ELECTRICAL

MEASUREMENTS &
Instrumentation .
Analog Meters
-

t '
Measures Principles
I,

Indicating metres Integrating metres Recording metres Null detectors
II. P , pf ,
Electromagnetic

electrostatic

energy
induction

thermal
Y, A ,

W , pf

reeve of the instrument

• Instruments should behave similar to the quantity to be measured is called order

of the instrument

⑨ Low Order
system .

OH the IIP without time

follows
•

any delay .

⑨ Potentiometer
Leno order Sls
•

§
.

RIT
.

* "
 TF =
constant
1¥ Fg
=
=

Eg Ro ⇒ Vo =

Viz
=
:
Riz

go
§
If
^

N
10

Tgs
a
9
'

Vi -110=0 a

> t
* BASIC POTENTIOMETER ° 2 s 4

q
-

I
sliding Im =
100cm =
211
wire
copper
lay = 0.0211

i÷tVn(
Galvanometer
70cm

2N §
.

igo.mn

Cf
g
{
am test I
sliding
contact
unknown battery)
jockey

Balance b-
say)
occurs at
By
⇒ at 70cm C

Vt =
70×002
=
I UV
.

Potentiometer Null detector

• is wire (length →
em and resistance r elm

cnn.me
a →
copper
•
excited with battery voltage and war rheostat .

standard battery voltage C Daniel Cell) is used to convert

•

in terms
of voltage →
Standardisation .
 Neill
detector
v
1- I
de ac

galvanometer
•
both may and .

phase Should
be balanced
→
electrodynamometer
ammeter .

Application of potentiometer

* measurement of unknown battery voltage

*Measurement of low resistance

*calibration of ammeter voltmeter wattmetres

* Accuracy of the PotentiometerIs higher and hence used in

the calibration of different metres
NOTE : →
Once the potentiometer is balanced it
independent of
is

of the internal resistance of the

galvanometer and source
internal resistance
voltage
Practical Potentiometer

SW → Slide wire
Rh y , Hattery )

sliding contact
mmmm SC →

Scale ls l
v Io
jockey
r → resistance of Sw Hm
n
-

wesr l -
length of SD . . . .

Vt a lie - total resistance of

a
ntg
sliding
r
wire - - - .

Vs B
I switch
Iue currents
working
→ .

(Standard voltage)
 Ive =

( rn't en )
Applications : -

① Measurement of Vt

* Switch at A E Standardisation ]

Vs Ives r →
IN ①
Vyse
= -

* Inuit chat BC Calibration)

Vt =
Ivette →
# = The ⑦
lie

① =

Vt Us I
¥e ¥z ⇒
= .

Is

② Measurement of Low Resistance

A

!
In
Get "

I A

's
,
↳
RE potentiometer
.

B
V in

good 3 "

I B,
,

At A A, ⇒-
1h =
Vs .

= IR
Les
 At B -
B, ⇒ Vz =
Vs -

IS
less
=

¥ Rst ha
= =

⇒ R= s I
Ee
.

Ee
=

, . 12

3 .

Calibration of Ammeter .

SA

Rn
>
I
9
IA
⑨
•
SA
'

a;÷÷
µ
v
¥
.

. 0

He =
R I .
=
I .
I =
I

4. Attenuator ) voltage divider box

Iv
Sy
R §
RBs
hey

zy
Rss Switch
2x

511 RE

⑤ Calibration of voltmeter

Rts
Rsg
I
divided
voltage
} R I box

Vi I Rn R q
}
'

Potato
a meter
.
 %
limiting error

%Er=measwud-bT# x 100
true

% Er = Am -
At 100
AIX

④ First Order Instruments Temperature measuring

and controlling instrument
like RTD thermistor

J
" " -

)=f¥ ,
ITS
¥
"
=

, T
Vo
Thermocouple et cetera are
Toc tho t
of first order instrument
,

Transient
steady
40

20
/
A NOTE
Mercury thermometer
: -

t
G tu
I

RCA 1st order instrument

de

Ra can't
body temp

✓
measure

instantaneously
.

Ri

Ta TK
Ti

RTD : R2 = R, [ It xctz -

TD ]
Indicating meters

Indicating metres like a ammetre voltmeter wattmeter PF metre are of

second order instrument with damping factor between .6 to .8 that is it has
under Damped response
8-
damping factor
ITS )
Cpg !s¥ 8=0 undamped
=
=

Iago f damped
critically
I
-
-

02821 under damped

8 > I over damped

820 unstable

fi
'

A
÷
aaaa
'

i'
"
"
-

* Torques in indicating instruments .

I. Damping torque
2. )
3-
Deflecting Hurtling torquetongued CTo )
Controlling I restraining

Damping torque
used to damp out / stop the oscillations at the
final
steady state position .
Types of damping torque

Air
& .

frictioninstruments
damping
used in in Which
I .

permanent magnet is not used

moderate
2 .

operating I deflecting torque is

Eg MI ,
EMM 4 EDM

2. Fluid friction damping

used instruments
in
in Which
I
torque is bar
operating very
.

Eg
.
Electrostatic meters ( Electrostatic voltmeters )

3
Eddy current
damping
.

If
flagged
field
metal is
a cone in magnetic moving
eddy voltage
is
induced in the core
tr

produces eddy cuhhygnt

reduces the damped oscillations

Pm me
Eg
.

4
Electromagnetic damping
.

current both
eddy produced in
•

supporting metal cone and

coil ( thickness of coil
.

:
winding of copper is
•

much higher)
Eg
.

Galvanometer
 * Tongue to
weight Ratio ( Thi )

T.in
operating
tongue
=

weight of moving Sls .

* Tw > I ⇒
frictional errors blue
moving Sls and support
less
bearing is
very
I

Sensitivity if instrument is
improved
To achieve higher TW the moving system like weight of spindle and pointer
has to be reduced so that they are made of aluminium which has low weight

Jewel bearing Is used because it has less MaintenanceWear and tear is

less
jewel hearing

pointer air
chgamhee

float
¥hamhm -
wane
piston -

fluid
-

dohid

friction A
gandee avi
friction damping
-

damping
jewel bearing
.

DEFLECTING TORQUE ( Td )

Td he measured
a
quantity to
→

By using different principles like state

electromagnetic , ,

induction etc Td produced

heating
is
,
.

,
CONTROLLING TORQUE (Tc )
It is to Td
oppose
I
to keep pointer at
steady state position
Where
Tc = Td

* To is also used to
bring pointer to Leno / initial position
in absence of Td .

* and controls used

spring gravity
are .

•
control → more
practical
spring linear
response
for vertical and horizontal mounted instruments

µ
Tc do →
lineate
Tc = Ko
Tc
controlling tongue
'
F- ' A → N m
Td
.

to
I
I f k →
constant N lead
spring
m
-

o
,

0 →

deflecting angle -1rad )

tch
E. spring 2
I

f
At Balance position
I
Tc =
Td .

spiral
o ⑧ spring
( phosphor )
-

blouse
 •

lgeeauitg Control →
nonlinear response
mounted instruments
vertically

mglsinoo
2
I

¢
At Balan
.
# Fc =
Td

o
,
Tc =

a
Tca sin -0 →
nor
I
:

t, lineate

!g↳Tc tmg e) sino

=
'

mgaoso

Electromagnetic Meters

Metres which are working on electromagnetic principle

PMMC MI Emma
Eg , .

tI htt
inn
- - - -
-
- -
- -
-
- -
-
- , -
.

,
.
,
.

I N S I
S
a

← -

F F balance takes
Energy
.

place

¥÷ :*
- - - -
- - -

-
.
- -
-
.

- ←
p

ii
"

i
④
÷÷÷i÷÷÷÷i÷÷÷÷ I - IA
A
→

SA
moving
coil
PM Mc
 5

: "
② an
A Fixed I Move

* Coil

④
is

j¥nIi
O I 5

③
es

I Mixed
IA Morning
-

a
-

SA coil coil

EM MC

C- MMC / EDM

PMMC

Principle Fleming 's

→
LH .

Rule
if current conductor placed
carrying
a is
in a
magnetic
it to
field experiences force I tongue due interaction
→ →

of magnetic flux produced by permanent magnet and current .

Test I
>

& pointer
b→
HDC
←

= la
Ni
( =
-
) s e

t,
permanent magnet
( house shoe )
\ copper
{ spring morning
coil
 Td
Deflecting tongue
:
.

F =
NBI kind At Balance
Assume 01=90 Tc Td
'

=
.

Ko -

-
GI
Td = Fxb O =
I
=
NBI lb
=
NBAI . F ATL
Td =
GI
a
.

G =
NBA

• pmmc or coil also I

moving o

called Ahsonuald movement

'

•
Galvanometer also works on same
principle .

Moving symbol
→

On meter class so represents whole of 5% at

full scale
•

value

* * % of whole at value
heading
scale
=
% error at
full scale X
full value
value
heading

Advantages of PMMC
Power consumption is less 25 to 100 microwatt
It has high torque to weight ratio so that frictional error is less and sensitivity
is higher Is more accurate for measurement of
Scale is uniform and linear Average or DC quantity
It has a self shielding property so that it is not affected by external magnetic
fields and hence used in aerospace application where all other instrument are
very closely packed
Disadvantages of PMMC

Not suitable for AC measurement

More costly compared to moving Iron

Features of PMMC

1. It measures average or DC quantities of currents or voltages

For any signal i(t) passing through PMMC it measures

Area under
Iaug
the

¥ ojiftldt
= = curve

2. If any signal ith =

Iot Im , sinwt time sin 2 wt is
passing through the

pmmc it To
Iaug
heads =

3. Centre zero PMMC Is able to read both positive and negative average
quantities

4. If any signal. Itt ) Imsi not-

Is passing through Centre zero PMMC

-

then The pointer vibrates near to 0 because

Iaug O
=

Enhancement of the meter range

1. Ammeter Enhancement
Ammeter is enhanced by connecting an extra resistance call Shunt
resistance made of manganin for DC and constantan for AC Which has low
value of temperature coefficient Of resistance. ( 2=0.00015/0 C )

The shunt resistance value is much lower than meter resistance so that
excess current is diverted through The Shunt resistance
 I
>
wish
n
I
Im = I .
Rsh
v Im
Rskt Rm
Rsh § § Rm
,
Vm

pmr.net Rshtpgkhm ¥m= M

=

( Rsha Rm )

multiplication factor
M=
In
=

Rsh
RmmI
=

Vm=ImRm= Ish Rsh

Rm 1001
Tsm -_ 10mA
Vm=BmRm=H

lies
go
>
10mA
I v
I M=T4Im Rsh Um " "

Vm
-
- N
T
A B c

A. 100mA 10,01=10 II. in Iv

&
B .

IA 1%1=100 t Otr Iv

C .
10A 1%01=1000 010in IV

Multi ammetek
 Shunt
Ayrton Universal
I
switch at A Th
-

Smith tht Rzt Rs =

Ksh
Im
=

µf÷tj①
.
r, v
,

> I
I
c
{ Re Rm

Lwitch at B 17=122
Rs
{ tht Rs Rsh
②
-

-
=
-

47*17*7

Switch at C D= Is

Rs =
Rsh =
RntRztRm_ -

③
f¥n y
-

To get Ri
,
Rz and Rs solve ① , ② and ③
Effect of change of temperature on ammeter

If surrounding temp changes

µ
meter resistance changes
I
current meter
flowing through changes
te
meter heads value
°

:
wrong
* Toe this
compensating

ar extra resistance called swamp resistance is connected in series

with meter
 Swamp resistor

made
→
of manganin
→
has low value of a

Effect of frequency on AC meters

I. AC ammeters C MI and EMM c) →

measures AC and Dc

a. In Ac -
Rms
quantity is measured -

free from frequency

3 .

Inductance of meter -

frequency dependent →
produces evoked
if frequency is changed .

4- For meter
foe ace
freq
using ,

Meter time constant =

Shunt time constant

the = Lsd
Rm Rsh

Eh
YI

Era
Elsa
VIM

seam
VIS h

In
ftp.IIY#w.am+isI
I ①
-

-
-

me ,

pm me

(
Frequency dependent )

Ish Be
②
Rm2tw2m#¥RshtwTmF
= .

-
Iffy
=

Rshztw.LI/Rm2tw2Lm2Ehz--
l¥7
oYFnT
it

If ton =
LI ⇒ Condition
for fog
Rm Rsh independent

II =
Red Independent
Rn
Ish of frequency

Parallel combination of ammetres

Toe measurement
cfmax current
of parallel combination
of
ammeters ,

adapt mirin voltage to all the ammeters

I
①

floor
IA

> t

v Im = 100mA

=R!oYr Ill ?
} Imax
=

If we connect the two

ammeters in parallel
then the voltage across ) i
-

ammeter which is

F- 2A /⑦ minimum is taken as
common voltage
> +

, ,Im= IS

311
Rsh
§ § Rm 20011
-

⇒ .
Sir

-
 Ryman

lol § too § t.SI § 200 § Ymir = Ill

Imax t 667 A
foot Is
=

of
t
t
Loo
=

, ,

Sensitivity of ammeter

1.
Sensitivity Changing ?
=

Change in Typ

instrument to
2 .

Ability of display change in IIP .

3 .

Higher sensitivity ⇒
readability of
data is
convenient .

4. Resolution →
ability of the instrument to detect smallest

change in the IIP .

Enhancement of voltmeters

Enhanced resistance
try connecting series
in series with
I .
a

the meter coil .

less
2 Series resistance made
of EUREKA
affected by
→ →
.

temperature changes
 §
"
Its =
In
+

}
Rs
900mi,
}
{
YIN
{
-
{

1mA Rm Ym
Tf 100mV
=

(Rs > > Rm )

M
In multiplication factor
-

Vm =
HRI
( Rst Rm )

Rst RM =
11
=
m

Tm Fm

Rs =
Rm ( m -

* C SD Merit C Fom )
voltmeter sensitivity or
figure of

So FOM ( Slv )
¥
= =

Rstfym
- . -
-

,
Ex :
Rm = loose
Its =

toooo
= 1mA
Vm= loom ,

V ME him Rs Its Hits - So

IV 10 9001 1mA lkr4V

1011 100 9900 r IMA 1kW
10011 1000 99900N IMA lkrlv

µ
10011

)
you
890km {

I
9km

900k /
-

←
loom ,
-

So =
lkrly
3. 100m
Rm
I

Effect of frequency on voltmeter

AC voltmeters CMI Emme )

and
voltage
I →
.

measures Rms

2. To make meters
these independent of frequency → a
compensating
parallel to
connected Rs
Capacitor in

I Its = Im

V § Rs
Lmf
Rmit
f
It
N '

Um W
depends
.

} on

C Rst Rm ) 't win

?:
em § Lm m
 Compensating Capacitor

{ Cc Cc I 0.4k¥
Rs

Elm
'
Rs
{

ERM
V
~
§
Rs .
GI O 41
-

LI
Rs

Voltmeter of different rating

V. So ⇒ RA -

-
Hsv

,V⇒RB=¥fs
B
Its In the series combination of
voltmeters Minimum current
should be adapted to all the
metres
Ifs ( Rmt Rs) ⇒ Re ( Rst Rm )
c
,

VI
+

RA = IRA

YA
+
D= -11
IRB

1B
§ RB =
RAT RB t Rc

§ Rc Ve I Rc
IE ( least
=

of Ifs CAB .es

 Loading effect

If
nature
voltmeters low internal resistance sensitivity
having of

und to
chiefs
head
measure
voltage a

any
main current
flows through
Iftu
meter

meter maxm of head current

is
draining de
.

performance f actual load

affected

measurement
meter produces error in of voltage
V

Loading Effect
To avoid loading effect
d
voltmeters must home higher
sensitivity
ire .

higher internal resistance

RECTIFIER METERS
I .

finding ang
. value of current present in Ac .

slag .

2 .
used in communication applications

used measurement
3 A Pmmc meter is
for of avg quantity
.

1. Half wave rectifier meter

Cal AC Input current

→
'
Rs v
.
Rs
Rf
.

~
Rm resistors
limiting
v
a

diode
forward
Pm
llmsioywt Rf
-
- me →

resistance
 %=IF=I¥ftRm=tICkkI¥Rm
Ii 0.451112mL
①
=
-

( Rst Rft Rm )

④ D.c Input .

Assume Vrms =
Hoc

-1¥ ②
VB
Rs
Rf Iz = -

the Rm Rst
a Rft Rm
Pmmc

From ① and ②
I = O .

4sIz (Lilac -

current sensitivity with Ac IIP

( Si )Ac= 0.45 (Siba current with
Dc
sensitivity Dc IIP
-

2. Full wave rectifer

⑨ Ac
Input
Mr
I ,
-
-
29ms
Rs M
Rf

Vmsinwtn
It Rf
Rm =
2112
.

M(Rst2Rft Rm )

Rf
2EVRmsT(
Rf
=

Rst 212ft Rm )

I 0-9 VRMS
①
=
, -

( Rst 212ft Rm )
⑤ DC input

Assume llrms =
VDC Iz =
-412ms -

②
Rst 2 Rf t Rm

From ① and ②

I = O 9 -

Iz

( Si ) Ac = O 9 -

Csi) Dc

Calibration error
Instrument designed to unknown
measure
parameters of a

particular Slg ( g
sinusoidal )

If other than sinusoidal is

applied
d
Instrument
produces error

t
Calibration Error

PM Mc
→
FWR

J Hang)
Form factor C F -

F) =
Ff =
Rms

Aug
RMS =
Ff x
Avg

① Sinusoidal ⇒ ft

HI
=

② Square ft = I

Er
Am¥
%
We
=
NOO = × 100 = 11%
② Sawtooth
Irons
Bang Imz Iff
=
-

ff =
I =
I .

154
- B

t Er 100
Hl-,fjy4_
.
=
x

=
-

3.9 %

THERMAL INSTRUMENTS
1. Hot Wire meter
Test current hot
passes through urine

&
Heat developed →
1743 losses
&
hot
day produced in wire

tr
drives and pointer
pulley
Advantages :

I .

AC and DC

2 .
AC → true RMS current
communication application current
3.
high frequency Ac
.
-

Disadvantages .

I .

Tdcj her power loss ② not suitable

for overloading
⑤ time more
operating
.
 ←
T iridium

yP¥num
(
hotwire )
Test I I
> >

- Thread

Pulley
&
±

2. Thermocouple meter
Test I
a
VDC =
ACT -

Tz ) t ACT ,
-

Taft . .

Ml
H
C-
A Ta PMMC

④
Voc
I T,

R
:

Mz

Lubeck Effect CTC )

principle of Thermocouple
→

Me CCu )
t , CTTz ]
>
2 Dis similar metals Forming a
junction operating at two
T, YDC 2
different temperatures a DC
Tdotjn I ,
cold jn voltage is induced across the
S=DVDS junction Which is proportional to
Mzcpt )
the temperature difference
AT
 Thermocouple meters
d
test current heater
passed through
&
TER loss → heat developed
&

temperature IT increases
&

voltage induced blue

Dc
thermocouple metals
&

measured using Pmmc meter

I

calibrated in terms of test current .

Advantages
I .

AC and DC
2. measures true Rms current

communication measurement f currents

"
3.
of high
→
app

Disadvantages
less
sensitivity
1.

not
2. suitable
for overloading

MOVING IRON Eg
⇒ MI symbol
A. ATTRACTIVE MI .

'

pointer Due to increased energy due

to flux linkage in the shaded
air part of disc the disc rotates
→
-
friction
← damping
ME
-
disc

§ spring
 B. REPULSIVE MI

Bearing

painter

mo.gg
'

Testa
.
I
"

.
fix.edu
fixed
m
⑨
spine

Beating

Jeflecting torque ( Td )
q2
→
nonlinear
aah

Td=
12122¥ maeregion

At Balance Tc =
Td I

Ko IZ
Iz
=

Ida
Ac ( RMS )
,

Q a IZ
DC

Sir core coil Tron Core Coil

I
L N

I
A L N
mon A
mm iron core

← e →
(Mid
In ← e →

In
- N
- ~

V= Ldi L const
V=ddtCtIl= Lddtettddh
.

dt

Lair N2uoA_ Lirae N2qoA_xµr=Lairxµe

= =

( Incremental
inductance )
 Features
I .

Iron disc placed in magnetic field

→
experiences Force I torque
drives
painter spring provides controlling tongue
→ .
→
.

2 .

If spring
breaks pointer →
moves towards maxm scale
3 .

Air friction damping used .

Advantages
I .
AC ( Rms )DC
and
it t ) wt Im
passing through
2 .

Any Slg
=
Iot Im , sin t . sin 2 wt t - - . -

Rmg true Rms instruments heads

't ( In ft -771/2
Terms =
[ Io O s Imf t
.

. .
. .

3 .

Cost of MI a cost
of Pm me and Emma → hence used in
meters
laboratory
4 Used in low
frequency high power
circuits
.
.

Disadvantages
I .

Non uniform scale

High at low
2 .

power consumption voltage

3-
Eddy current errors are
produced oh
the
iron disc

* * Troy made of nickel

disc
d
iron
alloy
low
hysteresis area
I
to reduce
hysteresis errors
 EMMC/EDM

µ
i, iz

⇒inductance
> c L La
self inductance C
,
,
fixed )
Fixed Morning M →
mutual ( nah )
coil M cat
.

Li Lz

'
* MI Td
Its III
→ -

off
'
-

=
data

* Emma series
←
aiding
Td 2M )
lziiizddzll.tk
=
t

↳
K
Td
lzisiidm ①
=
-

do i,

x is the angle
for Ac
inputs
•

blue
is Tfmisincwt N i, and
-

iz
is =
tmzsizwt

From ① 2M
Td
Imf dlwt )
= Td
omg
.

dry
Infamy Cosa
do

Int III Cosa da

=
.

do
 =
Irons a
Irmsz Cosa dry
do

Ii ②
Tdamg
=

Izcosxddmeo
-

Applications : -

④ . @ .
⑧ . ⑥ . ①
1. Ammeter

-
FC , Fcz I ,

mm mom >

load
✓ Mr
Ie Ii = I M
bag cost
me a

small load I
V

lol
I -91=12

From ② ⇒ Td =
II. cos O Is = Tc = KO
ang dado
=

dado

Q
2
a I

Is
AC DC

( Rms )
 * load I
Large
am

Fcl

FG
wth .

mm

Mom
.

Mc

2. Voltmeter

Rs -

denies

;÷÷÷
iii.
multiplier
resistance
}
me
cashes
.me ,
,

I
Td= Tfitszcostdm ja
-

,,

do 10

Cosida
=

Is do
I

Td= =Tc=k0 Transfer Instrument

YI, diff
.

→ ACCRMD calibrated for Ac

⑦ ayz L
→
Dc without
used foe Dc recalibration
I
nonlinear Stale : C Act Tda C Dc )
.

Talang
=
 3. Power meter
factor

principle of
I .
works on EDM

2 . consist 2
fixed coils / feed coils C FG and FCT →
connected in
with load head current
series
carry
→
.

current
Coils are
highly thick to withstand large load .

3 .

also consist 2 movable ( crossed coils ) → MC , and ME I to

each other .

I coil connected to high R and other to high C .

4
magnetic flux produced by Fc , and Fez
.

I
interacts with
W
current
flowing through Me , and M Cz
&

torque produced
&

pointer moves

I
load
deflection angle of pointer a
p
.

f angle of

s .

No need of extra
controlling torque with
spring
⇒ : balanced
produced blue
.

torque is MG and MG
itself .

6 .

3/0 pf measurement -
polarised wane
pf meter used .

Sir
7 .

friction damping used .

 no
UPF
"
M →
main
?
"

lag op ! ,
lead L →
load
C →
common
i
v →

voltage
FC
M ,
L
I '

momma

C > .

Iz
,
Is
i
In
head
bag
v
cost
Mcg

Mcz

✓
C mmmm -
c

Fcz Rs
C
Ihighly
resistive )
( Highly capacitance ,

MG
Mcz
Mmax

-
Mmax
AT o
* MC , A Ma

M
Mmaxsinodm
=

do
=
Mmaxcostf
-

Mmaxsino
M=

diff
= Mmaxcoso

=L
Is
14
) 901-9 v
of g ,

lol
I
I, = I
>
I, =
I

Id ,
= It Is Casada
do Tdz = Th Iucostdm
= -

Mmaersinothtsscoso do
=
mmaxcoso-I.iq cos (90+01)
= -

MmaxII4 Sino cos -0

At Balance .

Mmaa IIIs Sino cost = -

Mmaxtsiiycososino

sine = sing
mette
cosa cost O
deflecting angle of
→

tano ol load
tanto factor of
→
power
=

0=4 angle b/w feed and crossed

=

coil .

A Symbol
 .
Measurement of Power

DC PDC VDCTLDC
power
=

AC u Vmsinwt
power
=

i =
Im sin wt oh -

ri Instantaneous
p power
-
=
-

217
dcwt )
Pang
=L J p
.

,
O

Vmtzm cost
=

Iffy FIT cool

=
= Hams Items cos to

Pang =
VI. cost
Methods

1 .
3 Voltmeter method
3 method
}
.
ammeter
.

Wattmeter method

3 Voltmeter method

hY6¥ihf
home
a RC known ) I
> MM 7
( higher
if R)
. '

µ
load
v
lag
-

vi
v M
cos 0
Vs
'

I
V
 →
?
113 "
. . . .
.

01 .

) I

Ik

P= lbtcoso
11,2=1/22+1132+2112113 cost

I.
pf .

of load

cos 01=142-1122-113-2
2112113

2 . P=V3I cost

VIVI cost

p =

11,2-1122-1132212

4-
3 .

Q= Ptano S=PtjQ

3 Ammeter method Assume Ai ,

As and As .

have low internal

I, Is
> At > As
hesitance
VIS
V Iz

Az
leg load

cost
(known) .
R
 $2
y
)
p

Is + tf,

If =
Bit IS t 212 Is cos
ol

I cos
01=1,2-122-15212
.

Is

2 .
P = It Is cos Of
=
RIZ Is cos to

P = ( If -

Ii -
I 5) I
2

3 .

Q = Pt and
4 s Pt
j Q
. =

Wattmeter

I . Works on principle of EDM .

to load
2 . consist
fined coil in series
for carrying coiland
the load current called Current
measuring
.
→

& Ccc ] .

thickness to load current

higher →

carry large
.

3 .

Also consist of moving coil →

connected with high R
to called Potential I
in series
voltage
→ measure

Pressure / Voltage coil CP .

c ]

wattmeter resistive
Pe
of highly error in
→ →

measurement
of power is less .

Pc coils should not

and Cc ⇒ air core ⇒ core
get
Saturated .
 Wattmeter active
measures
average power
.

spring
→
controlling torque
Air Friction damping used .

I . Small load I .

Nk

merit
C M, FCI 4 FC 2 Lz

IT ,
= I

head
> room
lag
I Mc cost
Rsc
highly
"
resistive )

a and Fez ⇒ Current coils Ccc ]

Mc ⇒ Potential Coil CP .

Iz LPC )
>
V
>
la
=p
>
I, =
I [ c. c)

Td = I Iz Cosa did
do

cost Ko
diff
=
To =

IRIS
=

ox
Pang 0
linear scale

Pang
2. Large load I

M ,
FG L,
son
c
FG
I
MM L2 11
Mz
head
me lag
soon cos of

Rs

VII
Symbol
-
n - -
ne m

hmm Lum hmmm

wattmeter
Rating of
VII maxm withstand Pc
V
voltage of
→

current
I →
maxm
through cc

Eg .

250111 SA

Wattmeter P
reading
=

P =
IPC
voltage 1×1
cc current I x cos [ angle b/w Pc
voltage
and cc current ]

qjuor
cc

eg%-I{
son

zootomy
I ,
-
10K
-

CC .
I = 200 = 4L -

53.130A
30¥
 ↳
→ VCPC )
PC y 20011
'

)
. =

53.130

Ccc )

P= 200×4 53.13
'

x cos
=
480W

Eg

.②a→Tq3o
TIMO
20011 room
-1 A

-36¥
1km
" '
:c
D= 41-53.130 - -

→ Oo
"
V
-
-
Pc
2380,7%402=160236870
-

pea ,

LVCPC ) -
Klcc ) =
900

P= 160×4 X cos 900

=
0

Eg③f{
17
Ej4o soon
so

> O°
D= 42-53-130 ) 53.13
.

VCPC
>

200×30
>
V =
= 1201-53-130 I )
c
¥0
cc ,

P -

-
120×4×60 = 480W
Measurement of high power
Wattmeter with CT
using
and PT connection .

D= 40L - 53.13

>

wine
§ 3 Or

orphan
2kV

{ j4Or

C
Efm CT = 50A ISA

2501115A
d
*
2kV

t ,
}& Sov

t ,
Wattmeter

PT feuding
= 4kV 1100 V

U Wattmeter
reading
-

=
Sox 4 x cos ( 53 137 .

=
120W

Plead =
wattmeter x CT Ratio PT Ratio
heading
x

Plead =
120 X
Ssd ×
2000100

=
48 kW

Harmonics to Wattmeter

a@tt
PC

Vmisiyfwttx
: v =
Vo t , ) t Vma sin 42 ) t . - . -

CC i Iot Im sin ( wt pi ) Imz sin ( wt p )

: = t t -
t
z
- - .

217

Pang Imf Cv dcwt )

=

O
 Voto Cvm , Im ( A
pi ) t Vmzimz Caz 132 )
Pang
= t cos cos t
Iz
- -
.

,
- -

20052
IOE
W
29¥ toff
so
-

Pang
=
cos
-

x
x

ice ,

BLONDEL’S THEOREM
I For measurement of power in the
of SIS
.
n
phase
mirin no .

of watt meters
required
= n -
I →
if one

of the power
carrying phase is common to rem .
n -
I

phases .

2 .

Applicable to balanced and unbalanced Sls .

3-
If neutral is selected as common point
→
mirin
no
of watt meters
required are n

I . STAR LOAD
a .
Neutral is common

I Iph

Toki
W' IR
=
=

m
R >

3240
son

Kaga
§
N
N

Is nor
240
40

B n c >

Iy
y
form m 7
Ws
kli-IVRN.IR/CosLVRN-IR=lVphIphlcosO/
VBN
IB
Kk = IVBN IBI .
cos LHBN -
IB
=
lllph Iphl cost
.

to

lab =
yyNIycosLVyN -
Iy
'
URN -
-
VR
Nph Iphlcoslo Mph
=

lol
khtkkt.la/s--3VphIphcosO/
'

Iy
to
=
Boy In

3¥31 cost
=

yyµ
= I3lkIL cost
b. One of the phase is common

Wz
a
W'

mom
m
R >

4240
son use
Http

Biggio
{ lay
IR=IL=Iph
IBwow

f-
as

240
B >
I
VBY
Iy
k Vy
Y >
-

VB . .

Hi -

lllry.IR/cosCLVRy-TR )
a ( lead )

'
itI
300

k¥47.438183
tag
"
%i
.
.
.

Inlay )
11h14
Iz UPF
= . . .

Vy
 ?

VB
:

Wz =
IVBYIBI cos ( LVBY -
IB ) Iisllog
)

=
11h14 cos (301-01) - . -

lead a.

=
HKILI cos (30-0) - - -

lay
dead'
,o it
k
=
Izz
11h14 . - -

UPF

Ily

Application of two wattmeter method

I .

Psd =
Wit Wz
= WIL ( cos (30+0) t cos (30-01) ]
=
IJVLIL Cost

2. a .

Lag load

Wi -
Wz = -

KIL sin Of

b. Lead load

Wi -
Wz =

VLILS.in/OQsG=I3VLILsin0Q30=tJCWi

-
WD -

lead head
wig :
DEW
lag load
-
-

, .

3 .

pf of load

0301L
tano =

Piso
 tano I3( Wi WIT
lay
=
- -

- - - .

wa

=
aBEwl-WD_ . - . . lead
Wit We

p
.

f .
=
cost

of load pf on
Effect
wattmeter
reading ( Assume dog load )

k¥430 -10 ) KII

& Observations
WH
'm o .
w¥w ,

Oo I I3VLIL/2 15311142 BHIL Wi =Wz

300 0.866 HINZ HI 3/2 KIL Wz= 201

GO O .

5 O
.TL/2I3/z1kILUi=OWz=Ui
TJVL
75 0.258 -
O .

2581kt 0.707 HLIL 0.44 KIL Wi -

ve Oztve

900 O -

lkIL/2 lkI42 O 02=-01 0=0

NOTE :
If one
of ⑥ reads -
we value reverse either Pic .

oh c. e

terminals and record with

power sign
-
we
.

I. DELTA LOAD

Iet
Wi

µ
IR ④

months
m >
R non t Xp
,

By
or 240
LLQ

µIRY IBR
↳
I

3
W '
Is guy
YRY t
B on 4 y mu . ④
mm
A
④ ← VYB -
VBY

y ti
 all BR
Node ⑧ :
IRTIBR =IRy IBR
⇒ IR =
Itsy -

IBR
it
HB
Node BO :
IB t ITB = IBR -
ITB L
'

IVRYIRI LVRY
.

Wi =
cos -
IB .
to

load
-

IULIU (30-01) Lag

=
cos . . . . -
IBR
"
Dry
try

1×12 =
IVBYIBI cos LUBY -
IB
IVLILI cos (30-10) load
lag IR
=

all BR
- - . -

IBR

3
not

Measurement of ¥5
VYB
p ,
< 1300 YB
) of

reactive power using

wattmeter +
try

W
In
If wattmeter potential
④ R Sm >
coil is the connected in
§ between any of the two
{
LROI phases and the current
coil is connected in the
remaining third phase
2201 or
nm LLP then the wattmeter
or an
measures reactive power
B
.

Y
 VBY
Kk IVBYIRICOSLVBR -
BR

W=VByIRcos( 901-0 )
=
VBYIR Sino VB
-

Ily
= WIL Sino

→
YR
lol
IR

Vy

② 240 YB

WEEN
my
whom R

I
Lot cc
Pc
VRB
Whom L §
HR
Iy
4
B i

4
Iy '

YRB
.

'

IN = VRBIYCOSKVRB Iy -
Ily
=
KIL Sino

PC
③
11
VB RY
240 .

whom R ol
, p
'
Y RY
LLG § 1,300
k
y UR
Whom

LLO
Whom n -
s
B

CC IB

Hy
Errors in wattmeter
1. Error due to
potential coil connection

①P .

C .

on Source side :
Small I

Kc I II
N >
A cc

| Iz VI
' '

pc
son

V load
Rs
M
lag
3 cosy
I
V

Kc →
cc .

resistance
Rs →
Pc series resistance
Pt =
true
power
=
VI cos 0

pm measured power
=

PT
2
=
t I Kc

To Er = Pm - PT 100
X
pet

% Er
I2p,I 100 ①
=
x
-

NOTE Er
: is less
if load I is small

Eg . 0C Test of The .
⑤ PC
on
Load side :
Large I

Kc Ii I
A
N y
A cc

/ " Iz VI
pc
son

V
Rs
"
lag God
I
V

At node A :
Ii = Iz t I
ti Iz =
Ii -
I T
Iz Rst
⇒ Ert

Pm At II Note used in loads

large
= :

Rs
Eg Sc test
of F .

= Ptt IT Rs

t Er
Pm-p# 100
=
x
.

% Er
I3pIe 100
=
x

②
=
LIP ,
Noo

When errors are

equal
① =
②

IZ fee = II
Rs
2 Error due to loss in the potential coil C Need
of
power
.

compensating
coil )

Compensating Coil →
connected in series to Pc → to
reduce oh eliminate the loss in Pc
power

NHDM
m
It Iz DM DV
]
→ →

⑥
> t
a
Pit ← DR ← DI s
I VI
.
C

V M
a ,

Rs t,

| t DIZ
V

It .

>
compensating
coil
+
IZ "
01 ad a

Iz

Bifilar winding
way
compensating
Cc →
' Mmmm >

Emmy
A

I I
'

D PL 4
'

' I
pc

V M
Rs

,
as
I
V
Error due to potential coil inductance

⑨ PC resistive EUPF general purpose ]

highly IN

Kc III
N >
A cc
If V
\ Iz VI
1/0=2
' '

pc
son

V load
Rs
M
lag
z AAP
y
I IFI
V

Td =
Iiizcosxdm
do
cost did
=
YES
do

PT True
=
VI cost ←

Power
⑥ PC
containing inductance

Kc III
N >
A cc

\
' '
IZ VI
pc Lp
son

V load
M
lag
3
Rs
cap
I
V
 Lp = PC
impedance =
Rst julep
p= PC impedance angle

( wishes)
'
=
tan

Lp wlp costs
=
= costs
Rpf
=

Igp Rs
B
)
Rs

is tag load His lead load

> V
)
of ) B

g. p
SICK )
3¥711=12V >

=L
tf , =D
t
Iz

Td = Ii Izcosa da Pm =
Vtscospcosco -

B)
do

Cisco -

B) did
type
=

do

cos lol B)
-

da
=
Vthpgosp
do

Pm Vtscospcosco p) → measured
lag power
-
- -

( lead )
log
CORRECTION FACTOR

G- =
#
Pfm
=

costs .
cos Col -

p)
* % Er =
costs
.
C cost costs tsinosinp )
cost

p cost [ tanto tamp ]

'
=
cos It

costs
Assume for
'
small 13 cos
p att

( It tanotanp )
Pff =

% Er =
Pm -
Pt X 100
pet

= tanto tarps x 100

* Error watts
in
Pe =
Pm -
Pt

Pm -
A =
Pttanotanp
=
VI cost .

sing tan p
cos ol

Pm -
Pt =
VI sin to tan p
legend
. - -

VI sing tamp
= -
. . . .

↳
Pe
⑨ bag head

9¥
tant
Pm = Ptt VI Sino tan p YI
Pm > Pt

⑥
tlpadmhpmapdg
;Y
Isinotanp
low pf
high pf
* If UPF wattmeter PC →
contains inductance →

produces more error →

if used in the measurement of .

low loads OC test of

power in pf .

Eg during( power TF .

the
pf of Tf is of low value less than O 27 .

If UPF wattmeter is cured

for measurement
of power
OC test
produces and hence
during errors
→ more

low pf C LPF ) wattmeter is used which

practically
has high accuracy .

* During Sc Test pf .

of
TF is
higher ( more than 0.9 )
and hence UPF wattmeter used S Test
is
during C
.
.
.

L PF WATTMETER
I .
At low pf Td is less .

For Td → Rs of low value and compared

to
increasing
UPF wattmeter .
is

Tdt d
t, k
HICKEY
=

Addo

2 A connected parallel to
compensating capacitor
.
is in some

portion of Rs for reducing the

effect of potential coil . .

inductance .

kc =
Lf
ee

3 .
At constant P and V LPF loads will draw higher currents
and to reduce the power loss in the potential coil
resistance a
compensating
coil is connected in series with .

the potential coil

 ¥85
way
compensating
Cc →

*
Amarna

Loony
>
a

\ Iz VI T
pc

A&E ,
V M too

I
"
!,
I

p v ,
⇒ constant

PVold
A I =

cos

* Error to external
due
magnetic field
I Lab Walt meters iron used to reduce the
shielding
. → →
.

effect of eat
may field
→ diverts ext
magnetic field
.
.

. . .

because it has
high ler .

2 .

High accurate precision w altimeters → A STATIC

arrangement
is used -

Threes produced by Mci and MCs are such that .

external
I will
support the
may field
and the other
flux
will offense the eat '

Mag field and .

. hence eat .

mag field .

is eliminated .

-
-

-
-

, -
.
. - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - . . - - -

y g

Ii iz
,

I ,

7 L i
,

cc n

irian
: been)
S :
'

i !

I !

\
-
-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
I
- - - - -

\ -
- x
low
.
.

reluctance
path
 Astatic searing

Arrangement
Mci Ei .

pointer
{

→
Spindle }
MC 2

Bearing

* Multiplication
factor
V x I P f of wattmeter
Mf x
=
.

setting setting
scale
reading
max

ENERGY METERS
AC works
I .

Energy meter →
or electromagnetic induction
2 . consist of SHUNT and SERIES
magnet .

3 .
Shunt magnet
-

wound with copper coil -

used to
measure
voltage
-

across the load -

called Pc
be inductive
must
highly error in the
- -

measurement of energy is reduced

4 Series
magnet wound with another
copper
coil
- -
.
. .

connected in series with load for measurement

of load
-

current .
 Mechanisms used meters
in Energy

mech
Driving
I . .

2
Rotating mech
3-
4.
Braking mech

Recording I Registering mech .

* mechanism
Driving
current
voltage applied to Pc drives the
produces flux
- -

passes through rotating disc induces eddy V and I

-

similarly current
flowing cc
produces flux
-

in =
.

passes through rotating disc produces eddy V and

I
-

Due to interaction of fluxes -

produced by Pc
and cc coils
and currents the disc produces torque
eddy on on the

rotating
disc
according
to
Fleming
's L It Rule
-
. .
.

This torque called torque proportional to

driving
is →

Active Power consumed by load if Pc is

highly .

inductive .

Pat
Energy
=

=
VI cos to XT

T
tymbal
!
UPF
"
Pc m

I ,
cc
a I

W
 Bearing

sooooo RGT

Ice
¥4
Shunt Magnet
"'
> s
In
ol' "
,
ti :
#
*
0/14 .

SL
PM

RD

d
← -
0/24
⇐
I
c -

Louis magnet
pindle
- i

Bearing
PC -

potential coil
cc -

current coil
pc
RD
rotating disc
-

V
SL
shading hoof
-

shading ring I board

SR -
Ii
PM -

permanent magnet
RGT reduced teeth x 01
yeah
-
.

Ip Be RD
Up Vc

0/2
&
 NPC )

Driving torque
•

Td )( 012 Dccc )

( late
>
Tda cos Loll -

Tse
"

421ps cos Lolz Ip ] -

I Ii C ideal )

avg.IE
-0113$
-

cos
Hoth

Gota HA
-

H -

H)

Ip
¥
Vp

xVRC2sinl 90T a) sin CD -

old

25in Hota ) = const

Told VI sin ( A -

Q)

measured
power =Pm= VI sin CA -

lo )

Pt =
VI cost

① Error in watts
Pe =
Pm -

Pt

Pe =
VIC sin C A -

O) -

cost ]

② % Eh -

PmpIP x 100

% Eee =
sinusoid ×
100

cost
Note :

for Ee o ⇒ D= 900
-

highly inductive
Pc must be
 If Pc t
highly inductive
&
error in measurement of power / energy is Red as the load .

Pf is reduced .

•
For bedding this
lag I quadrature coil ok
error
shading .

band used
king I
is .

Laglouadrature I Shading Band compensation

coil
ring I
hag I Ouadkatwee Coil →
used to maintain 90 phase displacement
blue Pc flux and the
voltage .

In this variable resistance is used for adjustment of angle .

ring I
Shading band between
is also und
for adjustment of 900 .

potential coil voltage and

flux .

In position of shading ring

this is
adjusted for
adjustment of angle .

all

Shunt magnet

¥¥¥e
"

.
on .

Fits
. . .

ok
r
log

{
log OIL
F
=D
.

gso
p so
I for
,
D >
ok
RD -

OIL

a
 *
Rotating Mechanism

weight Low
Aluminium used disc that
rotating
•
is as so

friction blue spindle and bearing is minimised .

* BRAKING MECHANISM

I .

for a
particular load →
speed of the disc has to be .

maintained constant .
- done
by using permanent magnet
.

2 .

Flux produced by permanent magnet -

passes through RD .

→
induces eddy voltage and current .

I Due to interaction of current and

flux braking torque is
.

produced .

Braking torque ( TB )

µ
PM TB a Olm Imd
Im all ma Qm a Holm
Pm . .
day

TB Nctmd
In
um A

TB =
ki N 01mF d
S
spindle

d
TBA
→
←
N

P
Driving torque
: Tda

At constant load ⇒ const speed .

Td a TB
Pa N
 Energy a
JP .

dt af N -

dt

Speed Adjustment
TBA ki Nolin d

TB-k.IO
N =

ni d

Na I
d

disc
N speed of
-

D= distance between PM and centre

of spindle

Recording resistering instruments

* Energy meter →
integrating instrument

↳
energy consumed load recorded
by is over

period of time this is done

by
→
a .

RAT Thich
attached is to spindle .

* doe mulae in Energy meter

I. True Energy
Viggo
KIT kWh
Ezo
=
×

full head →
I
Half load → I 12

T seconds Vin volts

in .
 2.
Energy Meter constant Ck )

k I
noofrenolntior.ee
=

Koh Pxt

N →
revolutions P → Kw t → Hees

3- Measured Energy C Wm ) in kWh

duetoloadk
Wm =
No of revolutions

4 .

% Error ( Er ) = Wm -
WT
x 100
WT

=
the → disc buns fast
= -

we → disc buns shout

5 t Errol
Creeping
.

revolutions hour due to

=
No of fur creeping ×
too

VI cos to XK
1000

Errors and compensation in energy meters

I .

Light load and

friction compensation
* Light load condition flux produced try
→
a

is less
due to
frictionerrors disc not able to rotate
→

→
produce in measurement of
consumed by the load
energy
.
 do used
compensate this
effect shading hoof is .

Thin
parsing through shading loop fdoduces
nor uniform flux along the shading loop .→

Which will experience force Which drives the spindle .

and hence
friction is compensated
-
.

The
position if the
shading look can
he
adjusted along the spindle .

2 .

Creeping

If friction is overcompensated by placing SL nearer to SR → .

current
the disc start
rotating with
only Pc excited without
-

in the ⇒ This called

cc is
creeping
. .

To reduce error
creeping

⑨
Small Iron piece is kept on the RD .

which is attracted try Pm

that
so
creeping stops .

③ By providing
holes I slots on the Rib .

on the opposite sides

of
the spindle .

The disc experiences opposing torquey force so that

creeping
stops .

4_it"I ÷
- -

4
- -
-
, s
T
-
-

N
I
-
I
.
-

, ,

ii
.

:
i

I i
l I

"
1 .
i -
oh ← am
' l l

' ! ,

/ I
,
I I

'
! holes
'

i
' '
'
.
' "
.
' '
. .
.

' '

F
-

s
;
-
-

i -
-
'
. '
-

RD
- -
. .
.

Coe)

i slots .
 3 .

Ouvewdtage and overload compensation

Ferranti effect system Ted
V is
flux produced
→ →
excess is → .

passes through RD → more

energy is recorded by meter .

To to saturable
divert this excess
flier due
orueuottage → a shunt

magnet is placed between centre

and side limbs of shunt magnet

Similarly for overload protection saturable series a

magnet
is placed blue limbs of series magnet → Which will divert the
overload
excess
flue due to .

F-
→
-1
out
Si -

saturable shunt Shunt Magnet

.

magnet
.

Sa -
saturable series .

magnet
.

Is 23
11
I 2011
-

( Doll ) Iv

ok
S , s , Of, t

#It
.

,
sa
- - - -
- - - -

-
-
,

or

Levies
I
\
-
-
- -
magnet . -
-
- -
.
- -
,

Testingand Calibration of Energy and Wattmeter

Phantom I Fictitious
loading - most practical method used
for testing
of energy meter and Wattmeter

Rated is to Pc
applied
•

voltage .
 cc excited small with variable resistance
voltage
•

by source a

and the resistance value rated current

by adjusting
→ is
passing
through the cc .
- hated flux is
produced → drives
the disc →

energy is recorded for a

ferried of time .

•
By using this method first of testing and power loss during calibration are reduced

NORMAL LOADING
p= 2.3 KO
' OA
E- T lobes time
testing
= -

y
.

!}
Energy
=
2-3×10 =
23 unit
2.3kW

2¥ Ett
ftp.EEFg-II#oETIzso
" as " '

pc

RD

PHANTOM / FICTITIOUS LOADING

I = IOA
P= VI
fkn
-

T
neo
.

:
¥
I:
%Ea-isooo-o.nu
'

{
"
"

}
Pc a

Energy
=
0-1×10=1 kWh = I unit
Cost of Kio Rs to
testing
= =

Wattmeter

Total consumption in fhantom loading

power

R IZ C Rt he )
flats
=
t

"
E- "
R 1041 to IT
y
-
.

t
12¥06 ,
-

Asger
!
~

" " "

23¥ Pc a
= 11529 W
? re
- Oil

{ Rs
-

= 10km
Instrumentation Transformers
I .

CT 2 .

P .

T .

Advantages
Measures large
busbars ,
etc .
currents and voltages of
① feeders , generators ,
TIF ,

② used to provide slag to ⑥ AO , ,

Pc and cc
of W E and .

protective relays
etc C
,
.
ie used
for multiple operations .

③ Measuring Equipments are isolated

from high voltage and high
current so that it is more
safe .

⑨ Power consumption is less →

no need of shunt and series .

resistance foe measurement of large current and voltages

.

⑤ Less maintain an ie .

Disadvantages

Higher
① initial cost → due to phase angle and ratio errors →

the instrument is
affected
accuracy of
NOTE In case of the MMF least affected
CT
primary is
:

by the
secondary condition of the dat .

If secondary of CT is
secondary excited
opened with the net
Which
flux within the core is
of huge magnitude will produce
huge wattage in the
damages the insulation
secondary wdg
→

and to to
dangerous
the
person working nearer the CT .

Hence with
circuited .
primary
excited
teeondahy f CT can never be
open

PTI Distribution TIE if opened with

primary
→
is
secondary because
.

excited to load connected

no
damage
the
equipment is in

parallel to and
the
primary secondary wdg
.
 Equivalent Circuit of c. I

:÷*
"

:÷÷÷÷¥¥÷ii" ::c
i.

:
ii. L
.

Nl :
Nz

Turns ratio He Nominal ratio kn K

Its
=
n =
= -

-
=

Ni

Actual Transformation ratio - R =

IFI

burden angle
touifxqtfsgs)
Secondary
=
f-

Calculation of R

B
AB =
Io (90-(2+8))
.

cos
a
Y, =
Tosin Cats )
Cath Ip
C BC =
Tosin C 90 Cats ) )
't )
-

lark =
Bowes ( at 8)
A
7) a
NIS

do
Iw=
Iosind
Iµ=Io
as
cost
O .
It
~

112
Is
BOBI
go =
( O At AB) 't Be -

Cn Ist )Jt CIO 8D

'
Io tf
Ip sink Cat
=
cos

If =

of Is
-

t 2nIsIo sin ( at 8) t If

Assume IOZLLNZISZ

Case I :
f too
42
Ip misfit 7kt
21cg
'
-

his

'
k
( It a) I I t
use
Iz

Ip =
NIS [ It 2¥ 's 2 Cat
an Is

Ip mist Iosincats )
-

t →
hag load
R=I¥s = nt
IES sink 's ) -

① -

→ lead head

R =
Nt Rosin across -

Iocosxsinf
t
-

- S

= n t T¥-Ius -

②
Is

If 8=0 ① and ② are not valid

eq
.

Case 2 8=0 resistive burden

purely
:

Nh

#
CnIs5tfI# 8=0
for
°

R valid only
-

LIZ
=
-

Is
ants a
Ip

>

IMI Io
 In case of power transformer we neglect ratio error Because no-load current is very small compared to secondary current
No-load current is 2 to 5% of Full load current

220/132 KV
500A
30pA .

100 NHA

- neglected
R g)
II Soo sink
=
'
IIs
=
t +

Io 2 to St of Ifl
:
.

'

¥ of TF
II in
so care
YI power
.

= =
.

, ,

Head ever In care of CT

Is =
IA and Io =
2 % of Ip ( 500A )
=
to A

So ratio =
I
I .

Errors in current transformers

I .
Ratio error
turns
'

load
'

due to no
component of current to ratio and .

current ratio are not

equal .

→
produces error called ratio error .
( Oc )

% Oc =

knzR_ ×
100
=
⇒
R

2. Ratio Correction factor of CT .

Jc =
KI -
I

( RC F)
Ioc
=
Ct
Ryn
=

It Oc =
KI
R
③ Phase angle error

due to no load component of current C Io )

phase angle difference blue
Ip and Is is less than 180 .

It is
expressed by a
phase angle error Oc .

tan Oc Be
EEsink
=

BED
= =

OA t OB n Ist Io tf )

Assume Io sin C at f) 22 n Is

for small angle tan Oc a Oc

+
lag head
→

⑦ had load
Iocosnffg.tt lead
= →
a
-

Oi = C Oc ) had x ISI
Tl

phase angle between Ip and Is = 1800 -

fi

A =
Iocosxcosf -

Io singing =
In cost
-

Iw sins
n Is his

8=0 ⇒ Oc lead
foe
=

tangs

P T Art
Equivalent
. . → .

iii.
÷
"

viii.
"

÷÷÷¥÷*
"

"
: :
÷ .

,
: .

R
Nl :
Nz
Turns ratio = n
-
-

Ni
N 2

Nominal ratio =
kn = K =
¥
Vs

Actual (a) Transformation

Yi
ratio =
R =

Secondary load
angle (D)
=
tan Xf
,

ERRORS IN PT

Op
I % ratio error %
knife 100
= =
x
.

2 . Phase angle error Col :

⑦ [ Xae D Rae sin AT t had

IWkp-nyI.hr#
=
cos
Ifs
-

Where D= phase angle error of secondary load current .

fate ]
'
=
tan

Rae Xae equivalent resistance and reactance to

referred
→
,
secondary
=
test Rst
temp 2pm2
,

Angle between Up and Vs 180 Q

= -

Ratio Correction factor of

If ¥
3. PT =
RCF =
=

,
Where Op
=
ratio error of PT .
DISADVANTAGE OF RATIO AND PHASE ANGLE ERRORS IN CT AND PT

I CT and PT connected to and Pc coils

secondary QP of
.

are cc

wattmeter and meter →

due to errors in CT and PT
energy
.

the
power
and
energy
Walt meters will also produce errors in the
measurement
f energy
and power .

2 .
CT and PT secondaries are connected to the protective relays like
differential distance directional
,
etc , ,
.

These mal operate due to ratio and phase angle of

relays oooh CT

and
disadvantage of ordinary differential relay )
PT C .

It
µ v

Vi lag load
cos of
t IEI

xllllleeeee
'

ii.
?!I
Is
c
. • Ip
CT =

.
Tompson
a Is
f-
- -

c.
-

- -

. ,

'
. .
.

,
'

.
, room
! .

Op
y
a
.

T
Y, Bz
Eq 112

t ,
s
k

PT =
Vp Ills

Without and PT and H

considering errors CT
in

Plead PT ratio ratio wattmeter

reading
=
x CT x

With errors of CTIPTIKI

Plead PT Ratio ( RCF ) CT Ratio LRCFKT wattmeter

reading
=
x PT x x x

X @F) IN
 PT ratio x CT ratio x cost Wattmeter
reading
x
=

Hop HOC
costs cosh

p tariffs ) Pc of Wattmeter impedance angle

-

-
=

cost =
Pf of load

a =
angle blue PC and cc currents

"
Ilreversed )
r
Koi , Of = Oct
Opt at B
T

CPc) iz
Fc Op
a

Of

f
.
go ×=
-

13
- -

thlfeeuehsed ÷:
"
-

BY
> H
)
to

' I
* load
for lag
10 Atp top toe if Op is
=

given
-

we

f- at B op toe
if Op the is
given
-

top
lead load
for
0=2 -

B -

op
-

Oc if Op
-

we is
given
f- a -

B
-
Oc
if Op tve is
given
Methods of reducing errors
in CT and PT .

0 and O due to Io
mainly
I .

are .

If Io is minimised then the errors are minimized

using high ur
2 materials like Si steel HYPER NIK
.

By , ,

PERM ENDOR ,
polycrystalline materials can reduce the reluctance
so that Io is reduced .

3
By circular or toroidal core or strip wound
using
. core

reduced that
arrangements →
of no
core
joints are so

reluctance is reduced and hence Io is minimised .

It's
boo
¥
Koo
Io
I
a
e-

= I =
=

air
gaps
due to
welding ✓ circular
Reluctance 4 → Io A toroidal ✓ strip wound coke

X rectangular core

bar and o reduced

By using single / primary o are in CT .

-0 =
Io cos ( Atf ) m = NI
Ni
HIS
L N' →
single turn Ibar primary
k I
Iocof.sk#
Q
,¥y
=
× ,

4 turns compensation only is reduced there

using
o
.

By secondary
is the phase angle error O
no
change in .

extra short circuit shift

5
By adding an secondary auxiliary phase
.

is added .

This will reduce phase angle error .

This is called WILSON .

compensation method .
 his

T
'

T •

ants
Ana
turn It
!
SC '

€1
ai
,

im
i

'
'

Is
LA ⇐
112
 ERRORS
* I Ii
Gross Errors Systematic Errors Random
Ademar Errors) Errors

I I t,
Instrumental Environmental Observational
& ti K
•

Loading Temp ,
pressure . Parallax error
Short etc
humidity
•

coming
.

in instrument
Misuse of meter
•

* Formulas in Error Analysis .

I % error at value
reading
.

=
% error at
full scale x
full scale value

value
reading
2 .

Composite errors :C man possible errors )

Xi =
at Er ,
Xz =
b I Etz XS = CI Ers

Eri Ek and Ers →

errors at value
,

reading
a .

burn or
difference terms

X =
X, I Xz±X3 X =
As -
Xzt X
, ,

Errors of x

If = I
( Off to
# t
Off )
Ex
Off )
±
Off
=
t t

( ¥ off ¥0 Fat # )
Ex -
t
offs
t
-

Ex
tfafbc Ghi tab Er t
¥c
EB
]
=
-

NOTE : Not for X =

Xin
XP I XZP

b. product or division terms

X = Xi X =
X2X3X
i ,

In X = I ( In X ,
t
In Xz t In XD

tfoxf.to#ztdffz )
Ex
off
=
=

Ex = I [ Ete ,
t Geert Ers ]

XI
NOTE Not
for X
: =

P
Xzn I Xg

c .

panvel exponential terms

X -
-
Xin X, man xp
Ep
.

Ink Ex (moth Ptfe)

naif
=
=
± t t
,

Ex = I [ MER ,
t n Ent
p Ers ]

NOTE :
Not
for X =
Xin
Xzn I XzP
3 .

Standard deviation error

I =

f ( Ri , Rz ,
Ng ,
. . - - -
)

OT ,
02 . 03 are standard deviation of a , ,
a , as -
- -

Standard deviation error of I =

Oy

Oy
jffh.jo#oIdtLFazJET
=

4. Uncertainty error

L =

f ( Ni , Nz , Nz - - .
)

Ui ,
Mz , Us are
uncertainty errors of a ,
,
Nz . as .

Uncertainty Error of L
=
Ur

on
t¥EFsF
-

S .

Range of Error

Ni ,
R2 , Ns ,
-
- -

, Nn are Samples of measurement .

Xang NitNzt-....txn
=

di ( value )
Xang min of
=
a nz an
-

,
. - - -

, ,

dz =
Imax value
of a ,
,
sea
,
- . -

kn ) -

Xang

Range of error = I Cditdz

2

* Uncertainty casts doubt about the exactness of the measurement

of results .

True value Estimated value

Uncertainty
=
±
I instrument its true value
Accuracy Closeness of the to
.
:
.

2 Precision It instrument instrument

repeatability of the
.
: is ie .

value
is
producing
near
a
of readings for a
particular IIP .

Precisionis not
guaranteed for accuracy .

Precision a no
of significant figures
.

Toe of precision both the instruments must have

comparing
units and
reading
same same .

X xx
A

X
xx
x

low precision high fkecision high precision

not accurate low high accuracy
accuracy

X
×

high accuracy
love precision
 Meter Nearest easiest Deviation no .

of significant figures Precision

love high
1. IOA 09 11 I I 2
low
2. 100A 99 to .
I Iot 3 moderate
4
3. 10.00A 9.99 10.01 to -01
highest
4 .
O 010 KA.

O .

009 0011 I IA 2 love

=
IOA =
9A =
HA

I and 4 have equal fsrecision

3- Resolution :
Smallest change in the IIP that the instrument is

able to detect

4. Ratio of change in IIP to OP

Sensitivity
:
.

It instrument to IIP
is
ability of display changes in .

5. Dead Space Thone and dead time

Dead time time Which instrument does not respond

during
-

IIP
for the
changes in the .

Dead measured
instrument
space
→
largest of variable does
not respond .

:
Avi

urn
Si diode
,
VI

07 "
Vi n Vee
-
- → pmmc

y
goat
saw
deadline

6.
Fidelity The degree to which
:

instrument indicates the measured without error

changes in quantity .
 7-
Range and span :

Range
→
difference b/w smallest and largest heading of the
instrument .

and limit
5bar →
Algebraic difference blue upper lower of the
instrument .

Example mercury thermometer measures the temperature in the range of -30 to +50°C
and it’s span is 50-(-30)= 80°C

CATHODE

CRO RAY
OSCILLOSCOPE

internally consist
CRO of CRT different amplifiers
,
attenuators , ,

triggering dat sweep .

.
generators delay ckts potentiometers
, , ,
etc .

CRT is the
important component in the CRO

Cathode Ray Tube

works the
principle of emitting of
•
on thermionic emission ie . e- .
.

from a heated
surface ( cathode )

Va Yg
ckt
delay
BLANKING at =
D

SYNC
Mr mm -
Va

electron
phosphor
Gun

(
'
coated
screen

Y
Cathode focus x
Control
anode plate
accelerating plate
grid NDP )
anode C HDP )
vertical
pre accelerating
VDP -

deflecting
plate .

anode
Aqodag
HDP -

houitontd deflecting
plate .
 / Tntensity control control
I Brightness controlling the
grid potential
:
By
the
of into the CRT controlled that
entering
no
-

e are so

brightness of the beam is controlled .

2 .

By varying pre accelerating and accelerating anode the

velocity of the
beam is varied .

PE =
KE
qua Izmit
u
=f2qII
=

of I -6×10-19 c
-

q charge e
→ =

31
of 9
kg
-

M →
mass e-
= .
I x to

Va anode
voltage
→

v
velocity of
-
e-

Electrostatic control
flow
3.

FFF
A-
!
8 104
6 ya
-

211 4
-

NY ye =

yay '

' .

-
- -
-
- -

-
-
-

- .
-

- -
I I I

focus are
.

pre ace

PRINCIPLE :
double concave e- lens .

* Laboratory CROS uses electrostatic

focus control → I him works
the
fsrinciple of double concave lens
-

e
or
.

* Television picture tube uses electromagnetic focus control .

* Computer CRO uses both .

 0
•

←→

Tf
.

← .

Tc

~ #
i

TD =
Tf t Tc

time
delay

FG .
CRO

10X or
higher impedance
probe
I

probe I
CRO

FG M I

Rp RCRO CCRO
I

I I

Cp

Rpt =D Rp =
9 RCRO
RCRO

Rp Cp Razo Cero ⇒ probe independent of frequency

.
= .
 FG
laptop CRO
Rs
I Ro projector
um t Mek m
I

f- ,
y ya
I

} Vi He
I
Vi Re
Ys Ri f
I

t ti I
,

, .
I
i
'

resistor transistor
'

Transfer +
=

t
should home
¥ agree
"
kitties higheouhgi
=
=

If Ri =D ⇒ Vi =
Vs

Vo =
Vir If Ro = O

Ret Ro Vo =
Vi =
Vs

4. HDP These kept in vertical position and applied with

:
are are

Sawtooth / sweep slag for moving the beam in the hoeeihontal

direction .

During falling I retrace time of Sawtooth at is initiated

Slg blanking
which triggers control
the
grid so that
high negative potential is

applied and hence e-

entering into the CRT are stopped .

These
S VDP applied with test
for the
:
the slag displaying
.

are

waveform pattern of the test

4g .

6.
Delay line I dat :
During falling time and initial
charging
time of the sweet the line is used to delay the
slg
slag delay
applied to vertical deflecting plates .

The total time initial time time sawtooth

charging falling of
t
delay
=

Slg .

7. Synchronism :
used to
adjust time
period of sawtooth Slg Which is

that
equal to the time period of test
Slg so a smooth waveform
is visible on
the
screen
.
7. It is
graphite coating used to collect the
-

foe
Aquadag secondary e
: a

electrical the
maintaining neutrality within CRO .

Astigmatism It used control

8 . :
is
for line
focus by applying small
Dc potential to the X and Y flats .

9 .

Phosphor coated screen :

different phosphor types are used depending on

the
application of conversion of heat
energy
→
light energy
Phosphor type Application
I PI general to
purpose CRO display Name
forms
.
.

2 .
P4 black and White TV picture tube
3 .
Pf colour TV
4 .
M2 radar applications
S .
Pls high frequency CRO . . . .
due to short persistence .

TYPES OF CRO

I .
Dual Trace CRO
It consists I
-

:
e
gun
Ix plate
24 plates ( channel I and 2)
A selection snitch is used to select the
4g of particular channel .

•
In this CRO I
slag is visible on
the screen depending upon the

selection of channel I and 2 .

model Chop mode

Att :
Extra provision und in dual trace CRO →

consisting of MUX with a selection

Slg with twice the
frequency
of sauttooth Slg so that two waveforms visible the
alternatively
are
on
Ackley .

CHI
~
I CHI
Y O C H2
CH 2

~
S
 .

Ms
, I
2. Dual beam CRO
It consists 2e
-

guns
2X flats
27 plates
2 visible
Waveforms simultaneously the
•
are on screen .

labs and applications

practically used in research radar
•
.

higher cost
•

3.
High frequency CRO
consist of extra anode
post accelerating for increasing the brightness of
→

the beam .

It Pls phosphor coated

uses
screen .

It has short persistence so that

proper visibility of the beam is possible .

4 CRO
.

Storage
consist of memory storing elements like RANI and ROM for storage of
different waveform patterns
.

SPECIFICATIONS OF CRO

I deflection sensitivity Cs )

D= S =

Latoya
=

Lldadltfa i
Fg
 Vy path
Va
parabolic
I
..._
I in
I

I
'

Ie
'

g
- - -
- -

t,
Id
→
←
Anode
screen
Ace / pre ace
c- L -
←

deflection height of beam

D=
on screen
d distance b/w
=
Y plates
Id length of Y flats
=

Va anode
voltage
=

Ily Y
plate voltage
=

G deflection factor Hmm

Is
=

21dL
=
=

2. Input impedance
of CRO

For
reducing heading effect
input value )
resistance of is
of large C M
CRO r

input capacitance is
of low value Cpf )
3 .

Bandwidth of CRO
.

The undistorted freq of 4g able to

display on the CRO is called BW
It related to time
is the rise of Slg by the
following equation :

Tr Blat O 35 Tee rise time

x
of Slg
= -
→

Bw →
Bandwidth .

Actual rise time of unknown Slg C Tar )

TAR Jtr Tee time of unknown
rise
4g
=
→

TCRO rise time

of CRO
→
4. Power
consumption of CRO

P VI Vx of
= =
-

n →
no e
noth
1.6×10-19 C
q charge of e-
→ =

t →
see

of cycles of test Slg visible

s No the screen
.

on
.

n
=
Tseng
Tslg

Clipped Slg :
If Vpp I
Slg ) > Vpp ( screen )

Undipped Slg
:
If Vpp ( Slg ) L Vpp ( Loreen) Vpp peak peak X
-
-

Vpp ( screen) =
No .

of Y scale divisions x ( volts / div )

Therien ) =
No of X sneak dire x ( time x div )

CALIBRATION OF CRO

calibrated try applying square I step Slg of known magnitude freq

CRO and
so that time div and melt I div can be calculated .

From unknown and he measured

this slag frequency magnitude car .

LISSAJOUS PATTERN [ LP .
]

If both X and Y plates are applied with sinusoidal IIP

the
waveform pattern appearing on
the screen is called L P .
.

NOTE instant time beam

At of the
follows the
:

any e-
depending on
phased addition the applied to X and Y plates
of Slg .

Application :

I LP is used to find the phase angle difference blue X and Y blate

.

voltages .

2. used to calculate unknown of the test

frequency slag .

Vn =
Vm , sin C wat )
Vy
=
Vmz sin ( Nyt to )
CASE I : Woe -
-

Wy
=
we

0 is
varying
Nml Hmd Hml Vmsinwt
,mm
Y: }
Assume - - -_

gym
⇒
-

Yg
Zllmsiyuet
=

,
Va -
Vmsinwt
Vy
=
Vmsincwtto )

lil f- 0 Hal -_
Nyk Hml
Kelly =
Vmsinwt

point Vn Vy
tyatvyt E- tanlllyllk)

O
.

O O O O O O O

A Vm Vm 211M I2Vm Vm 45 630

B O O O O O 0 O

C -

Hm -

Hm -2km I Vm 1511M 225 2430

D O O O O O O O

⇒
€
900
UM
A

moi
a
2250

:
' 80

;
o soo

-11M
C I '
2900

" n' " "H ¥ o E

nutty ,

Hal Nyt
B
-

>

-
D
 10=90 Vm ,=Vmz=Vm
the Ymsinwt Ily =
Vmcoswt

Ciii) 4=270 ⇒ Vx Vmsizwt Vy= Vmcoswt

- -
-

908
Circle

⑨
,
Um
,

④
A

7 I

o
180
: e A
soo

L
r
B
- Um I C I '

4=-2700
2700

¥ o E

OIA
°

A
L
r

C
A
•
.

- I T -
D

Circle CACKD
10=2700

111N Nyt Vm wn=Wy=w

- -

7 7 ✓

1450
L

L
r

04102900 10=900
10=00 ELLIPSE CW
 :

9020122700 CD
01=1800 18002012270
Ellipse

^
r

✓
j

01=2700 2700201 23600 01=360

ACH

To find 01
from LP

① LP and
in I II quadrant

Yz -

0
silky)
- -

sin
( ¥)
- =
= Cw
y, i
- =

7×1×2 I
'

Second possibility =
360 -

0 =
ACH

② LP in I and IT quadrant

:
1/2
- -
-

9 size
f ¥)
I
a
=
1800 -

{
-

co
i

' ⇒
x a
1800 sin
( ft)
-
Second 360° 0 ⇒ ACW
possibility
= -

CASE 2
OutWy
: * * *

Use
Vmsinwat
-

Vy
llmsinwyt =
Assume 0=00

¥
No .

of horiaontal tangencies
wyz= =

No .

of vertical tangencies

€)
900
Vm A

o
t
:
' 80 B
soo

-11M
C I '
2900

¥ o E

the =
Vmsinwt
Ily Ymsiridwt
a
=

Wy Dawn fy=2fn
-

-
-

01=00

-
D

Few Examples or fyffe

⑨
tf 1=2
-

②
xE I ¥
-

-
③ E
¥ f
= -

⑨ tf
µ
=
3=2

SPECIAL CASES
' '

"

④
3
'

tfa Ta
! us

6
9
g y

↳
②
A ¥
-
-

I
a

¥= 's

Gif
③
.
D I G I T A L M U L T I M E T E R

Basic measurable digital meter de

quantity of a is
voltage .

Any quantity current tweet age of AC/DC unknown resistance

and are

initially converted into a de

voltage by using different attenuators and
current to and rectifiers
voltage converters
.

This de
wattage of analog is slag
converted to
digital and displayed on
seven segment display unit .

Leak calibrated in the units

is
corresponding
.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DIGITAL METER

constant current source

Buffer Amplifier
Res

Analog
Calibrated Attenuator rectifier
SH to
circuit
ACY
+
rotary digital
switch converter
ACI
Current to
voltage
Converter
DCI

Dai
current to
voltage
converter

digital display
calibrated attenuator

Specifications of digital meter

1. Resolution C R ) :
Smallest change in IIP able to detect by the
digital
meter is called R .

R of full digits ( which the

from
=

display
n → no no
ton can
.
.

O -
9)

n =3 then
12%3=0.001
:
Eg

② Sensitivity ( s) :
Smallest
change in IIP able to
display by the digital
meter is called sensitivity in a
given range
.
 5- Resolutions Range
value EX 0.245
full scale :
=
Rx

Range Resolution Sensitivity Minimum Maximum Display

0012

0245
O -

IV O -

0.001 -

000 -

999
O -

1011 0.001 0.01 O .

00 9.99 0.24
0-10011 0.001 O .
I 000 99.9 00.2
000 999 Max
range
3.
Overhanging
If extra 42 digit switched ON it called
is
overhanging
is .

Half digit display Oort

can only .

It cannot
display numbers from ② to ⑨

Ex : 342 digit display

In Nitz
display N are
full digit
Range Resolution Sensitivity Minimum Maximum Display

O -

Ill 0.001 000.1 I -999 0.245

0-1011 0.001 00.01
0000
00.00 19.99 00.24
O 10011 -

O .

001 000 .

I 000.0 19909 000-2

0000 1999 Max range

4. Maximum possible error C Ea )

=% error at
reading x
reading value +
FIFI
Max
%
range
man possible error = G- × 100

Reading value
counter
Digital frequency or
digital timer

"

BELIE
"2 "3 "4 '

GET
s

Sf
Tatge
# 'fee EYE
s

Amplifier clipper ,fYu9+ ,Ypf¥yG

'

ve
.

DIFFERENTIATOR
-

§!tq
,

I
AND

1k Yg 14

lklk ¥
vs

v,
D- in

A .

\ ? stfu
.

"→£eop s¥→⇒ap
" →
←

← Ic →
( Gating 4g )
a ←, ice
⇐
f- No .

ofydeslsec .

of pulses # IT
=
no

① mode
T f period
② frequency mode
Sec Ha

MS KHZ
No of Pulses
. T f

les MHL
7
10 Sec Ha
104 msec Hz
10 llsec Ha