channel has to be designed, depends upon the velocity of flow that can be withstood by the soil through which the chan- nel runs without erosion. 22.2. MAXIMUM SAFE VELOCITIES Maximum safe velocities for different soils are: Ordinary earth 0.5 to 1.0 meter per second Firm gravel or clay 1.0 to 1.5 meters per second Broken stone and light pitching | 1.0 meter per second Firm conglomerate 1.75 to 2.25 meters per second Sound rock 3.5 meters per second Till the year 1895, all channels were designed by the aid of Chazey's equation V=C-VRS and it was a common thing to expect heavy silt deposits that had to be cleared at enormous150 costs. This state of affairs changed when B.G. Kennedy found from his extensive experimental studies on a number of Regime channels in Punjab (Bari Doab System) that there was critical velocity at which the canal neither silted nor scoured. He stated that within reasonable limits of deviation, there ex- isted a constant relation between the depth of flow and the velocity expressed by the equation Vo = 055 (Corresponds to Vo = 0.84 d?™ in EPS, system) where Vo= Critical velocity (non-silting and non-scouring) and d= depth of flow. Kennedy thus defined “Critical Velocity" ina channel as the mean velocity which will just keep the channel free from silting and scouring, This is denoted by the letter Vo, 22.3 KENNEDY'S THEORY OF SILT TRANSPORTATION (Sediment in a flowing canal is kept in suspension solely by the vertical components of the constant ed- dies, which can always be observed over the full width of any stream boiling up gently to the surface. (Gi) The quantity of silt transported (or supported) will be in proportion to the bed width, all other condi- 3 remaining same, Gi) Tt also varies with the velocity of the stream, the Variation is as V”. (iv) Alsi rolled isin suspension and a certain amount of bed- It is carried by the stream. Suppose the quantity of water carried is Q per meter width of channel ata velocity of V meters/second, and with a depth of flow of d meters, then Q = Vd. If P represents the ratio, Quantity of silt Quantity of water where q is the quantity of silt in water, Therefore, PO=PXVxD, But the quantity of silt trans channel is also equal to AV” then P=4, @ ported per meter width of the where, A is the area per meter width of the channel, Therefore, PVD = AV" nwt oP vn tat xb ‘The same equation can be also written as Vo = md” The values obtained by Kennedy for variéus River Systems in India are: Water Resources Enaincering mm. ae Punjab Sandy silt 0.55 068 Sind Silty Loam 041 0.64 Godavari fine silt 039 055 Krishna fine silt 0.53 052 Kennedy later recognised that the grade of sit playeg 4 prominent pat inthis relationship and introduced another fag tor into his equation called by him as ‘Critical Velocity Ration (CVR). CR. “% where Vis the mean velocity, and Vo the critical velocity ‘The values of C.V.R. for sands coarser than standard are ay. signed from 1.1 to 1.2 and those for finer from 0.9 1008 22.4 USE OF MODIFIED VALUES OF Vo The following are the most common cases where a modified value of Vo is taken while designing the channel: (1) When the off-take of canal is far away from the hills it is only fine sand that may enter the canal. So, a lesser value of Yo may suffice, This can be decided by observations only. (2) When the off-take of the canal is near the hills, the shingle and coarser pebbles may enter. The head reach will gt deposited by shingle and annual removal has to be con- templated. Lower down, only finer sand enters, So the higher reach will have to be designed for a higher critical velocity ratio com- pared to the lower down reach. (3) Occasionally methods are adopted at the head to check the heavy silt from entering the canal during floods and at on- nary times, the water may not be charged with heavy silt. Ina such cases a lesser value can be allowed. (@) From a parent canal, the off-takes in the upper reaches {ake away a greater portion of the silt because of the eddies at the sluice. So, the lower down reaches of canal and its dis \tibutaries require a lesser value of the critical velocity ratio. ) When the parent canals are graded too steep, there is ‘chance for the silt to ent ier the distributaries. In such cases the Aistribution system has to be designed for greater values so that they are not chocked up. (6) When canals take-off from ferent sill levels, it is level off-take, level channel to deposit on level channel ‘common regulator with dif Possible in low supplies to close the low Pond up the water and send supplies into the high When such ponding is done, it is likely for sit the bed to a level higher than the sill ofthe 1o¥ ‘When this low level channel is opened all this deposi will ‘enter the low level ahd: toee ith Channel, and unless it is designed for ® higher value of critical velocity ratio, the channel may getsilte? op.iene semen She MER eT oc. > Se pesien of Channels 425 DESIGN OF CHANNELS USING KENNEDY'S CRITICAL VELOCITY from the empirical equation for the value of critical ‘locity and the various values of critical velocity ratios to be ‘opted depending on the type of channel, no attempt has been nade to correlate the critical velocity with surface fall of the hannel. Kennedy assumed surface slopes in his regime chan- nel applying Kutter's formula only. ‘The usual practice in most of the States in India is to design the channel by using Kennedy's equation along with Chazey's formula with Kutters coefficient. In this method the variables involved in the design of a channel are manifold, namely, sur- face slope, bed width, depth, and bed width to depth ratio, etc. So for a given discharge a number of channels (various sec- tions) can be designed. It is only by making a number of cal- culations, that we can arrive at a possible section. The procedure consists of assuming atrial value for the depth. Sub- stituting this value in Kennedy's equation with a certain critical velocity ratio, the mean velocity for the trial depth can be ar- rived a. Knowing the discharge to be pushed through the channel, the area required for the channel section, A = Q/V'is arrived at Since, the depth is already assumed, the necessary bed width required can be arrived at. For those values of B and D, work out the hydraulic mean depth and obtain the velocity V using Chazey's formula with Kutter’s coefficient. If the slope is not assumed first, the slope required can be calculated for the criti- cal velocity with assumed depth and the section is final as it satisfies all other conditions. However, if the channel has to fit in an already assumed slope, then calculate the value of V, with this assumed slope and the value of R, already determined for the trial section. If this value of velocity tallies with the value already ob- tained from Kennedy's equation then this section is suitable. Otherwise the whole procedure has to be repeated and a num- ber of trials are required to get at a satisfactory solution, The following example illustrates this method. 22.6 PROBLEM Design a channel to carry 30 cubic meters per second with a 'ongitudinal slope of 1/8600. The coefficient of rugosity to be used in Kutter’s equation is 0.02. Use Kennedy's equation 0.49. and critical velocity ratio of 1.05. The side slopes of channel may be taken as 1/2: 1. Solution: Assume a depth of flow of 2.00 meters. Using Kennedy's equation, the value of critical velocity Yo=0.49 d= 0,49 x 2,00°% = 0.76 meters per second. Critical velocity ratio to be adopted is 1.05. “ Mean velocity for which the channel has to be designed = 0.76 x 1.05 = 0.7980 or 0.80 meters per sec. Discharge in the channel = 30 cubic meters per second. 30. ++ Area of section required 375 sq. meters. A D (2 + 7) since side slopes are 1/2 to 1. 37, (8+1) B=17.75 meters. So, try a section of 17.75 meters bed width with 2.0 meters depth. Now check up the velocity obtained by Chazey’s formula using Kutter's coefficient: B= 17.75 meters, D = 2.00 meters. ‘Area of cross section = 2 (17.75 + 2/2.) = 37.5 sq. m. Wetted perimeter = 17.75 + 22x 112 = 17.75 + 4.48 = 22.23 meters. 37.50 Hydraulic mean depth (R) = 35°55 = 1.687 meters. A VR = 1.687 = 1.299 meters. Using Kutter's formula, V= "8, values of N and D are VR+D obtained from the table of coefficients for a bed slope of 1/8600 and a coefficient of rugosity 0.02. N = 0.9309, D=0.7266 y= 9.9309 x 1.687 _ 0.9309 x1.687 = 1.299+0.7266 2.026 = 0.775 meters per second. v _ 0775 Vo = 076 = 10? Thus the velocity obtained by Kutter's equation tallies with the mean velocity obtained by Kennedy's equation. A more finer calculation can be tried to get the critical velocity ratio as 1.05. This cumbersome process of arriving at a satisfactory solu- tion can be reduced to the minimum by using Capt. AFF. Garret’s tables and diagrams. ‘The diagrams provide graphical solutions of Kennedy and Kutter’s equations. These diagrams are available in F.P.S. system only for the design of earthen channels carrying discharges varying from 1 cusec to 12000 ccusees, for any bed slope varying from 1/100 to 1/12,000 and for any value of coefficient of rugosity varying from 0.018 to 0.03. 22.7 REGIME CHANNELS Mr. Gerald Lacey who retired as Chief Engineer, ‘out a long and detailed study of the problem of designing stable channels in alluvium. ‘The fundamental condition for a silt carrying canal to attain regime conditions is thatthe discharge should be constant. The other important conditions are that the channel flows throughgre i. 182; unlimited incoherent alluvium of the same character as that transported, and silt grade and silt charge are fairly constant. Kennedy’s equation is V=0.55 md°™, where m varies from 0,80 to 1.20 depending upon the type of siltearried by the chan- nel. Although Kennedy recognised that the value m depended ‘upon silt grade, he had not established any relationship between them. ce ‘The corresponding Lacey’ equation is V = 0.6377/'7R™™, ‘where fis the silt factor and the hydraulic mean depth. The ‘coefficient fcalled by Lacey as the silt factor was connected to the mean particle diameter of the bed material inthe channel by the relation f= 1.76 m', where m is the mean diameter of the particle in millimeters. Though it was felt that the value of f does not entirely depend upon the particle diameter, it was recognised that itis ‘effected by some other factors like the silt load, quantity of silt carried in water, but no definite relationship has yet been estab- lished. ‘The second statistical relation obtained by Lacey is given by V= 10.768 5", where Ris the hydraulic mean depth and S, the bed slope. This equation corresponds to Manning's slope ‘equation, bt there is no variable like the coefficient of rugosity here. It is dependent on other factors namely slope and depth. The third independent statistical relation brought forward by Lacey is P = 4.84 9" (This corresponds to P = 2.67 Q" in FPS. system), where P is the wetted perimeter and Q, the dis- charge in cubic meters per second, ‘This equation shows that the wetted perimeter ofa stable silt transporting channel varies as the square root of the discharge it carries and is independent of the silt transported. This fixes the horizontal dimension of the cross-section of the regime channel. The silt factor only determines the shape. It is also observed that to whatever side-slopes we cut a ‘channel, the silt transporting channel has a tendency to assume semielliptical section, the coarser the silt the flatter the shape. From the above statistical formulae, the following general observations can be made: (1) All stable silt transporting channels, flowing with the same mean velocity tend to assume the same shape. Q) Alll stable silt transporting channels carrying the same discharge have the same wetted perimete? i respective of the type of silt carried. The three fundamental equations of Lacey are: () v=06377f7 Ror V=0.6377GR_ (2) V= 10.76 R513 12 (3) P=4.84.Q' In addition to these three equations, Lacey obtained one more equation using Kennedy's data, which is Water Resources Engineering (a) Af? = 1342.V0° Hier ion in sq. meters, f= silt factor, here A = Area of cross-section in sa - fea Vou Kennedy's critical velocity. From equation (4), we cay unite another relation connecting discharge, silt factor ang critical velocity, ; of? = 134.2 0% ‘Q= For example in rock, we can use a side slope as steep as 1/4 to I and in light soils say 1 '/4 : 1 and intermediate slopes adopted for soils which vary in hardness between 1/410 1 and t'fy : 1. Necessary berms also may have to be left above FSL., in case of very deep cuttings where the joints in the strata ofthe side do not permit steeper slopes. Even these open cuttings with flumes may not be economical beyond a certain depth of cutting and tunnelling may have to be resorted to for economy. A flume essentially consists of many components: Water Resources Engiy neering (a) Approach Transition: The bed width is graduay reduced and depth and velocity are gradually increage) Generally, these transitions have to be smooth so that the fay, of head due to friction and eddies is minimum. (b) Throat: This is the actual flume where the bed width reduced increasing the velocity and depth of flow. The lon gitudinal slope of bed in this throat will be such that it indy, the necessary velocity in the flume. (©) Departure Transition: ‘The bed-width and depth of foy ‘and velocity are brought back to normal with smooth transitiog ‘0 that as much as possible, the head lost is regained, 22.17 PROBLEM ‘A lined canal carrying 220 cubic meters/second has to be flumed through a ridge 1600 meters long, where rock has been met with. ‘The canal in the normal reach has the following hydraulic particulars: Discharge: 220 cubie meters/second Bed width: 25 meters Depth: 5 meters Velocity of flow: 1.35 meters/second Side slopes: 1 '/2 : | and coefficient of rugosity 0.018 (Lined canal) Longitudinal bed slope: 1/10,000 ‘The flume portion is assumed to be in hard rock where aside slope of 1/4 to I is permissible. The maximum velocity as sumed in the flume may be taken as 2.5 meters per second. As sume the whole flume also to be lined (n = 0.018), Area of section in the normal reach 5 +3} Wetted perimeter, P= (25 +2 5x 1.118) =36.2 meters. 22.17.1 Design of Flume Since a maximum velocity of 2.5 meters/second can be allowed in the flume, the area of the flume required for discharging 220 137.5 sq. meters je 220 cubic meters/second is =2 = is 5 = 88 sq. meters. ‘The best and most economic trapezoidal section is governed by the relation: bt2nd 2 Tan +t where, b= bed width d=FS. depth n gay ' Li 1er pesignof Channels nz | =the side slope badd g nee b+ 2nd=2d Vr? +1 22d Vn? + 1 2nd = d{2Vit+ 1 -2n} ‘reno section with 1/4: | side slopes, A=(b+ ‘Je But for an economical section, d\ge “(sete EB (156+0.25) = 88 fa tE.gvingd=6972 mets Alo 700 net — ake =025 (0.309 - 0,093) = 0.25 x 0.216 =0.054. 09296 or 0.093 =0:3087 or say 0.309 2.17.3 Frictional Loss in the Entrance Transition Average velocity = ass 1.35) _ 1.91 metersisee. (89.25 + 137.9) 143 38 sqm. Average area => Average wetted perimeter= => #962 3981 m, 11338 Hydraulic mean depth = 30-3 = 3.68 m. RS 2238 Using Manning's formula 19) = 1X238S 0018 des 238 69.23, Ys Psi x0.018~ Total energy line at BB with respect to AA is 30.093 ~0.054 —0,005 = 30.04.Water Resources Engincerin " 162 onwan MAL oom ——K- 40M “A React NORA egg —— 10 Re “ay THe 25 —> 0m 25M ay ke FLUME ly ke pPROACH pépaature “ aera pa! &. , TRANSITION “ Cc o foe t 1 ae | ly29s7 SL Tay 42076 oma? = s}isn Koon oie tomicth= ELEVATION igure 223 “Transitional losses SLi at B= 30.034 — SE = 30.034 ~ 0.309 =29.725 tal of 2g Since the depth of flow at BB is 7. of the flume at BB will be 29.725 ~ 7.00 = 22.725 or ‘The flow in the flume from BB to CC will be uniform with a velocity of 2.46 meters/second. ‘Thus, the loss from BB to CC will be only due to friction. 00 meters, the bed level 22.73 ie ore Longitudinal bed slope in the flume is 3555 ‘Taking the section at CC just at the exit ofthe flume, 1600 Fron 7 0593 (Loss due to Frictional loss from BB to CC slope only). Elevation of total energy line at CC with reference to that at BB = 30.034 - 0.593 = 29.441 2 FSL.acc=29.481 - 2 28 = 29.441 ~ 0.309 = 29.132 «1, Bed level of flume at CC = 29.132 ~ 7.00 = 22.132 From CC to DD in the departure transition, the velocity decreases to normal velocity of 1.35 meters/second, so there will be a gain in head. In addition there will be frictional loss in the transition (Sections at CC and DD are same as the sec- tions at BB and AA). AS. = 0.008 the transition = 95 Frictional los 28 s. TEL. at DD with respect to that at CC 9.441 — 0.054 — 0.008 = 29.379 ‘280 oF 29.29 =025| 4) 0.25 x 0.216 = 0.054 28 BSL. at DD = 29.379 - 0.093 = Bed level at DD = 29.286 ~ 5.000 = 24.286 or 24.29 Beyond DD, the canal will have uniform depth of flow with bed fall of 1 in 10,000. Figure 22.4 shows the canal excavated in rock. The canal here is flumed reducing the bed-width and increasing the depth. ‘The picture shows berms left above the water prism, to preven any slips due to faults and cleavages in rock cutting. The tion has to be lined to present smooth faces to the flowing wate to reduce the coefficient of rugosity Figure 22.5 shows the section of a canal in the normal: reach ina curve. No berms are seen in the canal section, as the tion is designed and excavated to take lining ultimately 0"# 1'% to 1 slope (horizontal to vertical), The excess earth 0 tained during the excavation of canal is shown dumped a5) banks on either side beyond the top of the canal bank. One of the canal banks carries a carriage-way for inspection The first 25 kms of the low level canal (right canal) of BS ‘Tungabhadra project is a marvellous piece of engineering- canal encounters mountainous country in this region. be flat country is reached. In this reach, the canal runs throws hillocks with deep rock cus, and at some places with onepesien of Channels Figure 22.4 Figure 22.5 163164 Water Resources Engineering Figure 22.6 ‘only, absorbing some hilly catchments. In some places, deep ravines are crossed by aqueducts. In one reach, the canal skirts round ahill at high contour. Here a ledge is cut across the hill slopes along the contour, and a canal section is formed having the existing hill slope on one side, and a masonry side wall on the other side. The masonry side wall carries a foot path on its top. Figure 22.6 shows the side wall reach being connected to.an aqueduct constructed on columns and braces. Bibliography (1) rsigation Manual by Col. W.M. Elis (@) Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India) Civil Engineering Division, November, 1989,CHAPTER 23 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF FLUMES WITH NORMAL DEPTH OF FLOW AND INCREASED DEPTH OF FLOW 130 GENERAL ‘Though the depressed bed flumes, are economical in cost and epaulially efficient, they however present some difficulties ope inal stage of excavation and in the subsequent repait ij maintenance. In case of considerably long flumes, repair am maintenance during a short closure period is abig problem, am onsiderable time is lost in dewatering and removal of fallen svyckin the depressed bed before repairs can be taken up. Generally, all deep flumes involve excavation in harder soils or rock within the water prism. The lack of proper working space the flume bed and the considerable height involved in Hing the excavated spoil on to the dump area involve addi- tional time. In canal excavations, the flumes are the critical paints. Ifthese are not completed in time and even if the canal bn either side is completed, water cannot be sent to the ayacut Tying downstream of the flume. In all cases of time-bound works, where creation of irrigation potential is targetted below the flume, the loss of time, say one crop season outweighs all economic aspects. All these aspects deserve a thorough study by means of management charts and P.E.R.T. critical path analysis. Where it is decided to avoid a depressed bed in flume, the horizontal fluming is done, i.e., the bed width is reduced, keep- ing the depth same as in the normal reach. As the velocity in the flume is kept same as before, there is no extra excavation required within the water prism. ‘Theeffect of the modification, on the above lines is given in the following analysis. 23.1 MODIFIED DESIGN Keeping the velocity in the flume, same as before, i.e. 25 meters/second, the area of waterway is also same, i.c., 88 sq. ™. Keeping the depth of flow as $ m, i, same as in the normal reach, the bed-width required is roughly computed to be about 165 meters. _Aflume section with a bed width of 16.5 m, depth 5 m with Side slopes 1/4 : 1 (Rock), the velocity developing in the flume is computed to be 2.48 m/sec. Due to this modification, the Wetted perimeter increases, resulting in reduced hydraulic mean depth and corresponding steeper bed-slope to attain the Proposed velocity in the flume. ‘Area of water prism =( 16.5 + 5/4 ) 5 = 88.75 sq.m. 4 20 Velocity deve in = 20 = locity developing in the flame = ge-7¢_ = 2.48 msec. Wetted perimeter, P = 16.5 +25 x 1.03 = 26.8 m. 88. ge 733m 323313 =2.22m. Hydraulic mean depth, R ‘This shows that the modification made now gives a shallow section. Naturally the bed-slope required to give velocity of 2.48 mi/sec willbe steeper than with a deeper section (depressed flume). ‘The required bed-slope for this modified section is com- 1 1 puted tobe Zy5— TY Fagg ; 1 This is against bed slope of 379g, in the depressed flume ‘The length of the entrance transition will be “fe “The length of the departure transition will be 165 12.75 or say 15m. 21.25 or say 25m. ‘Assuming that the losses in transitions will be same as before (difference being negligible), the main extra loss of head in the flume will be due to the steeper bed slope. ‘The extra loss of head is, therefore, equal to 1 L 1600 (zs - ane |°° 074 meters. 23.3 ADVANTAGES 1. During maintenance there is no problem of dewater- ing as the bed-slope enables the flume to empty itself and thus gives plenty of time to dry the bed. remove the muck and carry out repairs. 2. ‘Avoids extra lifts in excavation of rock, ‘met with, within the depressed bed portion. bed level of the if rock is 3. Gives greater working space at flume.166 234 DISADVANTAGES 1 Inboth cases, the quantity of excavation inthe flume within the water prism is the same. However, in a Tong flume, where rock is met with even above the water prism, due to an increase in the bed width the quantity of rock excavation above the water prism increases considerably thus increasing the cost ofthe flume. 2. Additional loss of head in the flume due to steeper bed slope and this increases as the length of flume increases. In the above comparison, the canal is flumed only horizon- tally. In exceptional cases, canal has been flumed both horizontally and vertically, ie. both the width and depth have been reduced. One such example is the aqueduct across the Musi on Nagarjunasagar Left Main Canal (Lal Bahadur Canal) ‘where the canal carrying a discharge of about 10,000 cusees, is ‘made to flow through masonry trough resting on concrete ar- ches. In order to keep the springing level of arches above the Maximum Flood Level of the river, the canal bed level has been ‘ised by 0.60 meters, The slope required inthe trough, the loss, ‘of head, etc. in such cases, ae calculated inthe same way, as is done in the case ofa flume. 235 SPECIFICATIONS FOR LINING THE FLUME, ‘Some of the important flumes (in full rock cutting) are lined according to the following specifications and they are standing quite well In rock, the cutting is generally made to a slope of 1/4 to 1 (horizontal to vertical). “Lining with cement concrete with Water ResOMrces Engineer, jin such slopes is not easy and is time Se a will be available at sit, lining in ye masonry will be quick. easy and also economical, Masonry lining in cement mortar 1: 8 is done in panels say 15 to 20 meters length, alternately. The joints are smeary with hot bitumen, and the lining in gaps are completed. Th, surface of the lining is plastered in cement mortar 1 : 4 ayy rubbed smooth so as to achieve the desired rugosity coefficiny The flume bed is lined with cement concrete 1:2: 4 g 1:3: 6, well-vibrated and rubbed smooth to present a smoog, surface. This bed lining also is done in panels in conformity with side masonry lining. This is to avoid any shrinkage concrete before the gaps are filled. The joints are smeared with hot bitumen before the gaps are filled. For the side masonry lining, anchor rods are fixed into the side rock excavation at suitable intervals and these are em. bedded into the masonry lining. This is known as rock bolting and is considered quite essential ‘The flumes are always located on the ridges. As we cut across the ridge, we come across cleavages and faults in mek through which we get a lot of seepage. ‘That is why we have do lot of dewatering while cutting a flume. We can clearly lo cate the zones thro 1¢ OCCU. Porous con crete or nofines concrete blocks are inserted in the side masonry lining in the zone, so that when the canal is empty seepage will run down through these blocks, without exerting any hydraulic thrust on the masonry lining, Otherwise the ‘masonry lining will crack and ultimately crumble. which this seep:CHAPTER 24 pISTRIBUTORY SYSTEM 240 GENERAL, snalliigation projects, the ayacut proposed under it generally ths on ether side ofthe river. This ayacut is served by Main nals taking off on either side of the reservoir. These canals cenly run on contour sO as to cover the maximum possible ‘MBaunder them, The length and capacity ofthese main canals sre te area to be served by them depend upon the availabilty ‘St water from the river that can be usefully utilised. 241 BLOCKS ‘These Main Canals, while running on contour, cross a number of valleys by means of cross drainage works. The ayacut served by the canal is divided into a number of blocks, each block being well-defined by the valleys in the ayacut as boun- daries. These blocks are again get sub-divided into sub-blocks bounded by minor valleys. Each block is served by a main distributory taking off from the Main Canal, The sub-blocks are served by smaller dis- tributories taking off from the Main distributory. ‘The distributories always run on ridges, feeding the ayacut ‘on ither side by means of smaller distributories. Sometimes, jin hilly terrain, portions of distributories also, are likely to run ‘on contour. Classification: The distributories are classified as Branches, ‘Majors, Minors and sub-minors, etc. based on their capacities and the places from which they take off. There are no hard and fast rules for categorisation. ‘Any distributory, directly taking off from the Parent canal with a capacity of 15 cumecs and above is called a Branch canal, The continuation of the same Branch canal will be called Major distributory from the point where its discharge falls short of 15 cumecs. Any distributory taking off from the branch canal with ‘capacity of more than 15 cumecs and more is also called a branch canal, ~ Alldistributories directly taking off from the Main canal and Branch canal with a discharge less than 15 cumecs are called Major distributories. For all purposes the Main canal and Branch canal have the same status. _ distributor taking off from a Major distributory is called nestor drwtiet helen taking off from a Minor ibutory is called a Sub-minor also. Similarly, there is a ‘Any channel taking off from a distibutory with an ayacut of about 40 Hectares (100 Acres) is called a Field-channe! or @ field bothie. Such off takes for channels form Main canal or Branch canal are called direct off-takes while those from small distributories are called Pipe outlets. 24.2. CAPACITY OF A DISTRIBUTORY ‘Based on the localised cropping pattern the water requirements have to be worked out for various periods, during the crop period, and the distibutory has to be designed to discharge the peak demand. ‘The average duty for a certain crop has no relevance in the design of the distributory. The concept of designing the dis tributory capacity for the average duty has to be given up as the system designed on the basis cannot cater to the requirements of the crop during the peak demand period. ‘The practice generally is to design the channel for the average duty and then provide additional capacity in the chan- hel over the full supply level, by providing additional free board 10 meet the peak demand. This practice has to be ‘modified to suit the crop requirement as mentioned earlier. Inall cases, where the cropping pattern is fixed and no chan- ges take place, it is easy to work out the requirements. Ifthe Cropping pattern under a channel is changed frequently itis ‘ery difficult to desiga the channe! to cater to the needs and the channel is also likely to get damaged. ‘The exact requirements of water during the various stages of crops have to take into account, the types of soils, rainfall, humidity, evaporation, percolation, etc. In all major projects, demonstration farms are located within the ayacut, where the requirements of water for the various crops proposed in the ayacut are determined. This information has to be utilised in arriving at the capacity of various channels in the distribution system. 243 DESIGN CRITERIA Having arrived at the capacity for which the various dis- tributories have to be designed, the next step is to design the sections of the various distributories. ‘The broad principles on which channels are designed have already been out-lined under the Chapter “Design of Channels’’. While designing these ‘small channels, we have to make a clear line of demarcation168 between channels carrying silt-laden water and channels carry- ing clear water. If the project consists of directly diverting river water into channels, as in the case of anicuts and barrages, the channel system has necessarily to be designed for non-silting and non- scouring velocities. However, ifthe channels draw water from @ reservoir, the channels will carry only clear water from the ‘reservoir, and these need be designed only for a non-scouring velocity. According to the practice in vogue, an earthen channel un- lined is designed for 1/2 to | side slopes, eventhough in prac- tice they are actually excavated to either 1:1 or 1/2: 1 side slopes. This is done on the assumption that the section will attain an elliptical shape with its side slopes approximating to 122 : 1. This concept is applicable only to channels carrying silt-laden water. The latest thinking is that the side slopes for design should be same as those adopted during construction. This procedure will result in economy in cost of distribution system and will also help in maintaining proper water levels uring water regulation. ‘The U,S.B.R. recommends adopting the formula, V= Cd? for design of channels carrying clear water, where Vis the non-scouring velocity in the channel Cis a coefficient dependant on the soil, usually varying from 0.47 t0 0.50 for silty and soft soils, to 0.60 for Muram, gravelly and harder soils. Dis depth of flow in the channel, All the distributories have to be aligned in such a way that they run in full supply depth of cutting. This avoids breach imvigation during water regulation and also reduces main- tenance costs. In case of ridge canals, where the ground level is steeper than the designed channel bed slope drops are to be. introduced, Generally, these drops are located where the depth of cut {equal tothe full supply depth, ‘The height of drop and the spacing ‘of drops in a channel, where a series of drops are necessary, depends upon economics and can be decided only based on cost analysis. 244 OFF-TAKES Hitherto the practice was to design these offtakes to discharge their designed requirements for partial depths in the parent channel and depending upon the capacity ofthe parent channel, This has given scope for drawing more than their due share in upper reaches. depriving the of-ake sluices lower down of any supply, ‘This is the reason for til end area in a dstibutory not geting adequate supplies in time. To avoid this contingency, itis better the off-takes are always designed for the full supply level in the channel. This will enable them to draw proportionate supplies tniformly in case of partial depths of flow inthe parent canal All off-takes must be provided with regulating arrangements ‘The pipes are fixed in concrete straight away Water Resources Engineey, neering 248 REGULATORS : Cross regulators with proper regulating arrangements Seanryal frequent or suitable intervals along the, Aistbuey i to maintain FS.L., in case of partial discharges in the g | tributory, for adopting turn-system of irrigation Ail drops are to be provided with necessary grooves fy making regulating arrangements in times of necessity by ine ing horizontal planks to head up water upto F.S.L, 246 ESCAPES AND BRIDGES Escapes at suitable intervals are an absolute necessity to enable surplus water to be disposed off into the nearest valley. These are intended to enable closing breaches lower down the or to shut down supplies below a point in the distibutoy. whenever necessity arises. Culverts or Bridges are to be provided for every recognised ‘eart track in the ayacut that crosses the distributory. There should not be any arbitrary yard-stick fixing interval between such bridges. Once the ayacut develops, these cart tracks will ‘become important ayacut and market roads. 24.7 BANK STANDARDS. ‘The freeboard and the top width of banks to be provided for various discharges in the channels have already been indicated. However, itis desirable to provide enough width on one bank, for an inspection vehicle to pass. It is better to provide for & Jeep track on one side of all major distributories, Atleast cycle tracks on both banks are required for Minor distributores. These will be very useful during water regulations. 248 FIELD CHANNELS ‘The smallest distributory from an off-take which serves an area of about 40 Hectares is called a Field-channel. In cropping pat- tern where wet and dry irrigation are contemplated, there should be separate field channels. These field channels are aligned on the field boundaries as far as possible. Sometimes, it is unavoidable to cut across a field to follow the contour, if the survey number (field) is a large one. In order to avoid erosion, drops must be constructed wherever necessary. Generally, these are standardised as 30 {ms drops so that they can be pre-manufactured and fixed at site, ‘Now with the advent of the Command Area Development (0 assist the systematic development of ayacut, it has become Necessary to have a network of field channels, so as to serve each survey number. The Practice of field to field irrigation is fast disappearing. Each field channel, gets sub-divided agai into secondary, tertiary field channels. So it is necessary hhave junction boxes at each point of these take-offs. These are also standardised, so that they can be pre-cast, fabricated and inserted at site, _In a distributory system, the number of masonry structures Will be innumerable and unless standardisation is done, it will become very difficult to design each and every structure. S0itpisributory System 18 Figure 24, is necessary to evolve economical designs for various dischar~ tes bed width and depth, using the available local material. In Some North Indian projects, precast units are being adopted to vantage. Though the initial cost may be a little high. the ease ‘vith which they can be fabricated in places saves time and helps in maintenance later on. In distributories. apart from other types of structures, the maximum number of structures will be drops and off-take Sluices, In small channels, it will be impossible to obtain hard soil for foundations. These structures have to be founded on the available soils only. Precautions have to be taken to see that scours do not occur both upstream and downstream to outflank the structure. Experience in some of the projects, already completed. has shown that even for small structures, upstream, downstream wings and returns are necessary to keep the scours away from the Main body wall. The rough stone revetments and aprons et disturbed every year. Replacing rough stone revetments and aprons by Random Rubble Masonry lining 20 ems thick have shown better results. sl 8 of hard soils, core wall type of structures will do. ever, masonry lining as suggested above is recommended 249 TRANSITIONS AT CANAL STRUCTURES “The present design practice is to provide for a transition from the narrowed width at the structure to the normal bed-width of the channel, both upstream and downstream. However, these {ransitions have been found to be not completely effective and the protection works beyond these transitions get disturbed, due to erosion beyond the transitions. So in order to avoid this contingency, splay in masonry wings is given to the F.S.L. width of the channel. This will mean ong wings both upstream and downstream, if the prac tice of | in3 splay upstream and | in 5 downstream are adhered to, But these lengths can be limited to those obtained by pre~ ‘ious practice. Beyond the splayed wings, a reverse splay in rough stone or masonry lining is necessary to suit the normal section of the channel. This sort of transition can be called a “Pot belley’, or ‘Onion Type” of transition, Structures con- structed with this type of transition have shown improved per- formance, Figure 24.1 shows a cross regulator across a Major di tributory with an off-taking sluice. The off-taking sluice regulator is located at an angle to the axis of the Main dis- tributory.CHAPTER 25 SPACING OF CROSS-REGULATORS AND FIXING SILL LEVELS OF OFF-TAKING SLUICES FROM MAIN CANALS AND DISTRIBUTORIES 25.1 INTRODUCTION In any irrigation project Cross Regulators form an important part of the Cross-Masonry works on the Main canal and its dis tribution system: Similarly off-taking sluices from the Main- canal, branches and distributors to serve the ayacut, are also the essential components of any irigation system. We have already a large number of Irrigation Projects, old and new, completed and in operation and some in the construc tion stage, and some at investigation stage. We still have not evolved any basi criteria that has to be followed. especially in the spacing of cross regulators and fixing the sills of off-taking luices. Unless we follows certain uniform and rational prin- ciples, water distribution and its management in actual practice, will be a difficult proposition, and unless we are able o supply the adequate quantity of water tothe crops we propose 0 raise in time, the problem will ever remain asa problem only “This chapter is intended to educate the reader with the ‘various practices that are in vogue in our country, with some suggestions for improvement based on actual experience from various irrigation systems. Thus, this chapter is mainly in- tended to probe the mind of the reader, the various factors in- fluencing the subject. 25.2 REGULATORS ‘The head regulators of canals, in-infall and out-fall regulators from balancing reservoirs and escape regulators, are an ab- solute necessity, for any canal system. There is thus no dispute about their location and the necessity or otherwise of those structures is not discussed here. ‘Then, there are safety regulators at the head of a fairly long canal embankment, approaching a major drainage or river ‘erossing. Generally such regulators are clubbed with escape regulators, located at a suitable place in the canal bank upstream of the Cross-Regulator, so that the canal discharge when itis let out from the canal enters a drain, which can ac- commodate this extra discharge also without submerging the Surroundings. The main purpose of this safety regulator is to otect the approach embankment in an emergency when a 5. On such occasions, the safety regulator can be sam escape opened. This will p breach occur immediately closed and the upstre in the canal from widening in the firs in prevent the breach i help in closing the breach, stance and latter on, 25.3 CROSS-REGULATORS “These are mainly intended to maintain water levels inthe can avoiding abnormal fluctuation of levels in the canal flow, ‘The Practice hitherto has been to construct cross-regulaon at some predetermined intervals along the length of canal ‘without following any specific criteria, Some times these ae Jocated on the main canal below a major off-take, aecountngto for more than 10% of the Parent canal discharge. ‘Another factors where the hydraulic particulars ofthe canal change, namely a drop in the canal FS, bed level remaining the same. In order to economise on the cost of a regulator he structure is avoided by not depressing the F.S.L., but by merely Towering the F.S. depth in the canal by raising the canal bed, or by reducing the canal section without altering the F.S.L- In navigation canals, wherever a regulator is provided, & canal lock for fecilitating navigation is also provided. This can be seen in the navigation canals of the Godavari and Krishra Delta canals systems. | 25.4 SOME OF THE EXISTING CANALS SYSTEMS | 25.4.1 The Godavari Delta Ststem ‘The two contour canals on the upper fringe of the ayacut ofthe Godavari Eastern and Western delta systems, have regula only at or near the head and at the tail end. These canals nearly 60KM. in length. 25.4.2 The Krishna Delta System In this case also, the two contour canals on the upper fringe of the Krishna Eastern delta, and Western delta systems, have regulators ina Pattern similar to that of the Godavari system. ® this case also the canals are navigable. The canals in this also are more than 60 miles long. 25.4.3 Nagarjuna Sagar Canals System In Nagarjuna Sagar Project both the right side and left he main canals which carry more than 300 cumecs cubies water, and nearly 300 Kilometers long each, the o%sping of Cross Regulators ators are few and far in between making maintenance of ‘ele levels in the main canal difficult especially when only ial Jepths have to be maintained to give turn system irriga- Fin inthe Rabi crop period. 358 ANALOGY ‘The canal irigation system is analogous to the blood circulation «rem ina hurnan body. In the human body, the heart isthe source fom which the blood is supplied. The aorta isthe main artery from tyich a large number of subsidiary arteries ending with capil fares, supply the blood to the entie system to sustain it, Similarly in a canal system, the reservoir across the river is the source of ly, the main canal, branches and distributories ending finally wth field channels supply water to the entire ayacut under the anal t sustain the crops grown in the ayacut. while the main canal, branches distributories and field channels can be compared to the arteries in a human body, the drains in the ayacut can be compared to the veins in the human tbody. While the veins in the human body feed back the blood to the hear, the drains in the ayacut discharge all waste water directly into the iver below the dam or into the sea, if seais the boundary of the ayacut. In times of need, where the supply to the til end areas is insufficient to sustain the crop, the drain water is pumped back into the ayacut to replenish it certain amount of blood pressure is required in the human body tokeep its normal health. Higher blood pressure gives rise to isk of rupture of arteries and low blood pressure results in the ystem getting weak due to insufficient blood supply. Thus in an irigation system the full supply level in the main canal «an be compared with the cystolic blood pressure in a human body while the minimum low water level is analogous with the Aistolic blood pressure. Any water level above F.S.L. in the canal beyond a point may cause breaches in the canal, while a low water level from A Pond Level Slope of 1/S im hich the distributories cannot take their supply, or support navigation, the system completely collapses resulting in loss of crop or resulting in low yields. So it is highly imperative that in an irrigation system we maintain the designed water levels in the parent canal at points from which the branch canals and distributories take off and draw their designed dischage for irigation of the ayacut under it. 28.6 BLOCK SYSTEM OF IRRIGATION Block system of irrigation, originally formulated by (late) Sir M, Visweswariah, has come to stay in all irrigation projects now.The entire command area is divided into major blocks with the natural valleys as boundaries. Each block is served by a main distributory taking off from the main canal, Each major block is again subdivided into minor blocks and these are served by minor distributories taking off from the main dis- tributory. These points from which the main distributory and other distributories take off are called ‘CONTROL POINTS" ‘At each control point to maintain sufficient water level, a cross regulator with regulating arrangements is absolutely necessary below the off-take. 25.7 SPACING OF REGULATORS, In order to improve upon the existing arbitrary system, in the spacing of regulators, the following method is suggested. Generally, the main canal and its distributory system will, not always run at full supply depth. There will be times when the main canal may have to run at partial depth with lesser dis- charge, due to dearth of supply at source. In such cases, we may have to resort to turn system of distribution, ie. give supply to various distributories by turn, within any two control points in the canal i.e. between two cross regulators. Whatever may be the discharge in the canal, we can always maintain Full supply depth upstream of the regulator by ponding up water and then releasing the water in a controlled way into the canal below the ‘Canal Bed with a Longitudinal Figure 25.1im fegulator That so say, that we can always maintain Some sort ‘oF pond between two successive regulators, maintaining the canal FSL upstream of the lower regulator, and maintain the imum draw-down level down-stream of the upper regulator, from which we can draw the required discharge in the distributory in between the two cross regulators. Thi lustrated as follows A_ is the upstream Regulator B is the Downstream Regulator L_ in Meters, is the distance between the two regulators iis the canal, F.S. depth, maintained upstream of regulator °B” dz. is the minimum draw-down level in the canal, main- tained downstream side of the regulator at A US is the bed slope such that tan @= 1/5 From the above diagram the distance between the two ‘regulators is covered by the relationship. (* ‘Therefore L = $ (di - d2) (all in Meters) To maintain a minimum level of “do" downstream of the regulator at A with a canal bed slope of 1/S with ‘di being the ccanal full supply depth, the maximum distance between the regulators is S(di ~d2), and if this is exceeded it will be difficult {0 maintain the minimum draw-down level below the regulator A ‘The depth ‘da is equal to or proportional to depth ‘di je dhe dy ord = Kay where“ varies from 110 0.2.5 K can also be called coefficient of Pondage or Pondage coefficient ‘The same equation L = S(di-c) can be written as L=S(di-Kdi) or L=Sd\ (1-K) where K varies from 1 t0 0.25 (all in Meters) Take the example of a main canal with a bed slope of 115,000 and F'S. depth, say 6 Meters. We can safely assume, 0.75 times full supply depth to maintain half supply discharge in the canal. Ifa pond level equal 0.75 times fll supply depth downstream of the upstream regulator isto be maintained, then the distance between the two regulators is arrived ats follows Here dp = 0.75d1 i. Value of K =0.75, . L=Sxdi (10.75) =Sxdi x0.25 = 15,000 x 6x0.25 15,000 x 1.5 = 22,500 Meters or 22.5 Kilometers, Water Resources, Pnaincrg ‘Ths, ifthe distance between the two cross regulation, maintained at 22.5 KM, we ean maintain a PS. depth og meters upstream of regulator “B” and a pond level of 6x 96 ive. 4.5 Meters down-stream of regulator at ‘A’ ‘This relationship also indicates, that ifthe bed slope is, ter, the distance between the Regulators gets corresponding increased, and, if the bed slope is steeper, then the distance ge tween the regulators correspondingly gets closer. The distance between two cr0ss regulators, is computey with the above relationship, for canal bed slopes varying from 1/15000 to 1/5000 with full supply depth varying from 6 to [ meter, for a value of K = 0.75. The following tabular state ment gives the values of ‘L’ at a glance. TABULAR STATEMENT ‘ Value of “Lin Kilometers for various canal al sop Value | “Jepbs with the vale of the coefficient of pondare ofS K=0.75 | se | 6] 31, ss adel ae SNo | the | Meter | Mets | Meten| Meters | Meters | Maen cant | FSD. | FSD | FSD. | FSD | FSD. | FSD bed | vaive | vaive [ vatve | Valve | Valve | Vabe] slope | oft | oft’ | oft | oft | oft | ort: in .M.| ink M. [in Mt. [in KM. [im KM. fin Ka 1. |15,000_J22.500 [18.750 [15.000 [11.250 | 7.500 | 3730 2. [i200 [18.750 [15625 [12500 | 9375 | 6250 | aaas 3. [10.000 [15.000 [12.500 [10.000 | 7.500 | s.000 | 250 |__« | 9.00 [13.500 [11250 | 9.000 | 6750 | 4.500 | 2299 5. | 8000 |12.000 [10.000 | 8.000 | 6.000 | 4.000 | 2000 | ¢. | 7.800 [11250 [ 9375 | 7.500 | 542s | 3750 | 1s |. |7.000 10.00 [8750 | 7.000 | 5250 | 3500 | 1790 8_| 6500 | 9.750 | e125 | 6500 | 4875 | 3250 | 105 3. | 6.000 | ».c00 | 7.500 | "6.000 | 4.500 | 2.000 | 1500 10 | $00 | 8.280 | 6875 [500 | 4.128 | 2950 | 10s 11. {8000 | 7.500 | 6250 | s.o00 | 3.750 | 2500 | 1250 ‘ote: Similar tables canbe prepared for vaious coefficients of Ponda sh ‘%* K=0.0. and K=025 et. depending upon the desig io be adopted This analysis is purely hypothetical, assuming that there ae Ro off-taking sluices from the canal, from right below the ‘upstream regulator. 25.7.1 The above value *L’ obtained from the table isthe mai- Practice the first off-take from the canal may not be immedi ately near the down-stream of the upstream regulator. It may be fay “X" KM below the upstream regulator. then the spacing of the regulators can be increased to (L + X) KM, so thatthe Rt eziake can command the desired Level inthe Main canal pond level from which it can draw it full requirements. This applies only to canal designed Purely for irrigation. If navigation is combined then the mi ‘imum pond level has to be maintained Sfen Just downstream of the upstream regulator from com siderations of the required draueht for the igation of bossspacing of Cross-Regultors ih ful load. Its always economical to club the regulator with Ipenearest Bridge across the canal 58. DIFFICULTIES EXPERIENCED IN WATER REGULATION DURING EARLY STAGES OF AYACUT DEVELOPMENT. practical examples can be quoted from projects under construc- font drive hore the fact that inadequate regulating arrange- tis or control points, can pose difficult problems in water ‘egulation inthe early stages of ayacut development. "Taking the case of Nagarjunasagar project, left canal system where the author worked, Block No. 16, has quite a large area ‘fnearly 40,000 hectares and is served by a branch canal, near- jy60 KM long witha capacity of nearly 30 cumees. this a ridge cum contour canal. After the off-take regulator from the main canal, the next regulator on the branch canal was, Iocated only at a distance of 35 KM: In between, there are a umber of major and minor branch canal. Generally stress is applied in completing the branch canal ‘early. The work of construction of distributories, sub dis- trbutories and field channels finally to irrigate the project, even if taken simultaneously with the branch canal, take compara- tively longer time to complete due to the land acquisition problems and construction of numerous masonry works like drops, off-takes ete spread over a large area. Naturally these works lag behind and it may take 2 to 3 seasons before the en- tire canal system is completed and ready to receive water upto tal end. In this example presently mentioned. the work on the entre branch canal was completed in the upper reaches and ready o receive water. When water was released in the branch canal, it was not possible to release even 30% of its maximum discharge, as the branch canal lower down could not accom- modate the discharge without breaches even after taking into ‘account the full requirements of the completed distributories in the upper reaches. So, only a partial discharge could be released and this resulted in low depth from which the completed dis- tributories could not draw even a part of their requirements, This resulted in the ryots erecting cross bunds in the branch canal with brush wood, stones etc., to get their supplies. This sortof practice will damage the branch canal, ifthe practice has ‘©.continue for more than 2 to 3 seasons. {tis quite costly to construct extra regulators to act as con- trolling points for controlled water distribution, But these are Absolutely necessary in proper water distribution and the benefit that accrues from the crop for 2 to 3 seasons will surely offset the cost of construction of additional regulators. In short, ‘he principle for better water management even in low supplies, 'sthe provision of more control points. 289 SOME CLARIFICATIONS (POSSIBLE QUESTION) The Ine author while deriving the equation for the distance be- ‘sen two consecutive cross regulators, a static condition has tories taking off from the. 173 ‘been assumed for the pond level to be maintained. Actually, ‘when there is some flow even though small, in between regulators in the canal, there will be some surface slope in the ‘water, elevation. This will result in the distance between the regulators being a little more than that arrived at by the for- mula, Answer ‘When the regulators are throttled, and small discharges are let in and let out, itis possible, to maintain some thing like a pond cof water in the canal, in between regulators Itis something like ‘a long swimming pool with uniformly varying depth of water. In such cases, once the pond level is maintained and small quantities of flow are let in and let out, the surface fal, if any, will be s0 flat as to be considered almost horizontal. So, a8- sumption of a static pond level condition, with horizontal water elevation in between the regulators is considered reasonable. It ‘was already mentioned in para 25.7.1, that in purely irrigation ‘canals, the distance between regulators could be increased to (L +X) where ‘X" is the distance of the first distributory that takes off below the upstream regulator. It is enough the necessary pond level is maintained at the off-take point, rather than downstream of the upstream regulator. In navigation canals, a minimum navigable depth for all types of boats, has to be maintained even though there is prac- tically no flow in the canal for irrigation. This condition occurs in canals in between Kharif and Rabi, seasons, and during low flow rabi season when only turn sys- tem of irrigation has to be resorted to with low flows: In Godavari and Krishna delta systems, where some of the main canals are navigable itis a common sight with boats carrying only half or 1/4 of their full load due to lack of full navigable depth. In tidal canals, where there is only navigation and no itriga- tion, there will not be any discharge in the canal. Water that gets into the canal during high tide has to be kept up to maintain sufficient pond level. This is possible only by having cross regulators at frequent intervals. 25.10 FIXING SILL LEVELS OF OFF-TAKES FROM ‘THE MAIN CANALS AND BRANCHES 25.10.1_ To maintain consistant supply levels, without violent fluctuations in the main canal, in order to meet the demand, it isalways desirable to have as few off-takes as possible from the main canal. The main canal should not be punctured for feeding small patches of land adjacent to the main canal, but such areas, should be attached to a near by distributory if possible. Alter- nately lift irigation methods could be adopted to cultivate those uncommandable pockets lying adjacent to the main canal. 25.10.2 Even in the human body, the heart muscle does not get it's blood supply from the heart itself which is full of blood. Instead, the heart muscles get their supply from the main artery that feeds the entire body.im 25.10.3 This aspect was very well deftionstrated by (Late) Sir Aurthur Cotton, inthe Gadavari and Krishna delta systems. He ‘evolved the method of parallel channel system. From a main Fidge canal, where irrigation is possible by having off-takes on «ither side of the main canal, he fed the ayacut on either side, by taking two separate channels taking off from just upstream of the cross regulator. The ayacut on either side of the main ‘canal is attached to these channels. The purpose of this system 's just to avoid violent fluctuation in main canal level and en- sure the off-taking channel to draw its full requirements, even ‘on turn sysiem basis. 25.104 The gross command area under a main canal is generally governed by the Full supply level contour ofthe main Canal. In the case of shallow and wide main canals, the gap betwen the gross command and the net cultivable areas will be Comparatively less. This is mainly due to the comparatively {ess difference between the main canal F.S.L., and the F.S.L.S. Of the various distributories that take off from it. However in the-case of main canals, which carry heavy discharges, with full supply depths upto 6 Meters, the loss of ayacut adjacent to the ‘main canal will be comparatively more, asthe ayacut adjacent to the main canal cannot be commanded by distributory whose FS.Ls may not exceed 2 to 3 Meters. 25.10.5 The cill ofthe offtake of the distributory, taking into account its capacity and full supply depth, is fixed with refer- ‘ence to the command under it, atthe same time keeping in vi ‘thatthe loss of command should be minimum, 25.10.6. Various irtigation projects adopted various practices, by which they fixed thei cil levels ofofftakes. One such prac. {ice was to fix the cill ofthe off-take with reference to the main canal bed level, based on the percentage of the off take dis. charge compared with the main canal discharge. 25:10.7 In some projects the cill ofthe off-takeis fixed, taking into consideration the F.S. depth in the distributory and the necessary driving head necessary to maintain its discharge tits fall requirement, when the canal is running at say at 3/4 E'$.L corresponding to half supply discharge, or the low water level in the main canal 25.10.8 Hence, thet is no untorin procesure adopted and any procedure adopted on the above lines is quite arbitrary. In face the problem itself is such that no uniform procedure could be enunciated, so thatit could be followed ina scientific way. The procedure followed in para 25. 10.7, itis quite possible to ples more water than required in full supply conditions of canal and itis not possible to control such pilferage 25.1029 All the above methods, have the inherent defect, in that the ayacutdars could misuse and draw more than thet require, iments, starving the less effective ayacutdars who may ultimate. Iy resort to breach irrigation to fulfil their needs. No disciplined water management is possible Water Resources Enginerg { j in ways run Full with F ‘The main canal will not a uf fiero soa reasons like low sotrage etc Especially ing Rabi season, depending upon the available storage, it will no, | | eto supply water tothe entire ayacut. Generally some given water to raise a rabi crop. In such cases the main ean will not run at full supply depth, and the distributories have, get their fll supply discharge at that depth from the main cana, on Tum basis.So there are two specific cases with us accor, to which we can fix the sill Ievels of the off-takes, 25.10.11 First foo!-proof method is to fix the sill levels ofthe off-takes at the main canal bed level and design their gate open ings to get their designed discharges with a driving fea ‘measured from the main canal F.S.L. only. 25.10.12 By adopting this system all distributories can getony proportionate discharges when the main canal discharges ue tuate. They cannot discharge their full requirement even iy times of need, when the Main canal runs below F.S.L. The ayacutdars will have to limit their ayacut to suit the avilable discharge. This method also dispenses with provision of extra regutators on the main canal for maintaining a minimum Pond level. A number of devices called Modules are in use in some states. They have not become popular in all states, | 25.10.13 There is no question of pilferage of Water, and good ‘and bad will be equally shared by all ayacutdars. (b) When the entire distributory system is also to be designed to suit tun sys ‘em of irrigation in times of need,, ic. giving water to some specitic areas by rotation on a uniform basis, then we have to design the distributories for partial depths in the main canal. This necessitates additional regulators as specified already, to ‘maintain a certain pond level in the main canal. The dis tributories will have to be designed to discharge their ful - uirements with necessary driving head based on the pond level in the main canal and fix their cills accordingly. In other words, the distributories in between two successive regulators, Will have to be designed for the F.S.L. to be maintained upstream of the lower Regulator. By this method also, the Syacut-dars under distributories, that lie just below the regulator can misuse and draw more than their requirement ‘when the canal runs at FS.L. The pilferage in this case is com Paratively less, as the main distributory off-takes will belo {ated near the upstream side of the lower regulator. These vill have to be controlled by locking the regulating-arrangements and keeping a constant vigil ing lent Water management, it is highly im of a cross regulator, the canal wale ed at F.S.L., forall conditions of i=CHAPTER 26 COMMAND AREA 261 PRELIMINARY SURVEY ‘When once the site of the storage reservoir is fixed, along with | certain FRE (Full reservoir level), cll ofthe off take etc, the ext step is to determine as to how much area it can command, an either side, if it is proposed to have canal system on both sides of the reservoir. ‘This is done by tracing a contour alignment of the canal, on Government of India contour Map. The total area between the canal alignment, and the other boundaries of the proposed ayacut, is planimetered, and the area is arrived at. This area is. termed as “Gross command area”’ ot G.C.A. [Next step is to trace the boundaries of the various Districts, covered by the entire area. We have District Gazetters as statistical Atlas books, which | furnish the figures like, the total area of the District, extents under residential areas, ie., towns, and villages, stream beds, tank beds and their ayacut, community grave yards, areas oc- -—cupied by hills, Quarries, area under crops and waste lands ete. ‘All these areas are to be eliminated from the G.C.A. If in the command area, only a portion of a certain District is covered, then, prorata areas may be taken, After elimination of the areas not suitable for irrigation, the balance area is known as the ‘Net command Area’. This area will still be less if as a policy by the Project authorities, the existing tanks and the areas irrigated by them, are to be excluded. Areas that could be commanded by the Main canal FSL may get out of command by the time the distributory reaches the concerned area. This is due to the fall inthe FSL of the distributory along its length. Such areas could be served by suitable lift irrigation from the distributory. After all these deletions from the command area, the net area that we arrive at is called the ‘Net command Area’. This is also called the Gross Cultivable Area’”. From this area we have to deduct nearly 5 to 10% of Area for Anti-Malarial Zones around lages and Towns and for land acquisition for the net work of channels, dis stributories, field channels, and ayacut roads that have to be laid once the ayacut develops. This net area that is bed ae for irrigation is called *‘Net cultivable area’’ or 262 INTENSITY OF IRRIGATION eas aw ‘upon the storage proposed to be created in the reser- tern Sel aea that can be ieigated can be roughly arrived net cultivable area available is more than the area that Ra can be irrigated, then a % of the Net cultivable area only will be proposed for irrigation. 100% irrigation cannot be ensured in such cases. To cite an example, in the Tungabhadra Project, Low Level canal scheme, the command area was prone to drought with frequent famines and the government was spend- ing a lot of money each year in these areas declared as famine stricken areas. ‘To mitigate famine conditions, it was proposed to spread the irrigation over the entire command area, in patches with an intensity of irrigation of 50% upto the first 100 KM. of main canal and there after, the balance area was covered at 25% intensity. Another method is to having a cropping pattern, mixing wet and dry cultivation. In Nagarjuna Sagar Project, under the right canal command area, the cropping pattern is 1/3 wet & 2/3 dry. Whereas under the left canal, in the upper reaches of the canal for certain dis- tricts itis completely wet, and for some areas itis 1/3 wet & 2/3 dry while in some areas it is completely dry in Rabi season. 26.3 BLOCK SYSTEM OF IRRIGATION AND PREPARATION ON BLOCK MAPS Block system of the irrigation has come into practice in all major irrigation projects after it was advocated by Sir M. Vis- weswarayya who first introduced it under Krishna Raja Sagar Project across the Cauveri River. The entire command area is divided into Blocks, each block being surrounded by natural boundaries, as shown in the figure 26.1. Each Block is fed by a separate distributory taking off from the Main canal. 26.4 BLOCK LEVELLING ‘This process consists of taking extensive levels over the entire command area and transfering the same to the village maps showing individual Survey Numbers. These village maps are joined together along the boundaries of the villages, thus form- ing a map of the each Block in the entire command area. These levels are taken at 55 feet intervals both ways or say at about 15 Meters. Based on these levels, contours are interpo- lated at about 1/2 Meter intervals. These contour maps will enable us to identify the ridges and valleys in each block and they help in alignment of distributory system including the field channels. The valleys can be made use of to plan out the drainage system. ‘There are so many methods in vogue in carrying out block levels176 RESERVOIR D @ © O©O@ auocs DISTRIBUTORIES ae Water Resources Eopingen, | ng HILL STREAMS Figure 264 264.1 One system is base line Method This system involves aligning a base line first, This line generally will be the along village boundaries where the points ing are ‘Khandam Stones’ i.e, permanent village boundary ‘Stones. This base line is extended by alignment on the field and cross sections are taken at 15 Meter intervals. On these cross sections levels are taken at 15 Meters intervals covering the entire village. The only draw back is that any error inthe align- ‘ment of the base line and its cross-sections give wrong contours oon the village map, 26.4.2. Modified suggested system ‘To avoid errors, itis better to take the help of the village officer ‘concerned to identify each survey Number shown on the vil- lage plan on the ground. Then if the survey Numbers are small, itis enough levels are taken on ground at the survey stones and then correctly transfer them on tothe village map. If the survey ‘Number is a large one, it is better levels are taken both at the boundary survey stones and at intervals along the diagonals ote survey Number. Tis enables us to transfer these levels comedy ‘nto the village maps showing individual survey Numbers. Cot tours drawa on such maps are more reliable and are accu 2643 Areal Survey Maps In Nagarjuna Sagar project, areal survey maps are prepared fo" some area, showing contours at 10 ft. or 3 Meter intervals These do not show individual survey numbers. Thus. the ‘Maps are at best useful only to alignment of Main distributo system. They are not helpful in alignment of minor 6+ tributories and field channels, 268 SOIL SURVEY Representative soil samples from the field upto a depth of abo" a Meter are taken and tested for their suitability for raisi®®command Area crops. Except for isolated pockets, contiguous areas of typical sii are marked clearly on the command area. For raising wet sai ay crops. The following are the various classifications to api the areas are mainly divided into (1) Alluvial Soils. (ay Loamny Soils. like black cotton soils, (3) Heavy {4 Other categories like desert soils, ete, are of mere inter est and have not much of a practical value, Under soil spechanics, the soils are classified into 3 main categories based con the size of the soil particle. Soils whose average particle size is more than 4 mm, are classified as Gravel. Such soils are not ft for irrigation. Soils, whose particle size varies from 4 mm. to 0.05 mm, are classified as sand, such as coarse sand, fine sand etc., Those ‘whose particle size varies from 0,05 mm. to 0.005 mm. are called ‘silly’ and those below 0,005 mm. are called ‘clay’. Soils having particle size of less than 0.001 mm. are called ‘Colloidal Clay’. Soils which contain admixture of sand and siltare called ‘Loamy soils’ (Sandy Loam) and similarly, soils which contain admixtures of sand and silt and clay in uniform proportion are called clayey loams etc. Soils which contain a heavy % of clay and very often litle 4% of silt and sand are called “Heavy Soils’, These do not have easy drainage properties. Soils that have better % of sand and silt are called Soils” and these have for agriculture are arable. ood draining properties. Soils suitable led arable and others are called non- 265.1 Alluvi Soils ‘These consist of layers of silt with fine sand deposited by rivers. ‘These are mostly obtained in the deltaic regions of a river. In India, the regions of Indo-Gangetic plains and Brahmaputra plains, consist mostly of alluvium. This is due to the deposition } of alluvium carried by the river waters that speard over huge } eas during floods. In the Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and other river basins these soils are confined to the flood plains and deltas, hese soils are good for raising any type of crop and afford ig any ty! 00d drainage facilities. 265.2 Red Soils ns Soils are formed due to the weathering of matamorphic over the yeurs, These soils are found all over India. These come under the classification of light soils. Soil mois- tute 1 teaton is less, More water is required for raising crops Wet and dey These soi : iese soils have better drainage properties. These resemble Lamy: soils, Mie: 26.5.3 Heavy soils Soils containing heavy % of clay are called heavy soils. Typical soil ofthis type is Black cotton soil. These soils are common in the states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, some parts of Mad- hhya Pradesh and Gujarat and Tamilnadu. These soils may vary from clay to clay loam. They have a high degree of fertility, and are well suited for raising rice and Sugar cane crops etc. They have a high % of moisture retentivity, resutling in use of less water for irrigation. The percolation losses are also compara- in these soils. If dry drops are riased in these soils. less number of wettings during the crop period. However these soils have poor rainige. They are well suited for cultivation of Rice and Sugarcane. Ground Nut as dry crop is extensively cultivated in these soils. 26.6 LOCALISATION OF AYACUT ) This is the most important aspect in arriving at the net cultiv- ble area, crop wise and Survey Number wise in the command After the block levelling is completed, contours are drawn at about 1/2 Meter interval over the entire command area. Next step is to align the main distributory and its sub- sidiaries to cover the entire area. Finally the pipe outlets from each small distributory that feed the field channels are marked and the areas under each field channel are clearly marked in the Block Map. Field channels are the channels that finally feed the ayacut. Generally each field channel feeds about 50 to 60 Hectares if it is complete wet irrigation, and 50% more area if itis dry irriga- tion. Field channels are aligned to feed each survey number of the proposed ayacut. These lists are prepared for each pipe out- let, showing the proposed irrigation, along with the survey numbers and the Type of the crop proposed. These are known as pipe registers. . These lists are published and copies sent to each land holder under the proposed pipe showing the survey numbers and ex- tents that are covered by them. A team called ‘Localisation team’ consisting of a revenue department officer, one from the Agricultural department and another from the irrigation department; visits each village, in- forms them of the proposals, take their consent before finalis- ing the area. If some people object, and do not want project water such areas are deleted and notified. Then the ayacut finalised by the Localisation team. will be the final ayacut under each Block. Adding up the ayacut localised under the various blocks of the main canal, the total ayacut under the main canal is arrived at, Based on this, the ‘Main canal discharge can be finalised. For purposes of convenience in water management, separate pipe outlets are proposed for dry and wet cultivation under a distributory. Mixing dry and wet irrigation under one pipe is not desirable as it becomes difficult during management178 26.7. COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT In the olden days, when planning and development of ayacut tunder an irrigation project, were not systematic, there used to be a lot of gap between the creation of potential and ultimate development of ayacut. It used to be years before the ayacut is developed completely. thus losing a lot of benefit in the early years. The command area development programme consists of the following inain objectives (1) If additional area that can be irrigated over and above the localised ayacut, is available, ways and means to include this area also by adopting better ‘ways of water management and changing cropping pattern etc., are to be explored. (2) Bringing optimum yields by supplying them quality seeds and fertilisers and other inputs. (3) Bringing water to field instead of at the outlet and ensuring equitable supply to the tail end lands of the distributory. (4) Avoiding misuse and wastage of available water. (5) Conjunctive use of gravity flow with underground water. ‘Shaping of land holdings, is a most important factor in the development of ayacut. If the land is to be prepared for wet irrigation, the land holdings have to be prepared as level plots in terraces so that the sup- plied water stands on the field at a uniform depth through out. If the land has to be prepared for dry irrigation, the land has to shaped to have a gentle slope of 1% or 2% so that the supplied water does not stagnate in the field. Generally for dry crops, we give water to wet the crop base. This is known as wetting. A number of wettings are enough to raise a dry crop. (7) Constructing of water courses and field channels. © (8) Constructing field drains and linking them to the connecting drains Water Resources Engineering (9) Provision of ayacut roads. (10) Introduction of rotation system, also known a5 *Warabandi’ system’, in cases of scarcity of supply Al these aspects also figure in efficient wate, management. 268 CROPS AND CROPPING SEASONS For a country of this magnitude in area, India is fortuna enough to have a fairly good rainfall during a normal year, The country draws its water requirements from the Two ‘Monsoon, namely South West Monsoon and North East Mon. soon, Of the Two, South West Monsoon is the dominant Mon. soon, from which most of the Indian rivers and the reservoir, built on them derive their supply. ‘The South West Monsoon, breaks on the West coast of India near Kerala and in the North-Eastern states by the first week of June and slowly advances over the entire country by the Ist week of July. The Indo gangetic plain derives most of its supply during this period by way of storms from the Bay of Bengal ‘The Monsoon slowly with-draws from the end of October and finally with-draws by mid November. ‘The North East Monsoon enters the North eastern states and Tamil Nadu along with a few Districts of Southern Andhra Pradesh, and lasts till end of January. During this time, the Northern states of India get occasional winter rains that will help the Rabi wheat crop orchards in Himachal Pradesh et. Based on this seasonal rain fall, over the entire country the cropping seasons are broadly classified as (1) Kharif season, depending entirely on South West Monsoon, from June to October - 150 days. (2) Rabi season. (October to March) Some crops are also grown between March and June and these are known as ‘Zaid’ and depend solely on occasional rains in Summer and ground water by resorting to pumping.CHAPTER 27 SOIL-WATER RELATIONSHIP some of the Terms used in this Chapter are defined as fol- lows 371. SOIL WATER RELATION-SHIPS 2714141 Consumptive use CConsumptive use, is the amount of water used by the growing trop or plant in transpiration and building of plant tissue and that evaporated from adjacent soil, or from the intercepted precipitation on the plant foliage over a specified time. This ‘onsumptive use is usually expressed in depth in centimeters, ‘or meters. 77.12 Consumptive water requirement ‘The amount of water potentially required to meet the evapo- transpiration needs of the plant, so thatthe plant does not suffer in ts growth through short supply of water. 27.43 Consumptive Irrigation requirement ‘The depth of irrigation water, exclusive of precipitation, stored soil Moisture, or ground water, that is required to meet the evapo-transpiration during crop production. 271.44 Net Irrigation requirement ‘The depth of irrigation water, exclusive of precipitation, stored Soil Moisture or ground water, that is required consumptively for crop production and required for other purposes such as leaching etc to remove salinity. 27.1.5 Peak period consumptive use This refers to the average daily evapo-transpiration rate of a crop at its maximum during the period between normal irriga- tions. 2.16 Irrigation efficiency Beperentage of applied irrigation water stored in the soil and {at valale for consumptive use by the crop. When water is ted ats entry into the frm itis called far-ierigation Fenian then measured at the field i is known a8 fel ir- luton efficiency and when measured at the point of diver- itis termed Project-efficiency. 77.17 Irvigation water requirement ‘The net irri ome ization water requirement divided by the irrigation is termed as irrigation water requirement. 27.1.8 Field Capacity ‘The Moisture percentage, on a dry weight basis, of a soil after rapid drainage has taken place, following an application of water, provided there is no water Table within the capillary reach of the root zone. This Moisture percentage usually is reached within one to three days after an irrigation, the time interval depending upon the physical characteristics of the soil. 27.1.9 Wilting Point The wilting point is the Moisture percentage also on a dry weight basis at which plants can no longer obtain sufficient Moisture to satisfy the moisture requirements of the plant, the plant will wilt permanently and any addition of moisture after the wilt point is reached, does not help the plant to survive. 27.1.10 Carry over soil Moisture content ‘Moisture stored in soils, within the root zone depths between ‘cropping seasons or before the crop is planted. This moisture available helps to meet the consumptive water needs of the crop. Soils of uniform grain size have more % of voids i.e. air space, while soils of mixed grain size have less % of voids. As such they have less room to hold moisture and air, which are highly necessary for sustained plant growth. ‘Any soil can never be absolutely dry. Oven dried soil, when exposed to air which has some humidity in it, absorbs moisture from the air. Some plants, in severe drought conditions, make use of this water for survival. In soil water relationship this hygroscopic moisture or water content, is not taken into ac- count. ‘As already mentioned, any soil however compact itis, con- tains some void space and in this void space which is called ore space, water and air can be stored in the soil to be used by the plants. If Vis the Volume (Bulk) of moist soil. itcontains a Volume of soil "Vw" of water and (Va) of air and the balance is made up of the soil particles. This may be called "Vs" V=Vs+ Vw+ Va. and (Vw Va) gives the total Volume of Pore space. ‘The Ratio Y2+™ js known as Porosity of the Soil. Vveos are a Se SOIL a. Water Resources Eninerny — V = Vs4 Vw Va. and ie (Vw + Va) gives the total volume of Pore space, WATER | | | oie ee | Figure 27. ‘The Ratio indicating Volumetric Moisture content is given by the Raio and the saturation rat isexpresed as 775 This gives a relationship between the volumetric Moisture content, saturation and Porosity, Volumetric Moisture content = Saturation Ratio x Porosity, (Wa Vw) It Volumetric Moisture content is expressed by W, Sutura- tion Ratio and Porosity as $ and, ‘n’, the relationship can be expressed as W = 5x0 If the weight of Water in a wet soil sample is Ww and the ‘dry weight of the same soil sample is Ws. then the % of Mois, Ww {wre inthe soil samples exprssed as W = Wi 271 WILT POINT {rhe wilt point fora crop has already been defined. Crops that have shallow root zone wilt quicker than those with deep ots Plants with deep roots do not wilt ture from deep below, certain plans like cacti ete,can survivg without wilting as they have got the capacity to absorb the hygroscopic moisture content in the soil which the other plants do not possess. 27.3 CROPS GROWN IN VARIOUS SEASONS In Khar season the crops that are generally prown are (A) Rice (2) Maize or com (3) Jawar (4) Bajra (5) Ground-nut (6) Cotton ete. as they can absorb mois (7) Wheat 27.4 RICE CROP Tris is the Main erop that is grown. ‘The seasonal Rainfall ot enough for Rice crop. So, itis an irrigated crop making we of the Rainfall. For Rice crop, intially seed beds are raised, ang after the plants are 3 to 4 weeks old, they are transplanted ina Puddle field, well prepared having about 10 Cms. of standing ‘water. The area occupied by the seed beds ranges from 3 to5 Percent ofthe area to be transplanted, ‘The idea of puddling is to reduce seepage into the soil. ‘The source of water required for raising seed beds is very important, but it does not come for consideration while cal, culating the duty for the crop, consequently in the design ofthe channel supplying water to that crop, Alter transplantation, the depth of water is slowly reduced anc! on no account the depth of water should be less than 5 Cis. Weed growth will be enhanced ifthe standing depth of water in the rice field is less than 5 Cms, and this weed growth if un. checked reduces the rice crop yield. Incase the harvest ‘erop bed has to be dri move freely. Mg of rice crop is done by machinery the led out early o facilitate the machinery 0 In case long duration ri period of about 150 days Rabi crop, by the time 1 before harvesting. green ice crop is raised which covers @ and where rice is not sown again as the rice crop comes to harvest. just gram is sown. This will come up without any iigation, making use of the soil Moisture andthei ‘oit-Woter Relationship sncertan areas, green gram i sown as. aru ed crop which canes haresing by 15th August. After the green gram crop come ed by picking the Pods only, the resto the plant pr- isa rehe crop is ploughed well with the soll using the green towns green manure; Jawar is sown next on the area and this co harvest by nd of Kharif season, ‘Thus there are so car ays in which the people of various localities have dif imap practices in raising crops during the Khari season using ‘fe sexsonal ainall to the maximum, Innorth coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh, Mesta or Jute is raised as ain fd crop.in Kharf. They sow the seeds in May im ihe crop comes for cutting by end of August. Afterwards ‘fear is ploughed and Ragi crop is raised. Both these are dry eps anno irrigation is required and infact these ae raised ihre there are no irigation facilities. Groundnut and Cotton crops raised in Kharif require some irigation by way of few wettings, when the rainfall is short of the requirement for the crop. Certain crops like chillies, start by August and go well beyond March, i.e. they occupy some time of both the seasons. Such crops require irrigation during the Rabi season and some necessary wettings in Kharif. Where irrigation facilities are not arable, pumping from wes is resorted to. Garden crops like, Banana, Coconut and Sugar-cane require ‘water round the year. Where irrigation facilities are available they are made use of. Some time conjunctive use of irrigation facility with a use of ground water in Rabi season along with irigated water if available is made use of. 215 RABISEASON The crops generally raised in the Rabi season are (Rice (2) Wheat (G) Ground nut (4) Barley (5) Bengal gram and other spices like Dhania (Coriander) Inprojects where areas are localised as wet, rice is grown as ‘cond erop in Rabi erop and groundnut i raised as irrigated fei ‘Wheat is grown as a Rabi crop, mostly in the Punjab, Mayans, UP. MP., Rajasthan, Gujarat and some parts of ndhra Pradesh as a winter crop. Barley is mainly raised in Rajastan, U.P. and Bihar. a, tal ram is grown allover India during the Rabi season and) 10>. Ths crop is cultivated in the same way as wheat quires 120 days to harvest. 26 INTENSIVE AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT. ng, PROUECT ADP) niege ‘Sigg i scheme, experiments were carried out to raise 3 Gatton Re: 2 Fee crops and one groundnut or as 3 short Pe crops. This was experimented in West Godavari isc of, ‘Andhra Pradesh. ‘Though the initial results were en- ~~ couraging, in the long run, it proved to be not attractive, as the Jand has no time to recover, Pests were on the increase as there ‘was no interval between the crops for the pests to die. “The land requires some rest after the Rabi erop in summer by ploughing the land deep and allowing it to dry in the sum- ter, By this method some of the pests will die to the heat in the summer, The soil will derive some of its nutrients from the air. It gets time to replenish the oxygen content. The soil absorbs good nutrients from the early summer rains which have traces of nitrates, that are good for restoring the soil fertility. In some places after the Rabic crop, green manure crop ‘hemp’ is grown with the available moisture content inthe soil, ‘and this is ploughed into the soil while preparing land for transplanting, This green manure increases the fertility of the soil ‘Some Details Showing Crops their Duration, yield & Requirement of Water Type of | Duration | Number ofdays | Average Yield | Average depth Grop | of Crop | ofthecrop | perHectarein | of water te quimals | quired during the crop period Rice fyulyto 120-150 30 175 Crs. October =| Wheat [November] 150 30 350 Ci. to May Maize [June to 150 20 20m October Coton | Apalto 115 25 OCme. November Sugar |Octobert | 200 300010 10000 [175 Cm. cane _| April 27.7 PERCOLATION, EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 27.7.1 Percolation Percolation and absorption are commonly used as interchan- geble terms and when used include both absorption and Per- colation. 27.1.2. Percolation has reference only to movement of ground water under the force of gravity. 27.13 Absorption bas reference to the movement or retention of water in the pore space of the soil by the force of capillary action. This capillary movernent may be upwards, downwards or lateral. Capillary movement of ground water takes place in directions leading away from pore spaces wholly or partly filled with water towards those which are either entirely empty or which are less nearly filled. Immediately after a rain, the sur- face soil becomes more moist than that below, then capillary action aids gravity and hastens the penetration of water into the ground. As soon as the surface soil becomes drier than that below, the capillary currents are reversed and the flow is up- wards.182 ‘Water which enters the ground in excess of capillary satura tion, moves directly downwards tll ground water surface has been reached, and when it raises the level. it increases pressure which causes, lateral movement of sub-soil water. 27.74 Seepage: This isa term frequently used to denote per ‘colation into or from the soil. Soakage is also sometimes used to denote the ground, but i is not used for percolation from the soil. percolation into 27.8 EVAPORATION Losses of water received into reservoirs and canals, which are not due to visible draw off, are attributed to evaporation and absorption, which also include percolation. EVAPORATION OF WATER TAKES PLACE WHEN 1) The Temperature of the water is the dew point 2) There is movement of air over the water surface. 3) Whatever agency tends to increase the temperature of water, it tends to increase the rate of evaporation. 4) The amount of evaporation is proportional to the dif: ference between the saturated vapour pressure atthe temperature of the water surface and the saturated vapour pressure at the dew point 27.10 MEASUREMENT OF THE RATE OF EVAPORATION ‘The mean annual evaporation, is the depth of water (in M, M) evaporated annually from a free water surface. 2719 is more than that of Evaporation is measured by means of a shallow pan floated ‘on the body of water whose evaporation rate is to be ascer- tained. By this method, the pan is kept at the same temperature and exposed to the same air movements on the water in which it floats. ‘The pan is filled up with water upto a certain mark and filled, up daily to the same mark, the quantity of water required for replenishment after making due allowance for the recorded rainfall, is the measure of the quantity of water evaporated from the area of this surface water of the Pan, ‘The evaporation from a pan observed by the method. is usually higher than that from a large sheet of water, and due to this, the observed value from the Pan may give excessive results. Some of the reservoirs in South India give the annual ‘evaporation loss as follows observed over period of years. Red Hills Lake at Madras = 1800 mm, Krishna Raja Sagar (Karnataka) = — 1250 mim, Mettur Reservoir (Tamilnadu) = — 210mm The loss by evaporation alone on a hottest day in India is about 125 mm. Water Resources Enineergg 3111 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION | water from the soil both for transpiration crore ation. There is a continuous movement of Water thes ‘nt the roots, then up to the stem and leaves and ou the leaves into the atmosphere, during the crop period, Th, ns yement of water is essential for carrying plant food from the soil to the various parts of the plant. Except for a small atthi water absorbed by the roots thats retained by the Play, | # the rest of the absorbed water, after performing its tasks forthe growth of the plant. a partof its gets ‘evaporated into the atmos. phere mainly through the leaves and stem. This proces ig Pitmed as ‘transpiration’. In addition to this, some water ges | Evaporated directly from the soil and from the surface of pay caves which is directly intercepted by the precipitation onthe plant leaves. Thus the total water needs of a crop consisting of transpiration and evaporation. which is otherwise called the “consumptive use’ of water by the crop or also calle ‘evapotranspiration’. This is always referred to over a specified time. This is generally measured as volume per unt ‘rea, or simply as the depth of water over the irrigated area This helps in the determination of the irigation needs. This consumptive use is dependent on the climatic condi- tions like temperature, day light hours, humidity, wind move | ment, type of crop, stage of growth of crop, soil moisture depletion, and other physical and chemical properties of the soil. In a sunny and hot climate, crops need more water per day than in areas of cool and cloudy climate. Similarly crops like Sugarcane, Banana, require more water than crops like wheat. Fully grown crops require more water than the crops in the stage of seedlings. Thus the same crop requires various amounts of water at various stages till harvesting. If’ is the erop factor in the period, “Eis the Pan evapor tion loss and ‘D is the loss due to “Evapotranspiration’, then we can roughly assume D = K E Agricultural Department gives, the various values of ‘Kat various stages of a crop, ‘There are so many definitions like ‘crop coefficient” et. All these are not required by the Irrigation Engineer. Irrigation Engineer's duty ends with the delivery of the water onto the field. It is the agronomist that comes into the picture to advise the farmer about the usage of water, type of crop to be used: supply of seeds and fertilisers etc. Crops require All these are included in the calculation of “duty” for variovs crops with different Base Periods. It is based on this, Irrigation Engineer, designs his channels. The agronomist advises the i rigation engineer, about the quantity of water to be supplied: duration and frequency 27.12. METHODS OF IRRIGATION A imigation system consists of the following sub-system 0 Te ‘ater is supplied from the river based ot isnt y diversion weir. or from pumped flows «iE ground water, ae‘oit-Water Relationship Water delivery system based on a reservoir built across river and supply it to the field by a net work of distribution system. 3) Sprinkler and Drip irrigation. 4) Water removal system. Irigation by adoption of methods (1) and (2) are very com smon in use. Sprinkler and Drip irigation are now becoming popular in certain specific fields. {112.1 Sprinkler irrigation is used in orchards etc. It requires extensive net work of pipe lines with vertical pipe heads at jntervals to spray the water over an area, It is something like creating an artificial rain, which is trapped by the leaves and thus reduce loss of Plant water due to evapotranspiration. This isan indirect method of supplying irrigation water, of which a part ofits lost by the plant through evapo-transpiration. 2» 27143. DRIP IRRIGATION ‘This system also requires a net work of pipe lines. Instead of spraying the water on to the foliage as in the sprinkler irriga~ tion, this method supplies water by dripping at the base of the plant. The pressure in the pipe line ec, can be suitably adjusted to supply the necessary water to the plant right at its Root Zone. Feriliser can also be added at the point of drip, so that the plant can readily take it. This drip irrigation is mainly used for grape gardens, and such fruit bearing trees, where water is scarce and has to be sed economically. By this method, the entire area of the gar- den need not be wetted and thus there is a lot of saving in water. 183 ‘Another primitive method of drip irrigation is to place a pot by sinking it atthe base of the Plant very near its root zone: It has a small hole at the bottom. Every day the pot is filled and this water slowly flows through the hole at the root zone. Any fertiliser to be used, can be added into the water in the pot itself. 2713.1 Water Removal system Irrigation practiced in Kollair lake bed in Andhra Pradesh and Kuttanad in Kerala comes under this system. This is described in detail under the chapter ‘Water logging’. For items (1) and (2) where the irrigation is by flow, the ‘Type of irrigation practiced depends upon the type of crop raised i.e. Wet crop like rice, dry crops like groundnut and gar- dden crops like Sugar cane etc. Wet crops require standing water in the field bed. So the field bed has to be perfectly level. If the country is sloping, it has to be built up in terraces. This is also called poo! irrigation. For dry garden crops, the ground must have a gentle slope and ‘water should not stagnate. So furrow Type of irrigation with facility for free drainage is used. Bibliography: (1) Irrigation Manual by Col. ELLIS (2) Irrigation Engineering by G.L. ASAWA (3) A guide for estimating water requirements July, 1971 Water Management Division (Department of Agriculture) Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi-1.CHAPTER 28 CROP WATER RELATIONSHIP 28,1 DUTY OF WATER 28.1.1 Definition Duty is the capacity ofa unit of lowing water in a channel © irrigate an extent of land over a fixed period ie. the crop period, the erop perio is also known as the base period of the crop for which water is supplied “The duty for any crop cant of the crop, starting from the the example ofa rice crop. the mnt be the same during all stages ‘seed beds to Harvesting. Ta Tequirement of water for raising hurseries. will be different from the requirement during transplanting period, where the area has to be prepared by PUd- dling, Requirement of water is maximum during this period. “Thereafter the requirement of the water forthe crop to mature til the harvesting. period fluctuates, depending upon the ‘c conditions. Thus the requirement of water, during the ntire crop period. Le. day to day requirement or seasonal re- {quirement willbe different and varying ‘Taking all these varations into account during the crop period. the duty of water thats mentioned, is only ameasure of the average requirement of water during the entire crop period ‘Whenever duty is mentioned, its necessary to clearly men- tion whether it takes into account the effective rain fll that the crop receives during the crop period. 28.1.2 Relationship between duty, requirement of water, and PERIOD OF CROP (1) D. = Theduty of water ie. the area irigated in Hectares by a flow of water of one cubic meter per second. (2) B= Crop period in days, from sowing of seeds till harvesting. This is also known as the Base Period of the crop raised. Some times the water supplied to seed beds is not taken into account while cal- culating duty. = Total overall depth of water required for the crop aa during the entire crop measured in ‘Centimeters’. “ Ifthe crop is changed. then the depth of water re- quired and the Base Period of the erop change and this in the end effects the Duty. (5) Place of Measurement ‘Whenever Duty is mentioned. itis also necessary to mention whether it is measured, at the field where crop is grown, or at the head of the channel from where the channel draws its requirement. In between the head of the channel and the Fld out which tne water is supplied directly tothe erop, there wl be wc ipson Tosses inthe channel By Way of SeaPAge cc. This effects the duty ‘The Duty measured at Head will be Tow Compared tthe duty computed at the field Duty is referred to as being f number of Hectares of area irvig being high or low according tothe ated per cumec is large small Low Duty means, same ayacut and high duty ssame area, 28.2. TANKS | In Tank Irigation, the area that the tank can irrigate i based on the assumption that one miflion cubic feet of the stored water can irigate 5 acres of crop over a base period of 140 days. In Metric system, it comes to roughly 7 Hectares for one million cubic meters of storage (approximately). ‘This duty takes into account, rainfall, losses in reservoir and losses in the field due to percolation ete. 283 WELLS In well Irigation, the act rigated either by pumping or by drought animal the duty of the well. Now-u-days a lot of Hybrid varieties of crops are beint ‘grown. Each crop has a different crop period. Taking the cae of Rice crop there are Hybrid varieties with a crop period of Gays, while the long term duration crop has a crop period of 15) days. ‘Same isthe case for dry crops also. (Irrigated dry) Same crop is not raised over the area continuously depending seasonal Rainfall and Market value of the crop at that time: Tt becomes extremely difficult in water Manageme under the same channel, some area has short Term croP *, | some area with a long Term crop. Design of a channel for ‘changing conditions also poses some problems. 284 FACTORS AFFECTING DUTY ‘The Main factors that effect the Duty of Water are 1. "Type of soil on which the crop is raised. 2. Effective rainfall during the crop period: supply of more quantity of water tthe | ‘means supply of less water tothe tual area in Hectares that can be itt Is, is termed 8op Weer Relations 4, Climatic conditions like Temperature, Humicity. 44. Type of crop and Base Period. 5, Place of Measurement of duty. 21 These various factors are discussed in detail 1, Crops raised on heavy soils like black cotton soils, require less quantity of water than those raised on foamy or porous soils. This is due to loss of water by percolation in the soils. Black cotton soil is less porus than Loamy or other light soils that have better draining properties. 2, Ifthe effective rainfall over the crop period varies over the average, then the water requirement for the crop also varies. This effects the Duty. 3. Under extreme fluctuations of Temperature and the Humidity, over the average, the evaporation losses fluctuate and this causes a variation in supply of water, consequently the duty. As per definition, one cubic meter per second is the unit of flow. This is equal to a quantity B x 24 x 60 x 60 Cubic Meters of water supplied over the entire crop period of B days. Ifthis quantity irrigates D Hectares of crop with a total depth of A centimeters of water, then the relationship is - D x 10.000 x A = B x 24 x 60 x 60 100 D Bx 24 x 60 x 60 x 100 10000 x A 864.B A 'n this equation B is in days, D is in Hectares and A in cen- timeters, TA.also, is expressed in Meters instead of centimeters, then 64B therelationship will be D In FPS. system, hitherto used, the flow being one Cubic, foot per second, B in days and A in inches, and D in acres, the relationship is p = 42. (approximately) “Thus, if the total extent of crop under a channel is known, and the duty at which the water isto supplied is specified, then the channel has to be designed for a capacity of Q 4 where ‘Ais the area of the crop under the channel in question, in Hee- tares, and D is the average duty at which water is to be supplied and Qis the channel capacity in cubic meters per second. However, it was clearly mentioned in the chapter under, ‘design of channels’ that the channel must be designed for an extra capacity to supply water to the crop during its peak demand. Duty is also used in terms of the quantity of water im- pounded in a Reservoir. In India, hitherto the impounded storage in a big reservoir is expressed in terms of TMC, i.e. ‘Thousand Million Cubic feet. One TMC is taken as a unit of storage. ‘The storage in reservoir is also expressed in ‘Acre Feet’ one Acre foot being the storage of quantity of water required to cover one acre over a depth of one foot. This is equivalent to 43,560 Cubic feet, or 1233 cubic Meters, Under such notation, the duty of water is the number of acre-feet of water required to supply an acre of crop. It may be noted that one acre foot is almost equal to one usec flowing for half a day i.e. 12 Hrs. Whenever Duty is mentioned, it is always important to specifically mention the place at which it is measured along with the base period of the crop raised in the area. Bibliography tigation Manual by Col Elis,CHAPTER 29 WATER-LOGGING AND SALINITY 29.1 GENERAL ‘Apart from a lot of good aspects like, additional food produc- tion, improving the condition of the farmer with better standard, ofliving, prosperity and additional income tothe State Govern- ‘ment by Way of land Revenue and commercial taxes ete., the undesirable aspects of irrigation are (1) Waterlogging and Salinity (2) Incidence of Malaria, is a phenomenon, which occurs mainly due tothe rise in the water table ofthe area that is under irrigation, and if his ise is beyond permissible limits, itcauses water-logging. Ths isan indirect curse on the land under cultivation by huge irrigation project. A land is said to be Water-logged, when the sol pores are ‘completely saturated with water, thus not enabling the plant to breathe oxygen through its root zone. Generally the ground water reservoirs or aquefiers receive this water supply ether from rain or from a flooding river over its flanks, or from irrigation. These natural ground water reser- voirs have natural drainage facilities inthe soil itself. There will be rise in the water table during the rainy season, and it will go ddown during summers there wil be no addition of water tothe ‘reservoir and there will be depletion only due to drainage, This cean be observed in the field wells. Water level willbe high in the rainy season, and will go down in the summer. These chan- ges are more perceptible in permeable soils than in clayey soils ‘which permit less percolation into the strata below. There exists a balance between the inflow and outflow of ground water due to normal causes, and this can be clearly observed by the water levelsin the field wells. This natural balance is greatly upset by the introduction of artificial supply of surface water lke iriga- tion through a net work of canals system, Thus the main causes of water logging could be (2) due to natural causes (2) Anitficial clauses Deep rooted plants experience water-logging earlier than those with shallow rots 29.2 NATURAL CAUSES OF WATER-LOGGING ‘These can be attributed to the topography, geotogical charac- teristics of the country and also the pattern of annul Rainfall Generally n acountry where the ground slope i steep, chan, of the area getting wate-logged are comparatively low, aye Country has enough slope forthe water to drain off before ge ting into the soil and charge the ground water. Even the ‘water has better drainage facility. That is why the level of wate in field wells does not rise as quickly as it does in plain joy lying areas. Waterogaing is more predominant in the lower contour areas ofa deltaic region. Now-a-days in order to grow fon) cops, people have gone even to contours less than the eae in deltaic areas. Such areas get water-logged quickly dve » poor drainage. More over the drainage ofthe high contour flows down flooding the lower contour area. That is why. te general principle in deltaic areas (mostly rice growing) iso ive water to the tail end areas first and then give water tte higher contour areas. By this procedure, by the time te drainage ofthe higher contours enters the lower contour aes, the crop would have grown up and does not suffer from sub mersion, Instead of complete dependence on artifical inige tion, a conjuctive use of ground water and irrigated water, will toacertain extent reduce water-logging. 29.3 ARTIFICIAL CAUSES OF WATER-LOGGING Natural causes are greatly disturbed by irrigation. ‘The net work of canals, distributaries, field channels in addition othe suply of water on the field, greatly disturb the natural conditions ue to seepage. In open earth canals, the water that seeps into he soil, known as loss due to percolation is very high in poris soils. In systems like Nagarjunasagar, tis loss due to perl tion from canals is quite heavy. This loss which event changes the ground water level can be greatly reduced by ling the Main canal and distributories. Even the field channels a bbe lined with polythene paper. By adopting this method, oss water from the canals, and distributories ean be reduced 102 {great extent and this water that is saved from percolation it be used to irrigate additional areas. Thus by trying to pret! water-logging, we can actually, increase cropping area and i® cidentally produce extra food grains 29.4 EFFECTS OF WATER-LOGGING ‘The Main effects due to water-logging are: (1) Absence of soil aeration and loss of erop. (2) Difficulty in agricultural operations. (3) Predominant weed growth.ie eS SARK ERAT A ~ ~~ oeregsng era sali) a Liltng of sub sol soluble salts fo the surface, ese are deseribed in tall a: soa Absence of soll aeration and loss of crop water Yvel po rot zone 6 desirable Feature asi pis of wat gation and he crop wil thrve, The erop wil sem wilt even in the absence of rain or failures of frm wghly so incase oF wet crops like rice ee, i tors iistion : rinse of crops, wae stagnation atrot zone, not sebtie General few wetingsare enough fora dy crop to oi tere is continuous moisture Upto foot Zon oF acco is deprived of the supply of exygen atoot zone ates in ess growth of crop and uitimatly loss of erop 2942 Difficulty in Agricultural operations iiss continuously moist or saturated upto the top, plow Iangand preparation ofthe field becomes difficult and thereby ration ofthe field 10 receive the next crop becomes dif ficult 2943 Predominant Weed growth ‘Where there is water-logging with the drains not functioning pet the dais wil be fully charged with weed growth Ike Mater Hyacinth ete. These multiply very rapidly and complete iy choke up the dain, with the result, the drain does not func tion and the field is full with water along with weeds. These vweeds take away the nutrients from the soil faster than the crop tnd the crop does not grow and then gives poor yield or even dies, Water-logging keeps drains stagnant, resulting in the in- cidence of Malaria due to the congenial atmosphere created by the growth of Mosquito larva. This is a new social problem created by the introduction of irrigation, in areas which did not have iigation earlier. BAA Sali ‘When the subsoil water rises to above the ground surface, it ‘naturally brings with it dissolved salts from the subsoil to the: soil surface. Salts like calcium carborate, Sodium chloride etc. ‘rchighiy harmful forthe growth of crops. So, if water-logging isnot controlled, the fields will become useless and finally be- ‘come fallow lands where nothing green can be grown. ee lcaising the ayacut in a project, certain boundary matt fted around villages and towns, where iigation is re’ Poe While in principle this is nice idea, i Freie, uered 10. People see water and. the fhe rosin the iigated area. The people whose sag tineladed fr iigation nthe anti Maral Zone, teas ing Water and cary out irigation right into Image rt Ths the experience inthe Ayacut of Negar ie ace This results in Malaria larva breeding right ling 20 he houses, land being we, the floorings of ce ems damp, giving room to all sors of iimpenee '®: Go¥ernment has no control over the controls |S very soft towards farmers who grow an addi- bens 187 tional morsel of food grain, though he is responsible for creat- ing new atmospheric pollution which ultimately harms the €n- tire social fabric. 29.5. REMEDIAL MEASURES TO REDUCE WATER- LOGGING Some useful suggestions for reduction of water-logging and salinity are enumerated as follows: (1) To reduce seepage from main canals, distributories and field channels, it is better to line them. Though lining of the irrigation system may be intially expensive, ultimately it will be highly beneficial in reduction of seepage into the ground water system and also inerease the area of irrigation from the ‘quantum of water saved from seepage. (2) Having a deep drainage system and if this drainage can- not be disposed off by gravity, the accumulated drainage has to bbe pumped out at certain critical points. (3) Use of excessive water for irrigation is in fact harmful for the crops. This excessive usage only increases water-logging- Conjunctive use of surface water and ground water judiciously. can keep the ground water levels under check, (4) Where water-logging has caused salinity of the soil, itis better the field under question is well puddled, and leaching it with excessive use of surface irrigation. Using this process a number of times the surface salts could be washed away and bring back the soil to life for fresh cropping. Usage of green manure (ie. fresh vegetation like hemp, subabul leaves) and ploughing it deep, also reduces some of the harmful aspects of salinity. 29.6 REVERSE IRRIGATION ‘As the very name indicates, this is a case where successful ir- rigation is carried out by pumping out seepage water from the fields into nearby drains and keeping the depth of water in the field under control ‘This method of irrigation is mainly practiced in “Kuttanad” of Kerala and ‘Kollair lake bed’ in West Godavari District of ‘Andhra Pradesh. 29.7 KOLLAIR LAKE BED Inthe kharif season, the lake Kollair occupying about nears 200 ‘Sq. miles, is a shallow sheet of water. However in the Rabi season, the water is confined to shallow wide streams. There are no roads and the only communication is by small boats of low draught. People select areas on either side of these shallow drains, raise dwarf bunds around the area to keep off water entering these selected plots, Then the water from these plots is com- pletely drained off, Whatever vegetation is present in the plot of land (Mainly water Hyacinth and other aquatic weeds) are mixed with the earth and the entire area of the plot is well pud- dled. Practically no ploughing is necessary, as the soil is soft. Manual labour and cattle are enough to prepare the field. Then,