SUBCELLULAR COMPONENTS

DR. A. TARAB
DEPT. OF BIOCHEMISTRY
HKMU
• All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic,
have a membrane that envelops the cell,
regulates what moves in and out (selectively
permeable), and maintains the electric
potential of the cell
• Inside the membrane, a salty cytoplasm takes
up most of the cell volume
• All cells (except red blood cells which lack a cell
nucleus and most organelles to accommodate
maximum space for hemoglobin) possess DNA,
the hereditary material of genes, and RNA,
containing the information necessary to build
various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's
primary machinery
• There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells
 Cell membrane
• The cell membrane (also known as the plasma
membrane or cytoplasmic membrane) is a
biological membrane that separates the interior
of all cells from the outside environment
• The cell membrane is selectively permeable to
ions and organic molecules and controls the
movement of substances in and out of cells
• The basic function of the cell membrane is to
protect the cell from its surroundings
• It consists of the phospholipid bilayer with
embedded proteins
• Cell membranes are involved in a variety of
cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion
conductivity and cell signalling and serve as
the attachment surface for several
extracellular structures, including the cell wall,
glycocalyx, and intracellular cytoskeleton
• The cell membrane is selectively permeable
and able to regulate what enters and exits the
cell, thus facilitating the transport of materials
needed for survival
• The movement of substances across the
membrane can be either "passive", occurring
without the input of cellular energy, or
"active", requiring the cell to expend energy in
transporting it
• The membrane also maintains the cell
potential
• The cell membrane thus works as a selective
filter that allows only certain things to come
inside or go outside the cell
• The cell employs a number of transport
mechanisms that involve biological
membranes:
• 1. Passive osmosis and diffusion:
• Some substances (small molecules, ions) such as
carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), can move across
the plasma membrane by diffusion, which is a passive
transport process
• Because the membrane acts as a barrier for certain
molecules and ions, they can occur in different
concentrations on the two sides of the membrane
• Such a concentration gradient across a semipermeable
membrane sets up an osmotic flow for the water
• 2. Transmembrane protein channels and
transporters: Nutrients, such as sugars or
amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain
products of metabolism must leave the cell
• Such molecules diffuse passively through
protein channels such as aquaporins (in the
case of water (H2O) in facilitated diffusion or
are pumped across the membrane by
transmembrane transporters
• Protein channel proteins, also called permeases, are
usually quite specific, recognizing and transporting only
a limited food group of chemical substances, often
even only a single substance
• 3. Endocytosis:
• Endocytosis is the process in which cells absorb
molecules by engulfing them
• The plasma membrane creates a small deformation
inward, called an invagination, in which the substance
to be transported is captured
• The deformation then pinches off from the
membrane on the inside of the cell, creating a
vesicle containing the captured substance
• Endocytosis is a pathway for internalizing
solid particles ("cell eating" or phagocytosis),
small molecules and ions ("cell drinking" or
pinocytosis), and macromolecules
• Endocytosis requires energy and is thus a form
of active transport
• 4. Exocytosis:
• Just as material can be brought into the cell by
invagination and formation of a vesicle, the membrane
of a vesicle can be fused with the plasma membrane,
extruding its contents to the surrounding medium
• This is the process of exocytosis
• Exocytosis occurs in various cells to remove undigested
residues of substances brought in by endocytosis, to
secrete substances such as hormones and enzymes,
and to transport a substance completely across a
cellular barrier
• In the process of exocytosis, the undigested waste-
containing food vacuole or the secretory vesicle
budded from Golgi apparatus, is first moved by
cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface
• The vesicle membrane comes in contact with the
plasma membrane
• The lipid molecules of the two bilayers rearrange
themselves and the two membranes are, thus, fused
• A passage is formed in the fused membrane and the
vesicles discharges its contents outside the cell
 Lipid bilayer
• Lipid bilayers form through the process of self-
assembly
• The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin
layer of amphipathic phospholipids which
spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic
"tail" regions are isolated from the surrounding
polar fluid, causing the more hydrophilic "head"
regions to associate with the intracellular
(cytosolic) and extracellular faces of the resulting
bilayer
• A phospholipid molecule has one end – “the
head” – that is attracted to water (hydrophilic)
and two “tails” that repel water (hydrophobic)
• In water, phospholipids form a bilayer in which
hydrophilic head groups are exposed to the
solvent
• The hydrophobic tails face each other,
minimizing contact with water
• This forms a continuous, spherical lipid bilayer
• Forces such as van der Waals, electrostatic,
hydrogen bonds, and noncovalent interactions
all contribute to the formation of the lipid
bilayer
• Overall, hydrophobic interactions are the
major driving force in the formation of lipid
bilayers
• Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to
ions and polar molecules
• The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and
hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent
polar solutes (ex. amino acids, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from
diffusing across the membrane, but generally
allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic
molecules
• This affords the cell the ability to control the
movement of these substances via
transmembrane protein complexes such as
pores, channels and gates
 Membrane proteins
• The proteins in the membrane have diverse
functions:
• Transport proteins – embedded in the
phospholipid bylayer create passageways
through which water-soluble molecules and
ions pass into or out of the cell
• Enzymes – facilitate chemical reactions that
otherwise would not proceed quickly enough
to sustain life
• Recognition proteins – carbohydrates
attached to cell surface proteins serve as
“name tags” that helps the body recognize its
own cells
• The immune system attack cells with
unfamiliar surface molecules
• Adhesion proteins – enable cells to stick to
one another
• Receptor proteins – are exposed on the outer
face of the membrane as receptors, binding
molecules outside the cell and triggering a
reaction inside the cell
 Cell Organelles
• Organelles are parts of the cell which are adapted
and/or specialized for carrying out one or more
vital functions, analogous to the organs of the
human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney,
with each organ performing a different function)
• Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have
organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are
generally simpler and are not membrane-bound
• There are several types of organelles in a cell
• Some (such as the nucleus and golgi
apparatus) are typically solitary, while others
(such as mitochondria, chloroplasts,
peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous
(hundreds to thousands)
• The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the
cell and surrounds the organelles
• Cell nucleus:
• A cell's information center, the cell nucleus is the
most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic
cell
• It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the
place where almost all DNA replication and RNA
synthesis (transcription) occur
• The nucleus is spherical and separated from the
cytoplasm by a double membrane called the
nuclear envelope
• The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a
cell's DNA from various molecules that could
accidentally damage its structure or interfere
with its processing
• During processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied
into a special RNA, called messenger RNA (mRNA)
• This mRNA is then transported out of the
nucleus, where it is translated into a specific
protein molecule
The nucleus
The cell nucleus – command and
control centre of the cell
• The nucleolus is a specialized region within the
nucleus where ribosome subunits are assembled
• In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the
cytoplasm
• Mitochondria and Chloroplasts:
• the power generators: Mitochondria are self-
replicating organelles that occur in various
numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells
• Mitochondria play a critical role in generating
energy in the eukaryotic cell
• Respiration occurs in the cell mitochondria,
which generate the cell's energy by oxidative
phosphorylation, using oxygen to release
energy stored in cellular nutrients (typically
pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP
• Mitochondria multiply by binary fission, like
prokaryotes
Mitochondrion
• Chloroplasts can only be found in plants and
algae, and they capture the sun's energy to
make ATP through photosynthesis
• Endoplasmic reticulum: A network of hollow
tubes, called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER),
extends off the nuclear membrane
• There are two types of ER
• One is rough endoplasmic reticulum, which is
studded with ribosomes and involved in
making and shipping proteins
• Ribosomes are the protein making machinery
of the cell, and cells contain many thousands
of these tiny nonmembrane-bound organelles
• Some ribosomes are attached to the rough ER,
others float freely in the cell
• The other type of ER, called smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, does not have
ribosomes, and is involved in the synthesis
and transport of lipids
• Vesicles: These small shipping organelles are
like membrane bubbles that break off from
plasma membrane or membrane-bound
organelles and ship materials into, out of or
within the cell
• Golgi apparatus:
• The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is
to process and package the macromolecules
such as proteins and lipids that are
synthesized by the cell
Golgi apparatus
• Lysosomes and Peroxisomes:
• Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid
hydrolases)
• They digest excess or worn-out organelles,
food particles, and engulfed viruses or
bacteria
• Peroxisomes have enzymes such as oxidase
and catalase, that break down toxic peroxides
• The cell could not house these destructive
enzymes if they were not contained in a
membrane-bound system
• Centrosome – the cytoskeleton organiser: The
centrosome produces the microtubules of a
cell – a key component of the cytoskeleton
• It directs the transport through the ER and the
Golgi apparatus
• Ribosomes:
• The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and
protein molecules
• They each consist of two subunits, and act as an
assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is
used to synthesize proteins from amino acids
• Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or
bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic
reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in
prokaryotes)
Ribosome
 Protein synthesis
• The “free” ribosomes make protein that
remain inside the cell, such as proteins used
to build new organelles
• Proteins that are exported from the cell, such
as some signal molecules, are made on the
ribosomes that lie on the surface of the ER
• ER is an extensive system of internal
membranes that move proteins and other
substances through the cell
• Like the cell membrane, the membranes of ER
are made of a lipid bilayer with embedded
proteins
• The rough ER helps transport proteins that are
made by its attached ribosomes
• As each protein is made, it crosses the ER
membrane and enters the ER
• The portion of the ER that contains the
completed protein then pinches off to form a
vesicle
• These proteins which are enclosed inside
vesicles, are kept separate from the proteins
that are produced by free ribosomes in the
cytoplasm
 Packaging and targeting of
proteins
• Vesicles that contain newly proteins move
through the cytoplasm from the ER to Golgi
apparatus that serves as the packaging and
distribution centre of the cell
• Enzymes inside the Golgi apparatus modify
the proteins that are received in vesicles from
the ER
• The modified proteins are then enclosed in
new vesicles that bud from the surface of the
Golgi apparatus
• The ER, the Golgi apparatus and lysosomes
work together in the production, packaging
and distribution of proteins
ER with Golgi apparatus