2.
By bonding to three other atoms- presence of
BIOCHEM LAB REVIEWER
eighteenth century;
organic compound-obtained from living
organisms
inorganic compounds- mineral constituents of
the earth
vital-force theory -supplied by a living organism
was necessary for the formation of an organic
compound
German chemist Friedrick Wöhler.- heated an
aqueous solution of two inorganic compounds,
ammonium chloride and silver cyanate, and
obtained urea (a component of urine).
Present
Organic chemistry -is the study of hydrocarbons
(compounds of carbon and hydrogen) and their
derivatives.; study of the compounds of one
element (carbon)
Inorganic chemistry- is the study of all
substances other than hydrocarbons and their
derivatives.; study of the compounds of the
other 116 elements
5:1 ratio between organic and inorganic
compounds
Carbon- form five times as many compounds;
unique ability to bond to each other in a wide
variety of ways that involve long chains of
carbon atoms or cyclic arrangements (rings) of
carbon atoms.
- related to carbon’s electron configuration. a
member of Group IVA possess four valence
electrons;
- four additional valence electrons are needed
to give carbon atoms an octet of valence
electrons-octet rule; These additional electrons
are obtained by electron sharing (covalent bond
formation) in three different ways:
1. By bonding to four other atoms- presence of
four single bonds
two single bonds and one double bond.
3. By bonding to two other atoms- presence of
either two double bonds or a triple bond and a
single bond.
organic chemistry encompasses the study of
hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon derivatives
hydrocarbon-is a compound that contains only
carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms
saturated hydrocarbon- is a hydrocarbon in
which all carbon–carbon bonds are single
bonds.
Two categories: acyclic- “not cyclic.” And cyclic
unsaturated hydrocarbon-is a hydrocarbon in
which one or more carbon–carbon multiple
bonds (double bonds, triple bonds, or both) are
present
hydrocarbon derivative- is a compound that
contains carbon and hydrogen and one or more
additional elements
alkane- saturated hydrocarbon in which the
carbon atom arrangement is acyclic. Thus an
alkane is a hydrocarbon that contains only
carbon–carbon single bonds (saturated) and has
no rings of carbon atoms (acyclic). general
formula CnH2n+2
simplest alkanes- methane, ethane, propane
can be illustrated through dash-wedge-line
structures, ball-and-stick models, and space-fi
lling models.
structural formula- is a two-dimensional
structural representation that shows how the
various atoms in a molecule are bonded to each
other. two types:
expanded structural formula- structural
formula that shows all atoms in a molecule and
all bonds connecting the atoms.
condensed structural formula- structural
formula that uses groupings of atoms, in which
central atoms and the atoms connected to
them are written as a group, to convey
molecular structural information.
skeletal structural formula -is a structural
formula that shows the arrangement and
bonding of carbon atoms present in an organic
molecule but does not show the hydrogen
atoms attached to the carbon atoms.
Isomers- are compounds that have the same
molecular formula (that is, the same numbers
and kinds of atoms) but that differ in the way
the atoms are arranged
continuous-chain alkane-is an alkane in which
all carbon atoms are connected in a continuous
nonbranching chain.
branched-chain alkane- is an alkane in which
one or more branches (of carbon atoms) are
attached to a continuous chain of carbon
atoms.
alkyl group-is the group of atoms that would be
obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from an
alkane.
Constitutional isomers- are isomers that differ
in the connectivity of atoms, that is, in the order
in which atoms are attached to each other
within molecules
Conformation-is the specific three-dimensional
arrangement of atoms in an organic molecule at
a given instant that results from rotations about
carbon–carbon single bonds.
Substituent- is an atom or group of atoms
attached to a chain (or ring) of carbon atoms
IUPAC rules- International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry
rules for naming branched-chain alkanes.
Rule 1: Identify the longest continuous carbon
chain (the parent chain)
Rule 2: Number the carbon atoms in the
parent chain from the end of the chain nearest
a substituent (alkyl group)
Rule 3: If only one alkyl group is present, name
and locate it (by number), and prefix the
number and name to that of the parent carbon
chain.
Rule 4: If two or more of the same kind of alkyl
group are present in a molecule, indicate the
number with a Greek numerical prefix (di-, tri-,
tetra-, penta-, and so forth). In addition, a
number specifying the location of each identical
group must be included. These position
numbers, separated by commas, precede the
numerical prefi x. Numbers are separated from
words by hyphens.
Rule 5: When two kinds of alkyl groups are
present on the same carbon chain, number
each group separately, and list the names of the
alkyl groups in alphabetical order.
Rule 6: Follow IUPAC punctuation rules, which
include the following: (1) Separate numbers
from each other by commas. (2) Separate
numbers from letters by hyphens. (3) Do not
add a hyphen or a space between the last-
named substituent and the name of the parent
alkane that follows.
line-angle structural formula- is a structural
representation in which a line represents a
carbon–carbon bond and a carbon atom is
understood to be present at every point where
two lines meet and at the ends of lines. Most
common in cycloalkanes.
Classification of carbon atoms-
primary carbon atom -is a carbon atom in an
organic molecule that is bonded to only one
other carbon atom.
secondary carbon atom- is a carbon atom in an
organic molecule that is bonded to two other
carbon atoms.
tertiary carbon atom- is a carbon atom in an
organic molecule that is bonded to three other
carbon atoms.
quaternary carbon atom- is a carbon atom in an
organic molecule that is bonded to four other
carbon atoms.
Cycloalkane- is a saturated hydrocarbon in
which carbon atoms connected to one another
in a cyclic (ring) arrangement are present;
simplest cycloalkane is cyclopropane; general
formula for cycloalkanes is CnH2n
IUPAC naming procedures for cycloalkanes-
The ring portion of a cycloalkane molecule
serves as the name base, and the prefix cyclo
Stereoisomers -are isomers that have the same
molecular and structural formulas but different
orientations of atoms in space.
Cis–trans isomers -are isomers that have the
same molecular and structural formulas but
different orientations of atoms in space because
of restricted rotation about bonds
Cis- is a prefi x that means “on the same side.”
Trans - is a prefi x that means “across from.”
Natural gas and petroleum (crude oil) -
naturally occurring compounds constitute their
largest and most important natural source
(Alkanes and cycloalkanes).
Unprocessed natural gas -contains 50%–90%
methane, 1%–10% ethane, and up to 8% higher-
molecular-mass alkanes (predominantly
propane and butanes).
Crude petroleum- is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons (both cyclic and acyclic) that can
be separated into useful fractions through refi
ning.
fractional distillation- a process that takes
advantage of boiling-point differences between
the components of the crude petroleum
Gas (C1–C4)
Gasoline (C5–C12)
Kerosene (C12–C16)
Heating oil (C15–C18)
Lubricating oil (C16–C20)
Wax distillate (C20 and up)
physical properties of alkanes and
cycloalkanes.
1. insoluble in water. Water molecules are
polar, and alkane and cycloalkane
molecules are nonpolar.
2. densities lower than that of water.
Alkane and cycloalkane densities fall in
the range 0.6 g/mL to 0.8 g/mL,
compared with water’s density of 1.0
g/mL. mixed with water, two layers
form (because of insolubility), with the
hydrocarbon layer on top (because of its
lower density). explains why oil spills in
aqueous environments spread so
quickly. The floating oil follows the
movement of the water
3. boiling points of continuous-chain
alkanes and cycloalkanes increase with
an increase in carbon chain length or
ring size. 1 to 4 carbon atoms are gases
at room temperature. 5 to 17 carbon
atoms are liquids. 17+ solids at room
temperature.
Chemical properties of Alkanes and
cycloalkanes
Alkanes are not absolutely unreactive. Two
important reactions that they undergo are
combustion, which is reaction with oxygen,
and halogenation, which is reaction with
halogens.
combustion reaction- is a chemical reaction
between a substance and oxygen (usually
from air) that proceeds with the evolution
of heat and light (usually as a flame).
Natural gas, used in home heating, is
predominantly methane
Propane is used in home heating in rural
areas and in gas barbecue units
Butane fuels portable camping stoves.
Gasoline is a complex mixture of many
alkanes and other types of hydrocarbons.
Incomplete combustion can occur if insufficient
oxygen is present during the combustion
process. When this is the case, some carbon
monoxide (CO) and/or elemental carbon are
reaction products along with carbon dioxide
(CO2).
Halogenation- elements in Group VIIA of the
periodic table: fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2),
bromine (Br2), and iodine (I2) is a chemical
reaction between a substance and a halogen in
which one or more halogen atoms are
incorporated into molecules of the substance.
substitution reaction- is a chemical reaction in
which part of a small reacting molecule replaces
an atom or a group of atoms on a hydrocarbon
or hydrocarbon derivative
halogenated alkane- is an alkane derivative in
which one or more halogen atoms are present
halogenated cycloalkane -is a cycloalkane
derivative in which one or more halogen atoms
are present.
halogenated cycloalkane -is a cycloalkane
derivative in which one or more halogen atoms
are present
IUPAC rules for naming halogenated alkanes
1. Halogen atoms, treated as substituents on a
carbon chain, are called fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-,
and iodo-.
2. When a carbon chain bears both a halogen
and an alkyl substituent, the two substituents
are considered of equal rank in determining the
numbering system for the chain. The chain is
numbered from the end closer to a substituent,
whether it be a halo- or an alkyl group.
3. Alphabetical priority determines the order in
which all substituents present are listed.

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