UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI

THE POLYTECHNIC
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT

TITLE: ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY IN NANCHOLI RIVER FOR

DOMESTIC PURPOSES - CASE STUDY: NANCHOLI AREA

Supervisor:
Mrs. A. Kayange

Prepared By:
Maloto Mtambo, Khumbize Chimsale, Chimwemwe H. Pangani, Glory Msiska,
Grace Kapakasa, Precious Chasela

BSc Civil Engineering (Year 3)

November 2018
 ABSTRACT

Nancholi is a stream (class H-Hydrographic) in Blantyre southern region of Malawi. It is located

at an elevation of 112 metres above the see level. Its coordinates are 1690 S and 34430 E. Blantyre
city is Malawi’s commercial, has a population of 1.069 million (Settlement, 2011) growing at a
rate of 3.31% per annum. This is putting pressure on water quality.

This research was aimed at identifying the sources of pollution and assessing the quality of the
water in Nancholi River in terms of suitability for domestic purposes of cooking, bathing, washing
and drinking. The section of Nancholi River under study was chosen because there had been
reports of water shortages which was supplied by Blantyre Water Board, there were a lot of waste
damping and river bank cultivation along the river despite the river being used for domestic
purposes like drinking. The selection of sites for water sampling was done through a physical
survey. The grab sampling method was used. Physical identification and interviews were done to
identify the major sources of pollution in the study area. Analysis of the 6 chosen physical and
chemical was done at the Polytechnic Laboratory in Blantyre though some were analyzed at the
site using portable meters.

The results showed that there are several activities that directly or indirectly polluted the water in
Nancholi River. The laboratory analysis results showed that the values of 2 out of 6 analyzed
parameters were above the acceptable limits of the Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS),
concluding the occurrence of pollution in the river. These parameters were Turbidity (max 8.24
NTU), and 5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand (max 25 mg/l). It is therefore concluded that the
section of the river under study is polluted and not fit for domestic use. It is recommended
that the water of Nancholi River should not be used directly for domestic purposes of drinking
within the study area. It is also recommended to find ways of solving the pollution problem in
Nancholi River. There should also be further studies in Nancholi River.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere thanks should go to our project supervisor Mrs. Kayange for her tireless guidance and
contribution throughout our research period. We also thank The Polytechnic Civil Engineering
Laboratory Technicians Mr. Owen Kapudzama and Mr. Ng’oma for their guidance and technical
support rendered to us throughout the research period. We cannot forget to thank Nancholi
residents for the vital information they gave us during our data collection process. Many thanks
also go to our classmates Civil Engineering 3. Above all, we thank God for all the good things He
has done for us.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................ i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................................... ii
FIGURES............................................................................................................................................... v
TABLES ............................................................................................................................................... vi
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. vii

CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1

1.0 Background.............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Justification.............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Objectives of the study ............................................................................................................. 5
1.3.1 General Objective ................................................................................................................ 5
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ............................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Scope and Limitations .............................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Research Outline ...................................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................. 6

2.0 Human Activities affecting River Water Resources .................................................................. 6
2.1.1 Deforestation ....................................................................................................................... 6
2.1.2 Human Settlements ............................................................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Industrial Activities .............................................................................................................. 6
2.2 Water Quality Parameters and their Impacts on Water Uses ...................................................... 6
2.2.1 Physical Parameters............................................................................................................. 6
2.2.2 Chemical Parameters ........................................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 9

3.0 Study Area ............................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Data Collection ...................................................................................................................... 10
3.1.1 Desk Study ......................................................................................................................... 10
3.1.2 Interviews........................................................................................................................... 10
3.1.3 Field visits.......................................................................................................................... 10
3.1.4 Laboratory Tests ................................................................................................................ 10

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 3.1.4.1 Physical Parameters........................................................................................................... 10
3.1.4.2 Chemical Parameters ......................................................................................................... 11
3.2 Analysis of Physical, Chemical and Biological Parameters ..................................................... 12
3.3 Quality Assurance and Quality Control .................................................................................. 12
3.4 Data Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 12

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ................................................................................. 13

4.0 Sources of Pollution ............................................................................................................... 13
4.1 Interview results on domestic use ........................................................................................... 13
4.2 Physical, Chemical and Biological Results ............................................................................. 14
4.2.1 Physical Parameters........................................................................................................... 14
4.2.2 Chemical Parameters ......................................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................... 19

5.0 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 19
5.1 Recommendations .................................................................................................................. 19

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 20

APPENDICES ..................................................................................................................................... 21
Appendix A: Tables of Physical, chemical & Biological Water Analysis Results ............................... 21
Appendix B: Questionnaire ................................................................................................................ 23

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 FIGURES
Table 1: Water Sample Analysis Methods ................................................................................. 12
Table 2: MBS (MS 619:2005) and WHO (1993) Guidelines for domestic purposes ................... 12
Table 3: Questionnaire results ................................................................................................... 13
Table 4: pH Results ................................................................................................................... 21
Table 5: Turbidity Results (NTU).............................................................................................. 21
Table 6: Electrical Conductivity Results (µS/cm) ...................................................................... 21
Table 7: Total Dissolved Solids Results (mg/l) .......................................................................... 21
Table 8: BOD5 Results (mg/l) ................................................................................................... 21
Table 9: Hardness Results (mg/l) ............................................................................................... 22

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 TABLES
Figure 1: Waste damping along the river .....................................................................................2
Figure 2: River bank cultivation along the Nancholi River ..........................................................2
Figure 3: Point where Nancholi people fetch water for domestic use ...........................................3
Figure 4: Women fetching water from Nancholi River for domestic use ......................................4
Figure 5: Polluted water with suspended solids in the upstream of Nancholi River ......................4
Figure 6: Sketch map study area ..................................................................................................9
Figure 7: Variations of Turbidity along Nancholi River ............................................................. 14
Figure 8: Variations of pH along Nancholi River ....................................................................... 15
Figure 9: Variations of EC along Nancholi River ...................................................................... 16
Figure 10: Variations of TDS along Nancholi River .................................................................. 17
Figure 11: Variations of BOD5 along Nancholi River ................................................................ 17
Figure 12: Variations of Hardness along Nancholi River ........................................................... 18

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 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

BOD5 5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand

COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DO Dissolved Oxygen
EC Electrical Conductivity
GoM Government of Malawi
BWB Blantyre Water Board
MBS Malawi Bureau of Standards
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
WHO World Health Organization

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 CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background
Water is a vital and finite resource, and as such, the effects of damage to it are costly to restore.
There is need to safeguard it as a natural resource for the benefit of present and future generations
through careful planning or management as appropriate.

Water Quality Assessment is the overall process of evaluation of the physical, chemical and
biological nature of water in relation to natural quality, human effects and intended uses,
particularly uses which may affect human health and the health of the aquatic system itself
(Chapman, 1996). There is need to have adequate research on fresh water bodies everywhere in
the world for the effective and continued sustainable use for human.

Most rivers are being polluted by human activities due to industrial and agricultural development.
Specifically urban rivers are much more prone to pollution due to the concentration of industries
and the population in urban settlements. Researches on water quality of urban rivers have to be
done continuously, especially where the rivers are being used for domestic purpose.

The results of this research would help to come up with sustainable strategies to reduce pollution
in Nancholi River for the good health of people around Nancholi area.

1.1 Justification
Nancholi River was used for domestic purposes like cooking, washing, bathing and drinking by a
certain portion of people around the area due to several reasons such as scarcity of safe water
provided by BWB, poverty, etc. However there was a lot of refuse damping along the river in the
city (Figure 1). There was also rampart river bank cultivation being practiced along the Nancholi
River (Figure 2). There were reports of occurrence of water borne diseases which were attributed
to poor sanitation and use of unsafe drinking water.

Therefore there was need to monitor and control the levels of water pollution by relevant
authorities such as the Blantyre City Assembly. This would help to prevent the occurrence of health
problems to people. Monitoring and controlling the levels of water pollution can be put in place if
a research was conducted to verify the sources of pollution and determine the levels of water
quality for domestic use in the river (Mkwate, Chidya, & Wanda).

This research try to identify the sources and assess the levels of water pollution in Nancholi River
and come up with a possible solution should the water be polluted. The results of the research
would be a tool for developing pollution control plans so that the water quality standards are
maintained to acceptable levels for domestic use.
The research will also contribute positively in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) number 6 (Clean water and sanitation), target 6.3 “By 2030, improve water quality by
reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and

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materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling
and safe reuse globally”.

Figure 1: Waste damping along the river

Figure 2: River bank cultivation along the Nancholi River

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1.2 Problem Statement
Nancholi River runs through a fast developing city and a lot of discharges from industrial, domestic
and agricultural activities ended up in this river. Some industries such as oil industries, metal
works, automobile garages, and commercial markets had their wastes ending up into this river.
Minor agricultural activities whose leached fertilizers ended up in the river. There are a number of
households along the river who damp there domestic wastes in the river.

However there were some urban and rural dwellers along Nancholi River who due to poverty
reasons and lack of adequate piped and borehole water supply, used water from the river for
various domestic uses. Previous studies in Blantyre city had indicated substantial heavy metal
pollution in the streams that run through the city (Lakudzala , Tembo , & Manda , 1999).

Figure 3: Point where Nancholi people fetch water for domestic use

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Figure 4: Women fetching water from Nancholi River for domestic use

Figure 5: Polluted water with suspended solids in the upstream of Nancholi River

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1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1 General Objective

The main objective of the research was to identify the sources of pollution and assess the quality
of water in Nancholi River for its suitability for domestic uses.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives were:
1. To identify the sources of pollution affecting the water in Nancholi River.
2. To analyze the physical, chemical and biological water quality parameters and compare the
results with WHO guidelines and Malawi Bureau of Standards for domestic uses. The
parameters analyzed were Temperature, pH, Turbidity, Suspended Solids, Electrical
Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Dissolved Oxygen, Biological Oxygen Demand, and
Hardness in Nancholi River.
3. To suggest integrated intervention strategies for reducing the pollution in the upper section
of the river under investigation.

1.4 Scope and Limitations

Nancholi River in this research was studied of its water chemical, biological and physical
parameters, to assess the suitability of the water for human purposes especially domestic use. The
study was concluded only on the state of the water quality within the dry season due to time limit
constraints leaving out the rainy season water quality situation. If the rainy season was included it
could possibly have given different results. Few sampling points were chosen, and also some
parameters were not included due to time constraints and limited to resources.

1.5 Research Outline

This research consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the topic and objectives for the study.
Chapter 2 discusses in detail each of the parameters chosen for analysis and also concentrates on
previous studies on the same water quality assessment of rivers. Chapter 3 discuss the methods
used to collect data and methods of physical, chemical and biological analysis both in the field and
laboratory. The results of the research and discussions are explained in Chapter 4. Chapter 5
concludes on the findings of the research. It also recommends the actions to be taken in reaction
to the findings of the research.

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 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Human Activities affecting River Water Resources

2.1.1 Deforestation
It is the clearing of vegetation and cutting down of trees and making the ground bare. Agricultural
activities are the major source of deforestation. The ground is then exposed to the impacts of
rainfall and wind; this leads to soil particles being loosened and washed away by runoff water
when it is raining.

2.1.2 Human Settlements

The rapid urbanization that Malawi is undergoing has resulted in an increase in the demand for
shelter and housing in urban areas. There are an increasing number of unauthorized constructions
of dwelling structures in unplanned areas using environmentally unsuitable materials. This has led
to uncontrolled brick molding and cutting down of trees for curing the bricks and other
constructions, thus creating a great disturbance to the natural environment. An increase in
human settlement means an increased need for sanitation facilities for waste disposal for
the population. The habit of defecating in the bush by some people contaminates surface
water through run off (WHO and UNICEF, 2000).

2.1.3 Industrial Activities

In most urban settings, industries are the common activities. These industries produce wastes that
end up being deposited somewhere. Some industries produce toxic and hazardous wastes which
when left exposed to the environment do kill plant and animal life (Tylor, 1996).

2.2 Water Quality Parameters and their Impacts on Water Uses

Physical parameters define those characteristics of water that respond to the sense of sight, touch,
taste or smell. These are turbidity, temperature, dissolved and suspended solids. Chemical
characteristics are those that are to do with the chemical composition of water. Biological
characteristics are those that have to do with presence of micro-organisms in water.

2.2.1 Physical Parameters

i. Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by both size and
surface characteristics of the suspended material hence it is not a quantitative measurement of
suspended solids .Water is turbid when it contains visible material in suspension e.g. clay, silt,
finely divided organic matter and other microscopic organism. The units of measure for turbidity
are Nephelometric Turbidity Units or NTUs and Formazin Turbidity Units FTU.

Turbidity affects fish and aquatic life by interfering with sunlight penetration. Water plants need
light for photosynthesis. If suspended particles block out light, photosynthesis and the production

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of oxygen for fish and aquatic life will be reduced. If light levels get too low, photosynthesis may
stop altogether and algae will die. It is important to realize that reduced photosynthesis in plants
result in lower oxygen concentrations and large carbon dioxide concentrations in a water body.

2.2.2 Chemical Parameters

i. Electrical Conductivity (EC)

Electrical Conductivity (EC) is the ability of the water to conduct an electrical current, and is an
indirect measure of the ion concentration. The more ions present, the more the electricity that can
be conducted by the water. EC is also an indirect measure of Total Dissolved Solids. Electrical
conductivity is directly proportional to Total Dissolved Solids. This measurement is done at 25
degrees Celsius and expressed in Micro Siemens per centimetre (µS/cm).

ii. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Total dissolved solids (TDS) are a measure of the amount of particulate solids that are in solution.
This is an indicator of non-point source pollution problems associated with various land use
practices though point sources also contribute. The TDS measurement should be obtained with the
conductivity meter and is expressed in mg/l (Chapman, 1996).

iii. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in water and is measured in milligrams
per litre (mg/l). This component in water is critical for the survival of aquatic life in streams, such
as fish. Oxygen gets dissolved in water by diffusion from the surrounding air by aeration of water
that has tumbled over falls and rapids, and as a waste product of photosynthesis. The ability of
water to hold oxygen in solution is inversely proportional to its temperature. Thus, the cooler the
water temperature, the more dissolved oxygen it can hold.
When there is an overpopulation of aquatic life in the water, DO consumption may be high.
Oxygen levels also can be reduced through over fertilization of water plants by run-off from farm
fields containing phosphates and nitrates (the ingredients in fertilizers). Under these conditions,
the numbers and size of water plants increase a great deal. Then, if the weather becomes cloudy
for several days, respiring plants will use much of the available DO. When these plants die, they
become food for bacteria, which in turn multiply and use large amounts of oxygen (Canter , 1985).

iv. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5)

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5) is a measure of how much oxygen is used by microorganisms
in aerobic oxidation, or breakdown of organic matter in the streams. The higher the amount of
organic material found in the stream, the more the oxygen used for aerobic oxidation. This depletes
the amount of dissolved oxygen available to other aquatic life. This measurement is obtained over
a period of five days, and is expressed in mg/l. Unpolluted river waters are likely to have BOD5
values of <3 mg/l and values above 5 mg/l indicate possible pollution (Harrison , 1992). The major
point sources which may contribute high levels of BOD include wastewaters treatment facilities,
meat and food processing plants. Good examples of non-point sources are agricultural run-off,
livestock wastes and urban wastes.

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v. Hardness
Hardness generally refers to the amount of calcium ions (Ca+2) and magnesium ions (Mg+2) in
water. In household use, these cations (ions with a charge greater than +1) can prevent soap from
sodding and leave behind a white scum in bathtubs. Sources of calcium are soil leaching, sewage
and some industrial wastes. Magnesium arises from weathering of rocks containing Ferro-
magnesium minerals.

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 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

This chapter explains the different methods and materials that were used to carry out this research.
These were data collection, observations, sampling, water sample analysis, and data analysis
methods as described in the following sections:

3.0 Study Area

Figure 6: Sketch map study area

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3.1 Data Collection
The following methods were used in collecting data.

3.1.1 Desk Study

Desk study was done and involved studying past reports from the same area that were done in
assessing the quality of drinking water. These were obtained from the internet & journals.

3.1.2 Interviews
Interviews were used to collect detailed information about specific issues which cannot be gathered
by simple observation. For instance, people around Nancholi River were asked to explain how
they are affected by the current state of Nancholi River.

3.1.3 Field visits

Field visits were carried out to physically see the location of our area of study. The water quality
parameters were done at different sampling points on the course of the river.

i. Location of Sampling Sites

The sampling was done at three points along the river (figure 6). The points were labeled Point A,
B, and C for easy identification. Point A was representing downstream where people of Nancholi
draw water for domestic use, Point B represent the midpoint of the river and Point C represent the
upstream were the river is exposed to human activities.

ii. Water Quality Sampling

Grab sampling was the method used to collect samples from the river. Grab water samples were
collected from Nancholi River for biological, chemical and physical analysis. It allows the analysis
of the specific types of unstable parameters such as pH, DO, and temperature. Grab sampling was
preferred compared to composite sampling because of time constraints. However the chosen
parameters were sufficient enough to determine the quality of water. The following physical,
chemical and biological parameters were chosen: pH, Temperature, Turbidity, Suspended Solids,
Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Dissolved Oxygen, Biochemical Oxygen
Demand, Hardness (CaCO3).

3.1.4 Laboratory Tests

The tests included the general basic tests that could ascertain the quality of the collected water at
physical, chemical and biological levels.

3.1.4.1 Physical Parameters

The bottles for collecting samples were thoroughly washed and rinsed using distilled water to make
sure that they were well cleaned.
The tests for physical and chemical parameters were done within 6 hours after sample collection.

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 i. Determination of Turbidity
Turbidity was measured by a turbid meter where a standardized electric bulb produces a light that
is then directed towards the sample vial. The length of the light path is related to turbidity units.
The results are expressed in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). The following procedure was
done in determining the Turbidity of the collected samples;

Procedure
Take the water sample and place in a transparent see through vial, making sure the sample
meniscus forms exactly on the white line of the vial. Then screw the black cap on to the vial tightly.
Next, place the sample in the turbid meter and after hearing a click meaning that it has firmly gone
into sample chamber, turn it on. Then click the read button on the turbid meter.

3.1.4.2 Chemical Parameters

ii. Determination of BOD5
The BOD was measured in a sample to compare with WHO and MBS requirements.
The reagents of Phosphate Buffer, magnesium chloride solution, Calcium chloride solution
and Ferric chloride solution were prepared.
Procedure
1. 1 ml of each of the above explained reagents was added into 1000 ml distilled water.
2. The solution prepared in stage 1 was aerated till the DO was at least 8 mg/l.
3. Into a 250 ml beakers, the sample was added in appropriate dilutions of 5, 10, 15, and
20 ml amounts, making one as a blank of only aerated water.
4. A solution of up to 200 ml was made using the aerated water.
5. DO of each of the five solutions was measured.
6. The solution made in step 5 was transferred in to the BOD bottle ensuring that there
is no air trapped.
7. The BOD bottles were covered with cellophane.
8. The BOD bottles were incubated at 20°C for 5 days.
9. DO5 was then measured.

Sample solution is being aerated

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3.2 Analysis of Physical and Chemical Parameters
When carrying out physico-chemical and biological analysis, some parameters were measured at
the site and others in the laboratory. Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen were measured onsite
using the portable DO meter. pH was also measured on site using a portable Multimeter. The rest
of the water parameters were measured at The Polytechnic Laboratory using Standard Methods as
shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Water Sample Analysis Methods

TYPE PARAMETER UNITS METHOD OF

ANALYSIS
Physical Parameter Turbidity NTU Turbid Meter
Chemical Parameter Hardness mg/l
BOD5 mg/l 5 Day-BOD Test
EC µS/cm Portable Multi-meter
TDS mg/l
pH Portable Multi-meter

3.3 Quality Assurance and Quality Control

Quality Assurance and Quality Control plans were incorporated both in the field and laboratory.
As part of the quality assurance and quality control plan, the tools to be used were autoclaved
before the analysis started in the laboratory. All sampling bottles were pre-labeled to avoid mixing
the samples. Measuring equipment were calibrated either in the field or at the laboratory prior to
measurements.
3.4 Data Analysis
Results were analyzed using Microsoft Excel to compute the mean values and parameters were
computed to find the relationship between them. The mean values were compared against the MBS
(2005) and WHO (1993) Guidelines for domestic water purposes. The following are tables of
official standard bodies used for comparison.

Table 2: MBS (MS 619:2005) and WHO (1993) Guidelines for domestic purposes

Parameter Unit WHO MBS

pH units N/A 6.5
Electrical conductivity µS/cm N/A N/A
Total Dissolved Solids mg/l <1000 N/A
Turbidity NTU <5 <5
Dissolved Oxygen mg/l N/A >5
Biochemical Oxygen Demand mg/l N/A <20
Hardness mg/l 60 UK STD <300

Source T.H.Y Tebutt (1998)

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 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter presents the results of the findings in the field and the discussions on these findings
in accordance to the three specific objectives. The results presented are the sources of pollution,
water quality values of the samples and in comparison against the MBS and WHO guidelines.

4.0 Sources of Pollution

There are a lot of human activities that form the sources of pollution in Nancholi River directly or
through runoff during the rainy season. Small scale industries include motor vehicle works,
bakeries, hair salons, barber shops and battery charging shops. There was massive disposal of
domestic wastes in the river around Chichiri Prison. Wastes from these activities were polluting
the water in Nancholi River.

River bank cultivation was rampant along the river, which also contributed to the pollution of the
river. River bank cultivation clears the buffer zones which reduce the runoffs into the river. This
causes soil erosion, which leads to flooding, siltation, landslides and loss of arable land. River
bank cultivation increases the phosphorus and nitrate loading into the river as most crops are
applied with chemical fertilizers which leach into the river especially if the field is close to the
river (Peters , 2004).

Since the fraction of the Nancholi’s population was using the water from Nancholi River. This
might possibly have placed the lives of some people in danger of suffering from waterborne
diseases and other infections caused by contamination.

4.1 Interview results on domestic use

Some interview questions were used to assist in information gathering. A sample of 20 people
was used. The interview questions were summarized as in the table below.
Table 3: Questionnaire results

Questions asked Yes No Neutral

Do you use the water for drinking? 8 7 5
Do you use the water for domestic purpose? 16 4 0
Do you treat the water before use? 11 5 4
Do you dump domestic waste in this river? 12 5 3
Do people bath in the stream? 13 4 3
Do you have any source of water as alternative? 15 5 0
Do you use the water for irrigation? 16 4 0

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 Are the waste from the market dumped in the river? 17 3 0
Do you face any problem because of this river? 19 1 0

4.2 Physical, Chemical and Biological Results

The physical and chemical laboratory results are shown in the tables of appendix A. The tables
show the analyzed mean values and minimum and maximum values (range). The variations are
presented in the graphs within the discussions in this section.

4.2.1 Physical Parameters

i. Turbidity
The results showed low levels of turbidity at all the sampling points. The variation of values
showed a tendency of decreasing values downstream, that is less values at point C and slightly
values as one goes upstream (Figure 7). The lowest value was 4.99 NTU at point C (chosen to
represent downstream conditions).
Industries that contributed to the slightly increased values at these two places were the bakeries,
and oils from various motor garages, petroleum filling stations, wastes from some open markets,
restaurants, hostels (The Polytechnic, College of Medicine, Malawi college of Accountancy and
Health Sciences) and domestic wastes among others. There were a lot of sand mining and
construction activities which also contributed to the high values. Sand mining stirs the sediments
of the river, hence increasing the turbidity. River bank cultivation was another factor that
contributed to the high values of turbidity.

The MBS upper limit of turbidity in water for domestic use is < 5 NTU. The results from two
sampling points were slightly higher than the recommended value. However, one point shows that
the result within the recommended values of MBS and WHO.

Figure 7: Variations of Turbidity along Nancholi River

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 4.2.2 Chemical Parameters

i. pH
The values varied between 7.32 and 7.53 (Figure 8). The trend showed slightly increasing pH
values as one moves from upper part of the river to lower part (from point A to C). This trend was
due to the industrial effluents which increased the concentration of chemicals in water, thus raising
the pH.

The values were also within the recommended limits of WHO and MBS for drinking water
(domestic use). This implied that the water in Nancholi River was becoming less acidic as we go
down the river.

Figure 8: Variations of pH along Nancholi River

ii. Electrical Conductivity

The results showed a minimum value of 340.1 µS/cm at point C and the maximum value of 648.3
µS/cm at point A (Figure 9). The highest value (at point A) was obtained to the high concentration
of chemical constituents from the industries around this area. Such industries included the
workshop garages, hospital laboratories and domestic effluents amongst others.

Although all these EC values were within the acceptable limits of <1,500 of the MBS for drinking
water, there are some fears that with time the values might surpass the acceptable limits due to
industrialization.

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 Figure 9: Variations of EC along Nancholi River

iii. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

The variations values presented in Figure 10 showed the highest value of 429.41 mg/l at point A,
the lowest value of 357.7 mg/l at point C (Figure 10). The values were increasing upstream. This
tendency was due to the fact that at point C, there were less polluting activities to raise the
concentration of the dissolved solids. While from point A there were a lot of pollution activities
which resulted in a lot of solid and liquid wastes being discharged into the river and increasing
the amount of dissolved solids. This trend of increasing TDS concentration is an indication of
chemical and domestic pollution.

The graph shows decreasing TDS values as going downstream due to the dilution effect of the
river. All the values obtained were within the acceptable limits of MBS and WHO guidelines of
1000 mg/l for drinking water.

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 Figure 10: Variations of TDS along Nancholi River

iv. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5)

The mean values of BOD5 are shown in Figure 11. The BOD5 mean values showed the highest
values of 25 mg/l at point A (Figure 11). This was due to the high concentration of domestic
wastes material being disposed at point A, since the major source of high BOD5 is domestic
effluent materials as more bacteria is required to biodegrade the matter hence more oxygen
required for the increased number of bacteria. All the values were below the MBS acceptable
limits of <20 mg/l.

Figure 11: Variations of BOD5 along Nancholi River

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v. Hardness Levels Analysis (CaO3)

Variation values of hardness along the river are shown in Figures 12. The variation showed high
values at Point A (upstream) while lowest values were at Point C (downstream). This explains that
at Point C there were little anthropogenic activities to raise the hardness whereas at Point A there
were many industrial, agricultural, and domestic activities taking place like, battery, damp sites,
hence the increased value of hardness. Spatially the values were increasing as one goes
downstream.

Figure 12: Variations of Hardness along Nancholi River

vi. Summary of the Water Quality Analysis Results

The results analyzed in the preceding chapter showed that the values of some water quality
parameters were above the acceptable limits of MBS for drinking water while others were below
it. Two out of the 6 parameters analyzed, were above the MBS acceptable limits. These were
Turbidity (max 8.24 NTU), and 5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand (max 25 mg/l).

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 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Conclusions
The study of the assessment of the quality of water in Nancholi River drew the following
conclusions:
1. There were several identified sources of pollution that contributed to the pollution of water
in the part of Nancholi River under study. River bank cultivation was another source
identified, contributing to the pollution of the water in Nancholi River.
2. The water within the study area was not fit for domestic use like drinking, cooking and
bathing. The water parameters suspended solids, turbidity, chemical oxygen demand, had
values exceeding the acceptable limits of the MBS and WHO guidelines, resulting to the
poor water quality.

5.1 Recommendations
The research therefore recommended the following:
1. The water from Nancholi River under study should not be used for domestic purposes.
2. The population of the people that rely on river water for domestic use within the study area
should be provided with boreholes or wells as a matter of urgency, as they are a waiting
for the expansion of the services of the Blantyre Water Board.
3. The Blantyre City Assembly should seriously and quickly find means of increasing the rate
of refuse collection. The city can either privatize the refuse collection or revisit the act on
damping and collection of wastes in the city.
4. Further profound studies on Nancholi River have to be conducted.

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 REFERENCES

Canter , W. (1985). River Water Quality Monitoring. UK: Lewis Publishers.

Chapman, D. (1996). Water Quality Assessments- A Guide to use of Biota, Sediments and Water
in Environmental Monitoring. (2nd, Ed.)
Harrison , R. M. (1992). Pollution, Causes, Effects and Control ( 3rd Edition ed.). The Royal.
Lakudzala , D. D., Tembo , K. C., & Manda , I. (1999). An Investigation of Chemical Pollutants
in the Lower Shire River. Lakudzala D.D.(Mrs.); Tembo K.C. and Manda I.K. (1999); An
Investigation of Chemical Pollutants in the Lower ShireMalawi Journal of Science and
Technology.
Mkwate, R. C., Chidya, C. G., & Wanda, E. M. (n.d.). Assessment of Water Quality and Rural
Wousehold Water Treatment in Balaka District, Malawi. Water Quality, Mzuzu
University, Department of Chemistry,, Mzuzu. Retrieved from
www.elsevier.com/locate/pce
Peters , E. P. (2004). Informal irrigation in Malawi’s Lake Chirwa Basin: Stream bank and
Wetland Gardens Project. Final Research Report of the Basin crsp.jfk School of
Government. Haward University.
Settlement, U. N. (2011). Blantyre Urban Profile.
Tylor, E. W. (1996). Toxicology of Aquatic Pollution, Physiological, Cellular and Molecular.
WHO and UNICEF. (2000). Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report.
WHO and UNICEF, Geneva and New York.

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 APPENDICES

Appendix A: Tables of Physical, chemical & Biological Water Analysis Results

Table 4: pH Results

Sampling point pH
A 7.32
B 7.38
C 7.53

Table 5: Turbidity Results (NTU)

Sampling Point Turbidity

A 8.24
B 5.62
C 4.99

Table 6: Electrical Conductivity Results (µS/cm)

Sampling Point EC
A 648.3
B 452.6
C 340.1

Table 7: Total Dissolved Solids Results (mg/l)

Sampling Point TDS

A 429.41
B 388.6
C 357.7

Table 8: BOD5 Results (mg/l)

Sampling Point BOD5

A 25
B 23.6
C 22.01

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Table 9: Hardness Results (mg/l)

Sampling Point Hardness (mg/l)

A 109.7
B 98
C 95

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Appendix B: Questionnaire
This questionnaire was used to collect data on the domestic water use of the Nancholi River.
Questions asked yes No Neutral
Do you use the water for drinking?
Do you use the water for domestic purpose?
Do you treat the water before use?
Do you dump domestic waste in this river?
Do people swim in the stream?
Do you have any source of water as alternative?
Do you use the water for irrigation?
Do animal drink the water from the river?
Are the waste from the market dumped in the river?
Do you face any problem because of this river?

How do most people treat the drinking water from the river?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
What are some control measures in progress to control the water pollution?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
What are some of the effects on plants irrigated by the water from the river?
………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………

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