Chapter 2 PDF

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Chapter 2. Air Pollution
MSBTE Syllabus
2. Air Pollution
Part I (Marks 18)
2.1 Sources & classification of air pollution
2.2 Effects of air pollution on human health
2.3 Effects of air pollution on economy
2.4 Photochemical air pollution
2.5 Air pollution from major Industrial operations e.g.Fertilizer industries aluminum
manufacturing plants, Cement industries, paper industries,
Part II (Marks 22)
Air pollution due to Automobiles-design and operating parameters and methods of control
2.6 Pollution due to S. I. Engines. Design & operating parameters responsible for emission
2.7 Pollution due to C. I. Engines. Design & operating parameters responsible for emission
2.8 Methods of pollution control like E.G.R., Turbocharger, Catalytic converter, CRDI, Canister,
P.C.V. system etc.
2.9 Air quality & emission standards of India & Europe
2.10 Air pollution in Indian metro cities- Delhi, Mumbai,
2.1 Introduction:
Air pollution means the presence of one or more unwanted substances (contaminants) in air.
These substances, called pollutants, can occur naturally or they can be produced by human
activities. Natural pollutants include dust, pollen, salt particles, smoke from forest fires, and gases
from organic waste. Most pollution caused by human activities is directly or indirectly the result of
burning of fuels in furnaces or engines.
Air pollutants have a negative impact on humans, animals, plants, and on quality of air. The
most frequently present categories of air pollutants are sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOC) and small dust particles (aerosols).
2.2 Sources of air pollution:
The main sources of air pollution are the industries, agriculture and traffic, as well as energy
generation. During combustion processes and other production processes air pollutants are
emitted. Some of these substances are not directly damaging to air quality, but will form harmful
air pollutants by reactions with other substances that are present in air. Examples of large-scale
air pollutants are VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds) and small dust particles. When large
I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 1

concentrations of these substances are emitted this negatively affects ecosystems, materials and
public health.
Emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) mainly stem from agriculture, because nitrogen in soils can
easily be denitrified by bacteria. Nitrous oxide is emitted during the denitrification process.
Additionally, the application of (artificial) fertilizers causes emissions of ammonia (NH3), nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and methane CH4), a greenhouse gas.
The agricultural sector is known for its extensive use of pesticides. This application causes
emissions of many toxic chemicals.
Industrial processes vary greatly and as a result there are many different chemical wastes. The
industries are responsible for emissions of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, small dust particles, VOC, methane, ammonia and radioactive radiation.
During energy generation chemicals such as methane are released into the air as a result of oil
and natural gas extraction. The combustion of coal and natural gas for electricity production
causes the release of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide into the air.
Traffic is held responsible for one-third of the greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions caused by
traffic are mainly those of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, VOC and small dust
particles.
Consumers are also partly responsible for air pollution. Firstly because the products they use
have caused air pollution during their production and distribution and secondly because heating
of houses and offices causes chemicals release into the air. When people use paints or cosmetics
VOC is released and perspiration, pet fertilizer use and cleanser use cause ammonia emissions.
Last but not least, many chemicals (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide) are emitted during
smoking.
2.2.1 Classification of air pollution:
Air pollution is classified in different ways as follows:
i) On basis of Source:
a) Natural pollution: e.g. pollution due to Volcano, storm, forest fire, etc
b) Anthropogenic (Human cause) pollution: Pollution due to burning of fuels in
furnaces or engines etc.
ii) On basis of pollutant:

a) Biological air pollution, such as pollens, small insects and microrganisms (bacteria
fungi, yeasts and algae)

b) Physical air pollution, such as sound, smell, thermal pollution and radioactive
radiation
c) Chemical air pollution, such as ozone, aerosols and ammonia.
2.2.2 Air Pollutants and their effects:
Air pollutants may be of gases and/ or particles. These have a distinct chemical or physical
structure, or a distinct effect on human health.
The main air contaminants are:
i) Carbon monoxide: a colorless and odorless poison, it is a gas produced when fuel
incompletely burned in engines, furnaces and space heaters. A major source of this is the
Vehicles.
Carbon monoxide contributes to the greenhouse effect, smog and acidification. The gas can bind
to hemoglobin in blood, preventing oxygen transport through the body. This results in oxygen
depletion of the heart, brains and blood vessels, eventually causing death.
ii) Carbon dioxide: a produced by normal combustion (burning). Although it is not a serious
pollutant, it is believed that the continuous build up of this gas in the atmosphere could cause
what they call a “green house effect" by reducing the flow of heat from the earth back into the
space, thus causing a possible warming of the earth.
iii) Sulfur dioxide: one of the most dangerous of all air pollutants. The major sources of these
pollutants are Factories and electric power plants that use sulfur-containing coal or oil as fuel. In
the air, some sulfur dioxide is converted to sulfuric acid, which is then deposited on the earth's
surface, usually by rain. This acid rain has caused damage to the environment in many parts of
the world. Sulphur dioxide is a stinging gas and as a result it can cause breathing problems with
humans.
iv) Nitrogen oxides: are mildly poisonous brown gases. These are produced in automobile
engines and other devices where combustion takes place. Gas ranges are a major source of
nitrogen oxides.
v) Hydrocarbon pollutant: produced by unburned fuel and are emitted mostly by motor
vehicles. This also contributes to smog.
vi) Particulate matter: tiny liquid or solid particles in the air. Particulate matter includes
smoke, dust, and soot, which may contain toxic substances like asbestos, fluorides, lead, and
mercury. Tobacco smoke is one of the major source of particulate matter.

vii) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) - are synthetic substances that have has a variety of
industrial uses. It is believed that CFC's can also contribute to a "greenhouse effect" resulting in a
warming of the earth. Some scientists also believe that CFC's are destroying ozone that absorbs
potentially harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
viii) Ozone - a form of oxygen, used to purify and deodorize the air and to sterilize the water.
Ozone is an aggressive gas. This can easily penetrate the respiratory tract, deeply. When humans
are exposed to ozone, the consequences may be irritation of the eyes and the respiratory tract.
ix) Smog - fog that has been mixed and polluted by smoke.
x) Ammonia (NH3): Ammonia forms during agricultural activities. Ammonia plays an important
role in acidification and eutrophication.
xi) VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds): VOC can be a range of different contaminants, such
as carbohydrates, organic compounds and solvents. These compounds usually derive from petrol
and gasoline reservoirs, industrial processes and fuel combustion, paint and cleanser use, or
agricultural activities. VOC play an important role in ozone shaping in the lower atmospheric
layer, the main cause of smog. VOC can cause various health effects, depending on the kind of
compounds that are present and their concentrations. Effects can vary from smell nuisance to
decreases in lung capacity, and even cancer.
xii) Methane (CH4): The main source of methane pollution is agriculture. But smaller amounts
of methane can also be released during waste combustion and natural gas extraction. Methane is
a greenhouse gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect and ozone loss.
xiii) Radioactive radiation: Radioactive radiation and radioactive particles are naturally
present in the environment. During power plant incidents or treatments of nuclear waste from a
war where nuclear weapons are used, radioactive radiation can enter the air on account of
humans. When humans are exposed to high levels of radioactive radiation, the chances of serious
health effects are very high. Radioactive radiation can cause DNA alteration and cancer.
xiv) Radon: is a naturally occurring radioactive gas formed in varying concentrations in the
ground. The waste products of radon enters building from the ground, in place where there is a
high concentration of radon, dangerous level of this gas may accumulate in building where there
is poor ventilation.
xv) Lead: Particles of lead or its compounds enter the air from vehicle exhaust and from
industries that smelt or process metal. Lead affects blood formation and nervous systems and
kidneys. Young children from one to five years old are particularly sensitive to lead exposure.

2.2.4: Classification of air-pollutants:
The air pollutants may be classified in different ways as follows
i) According to origin:
a) Primary pollutants which are directly emitted in to the atmosphere and are found
as such, e.g. CO, NO2, SO2, and hydrocarbons
b) Secondary pollutants which are derived from the primary pollutants due to
chemical or photochemical reaction in the atmosphere, e.g. Ozone, Peroxyl-acyl nitrate
(PAN), Photochemical Smog etc.
ii) According to chemical composition:
a) Organic pollutants: e.g. Hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, amines and alcohols
b) Inorganic pollutants:
Carbon compounds (e.g. CO and Carbonates)
Nitrogen compounds (e.g. NOx and NH3)
Sulphur compounds (e.g.H2S, SO2, SO3, and H2SO4)
Halogen compounds (e.g. HF, HCl, and metallic fluorides)
Oxidising agents (e.g. O3)
Inorganic particles (E.G. Fly-ash, silica, asbestos and dust from transport,
mining, metallurgical and other industrial activities).
iii) According to state of matter:

a) Gaseous pollutants which get mixed with air and do normally settle out e.g.
CO, NOx and SO2.
b) Particulate pollutants which comprise of finely divided solids or liquids and
often exist in colloidal state as aerosol, e.g. smoke, fumes, dust, mist, fog, smog and
sprays.
2.2.5 Effect of air pollution on human health:
The following effects of environmental pollution on humans have been reported:
x Reduced lung functioning

x Irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat
x Asthma attacks
x Respiratory symptoms such as coughing and wheezing
x Increased respiratory disease such as bronchitis
x Reduced energy levels

x Headaches and dizziness
x Disruption of endocrine, reproductive and immune systems
x Neurobehavioral disorders
x Cardiovascular problems
x Cancer
x Premature death
The table 2.1 gives you more detailed information about air pollutants, their sources and how their effects.
Pollutant Source Human Health Effects

x Internal combustion engines Long term exposure is linked to:
Particulate (eg, cars and trucks); x Lung Cancer;
matter x Industry (eg, factories); x Heart Disease;
x Burning wood; x Lung Disease;
x Cigarette smoke; and x Asthma Attacks; and
x Bushfires. x Other health problems.
x Motor Vehicles are the biggest Exposure to high levels of NO2
Nitrogen Dioxide contributors; may lead to:
(NO2) x Other combustion processes; x Lung damage; or
x Respiratory Disease.
It has also been linked to:
x Increased hospital
admissions for asthma and
respiratory problems;
x Increased mortality.
Ozone (O3) Formed by various complex Ozone effects the

chemical reactions involving the
exposure of the oxides of nitrogen
x lining of the lungs;
and some hydro-carbons.
x lining of the respiratory
tract; and
Ozone is the main ingredient of x causes eye irritation.
photochemical smog in summer and
Ozone also damages plants,
early autumn.
buildings and other materials.
Carbon Monoxide Motor vehicle exhaust and burning When inhaled Carbon Monoxide
(CO) of materials such as coal, oil and enters the bloodstream and
wood. It is also released from disrupts the supply of oxygen to
industrial processes and waste the body’s tissues.
incineration
A range of health effects may
result depending on the extent
of exposure.
Lead (Pb) Is largely derived from the Lead retards learning in children
combustion of lead additives in and the development of their
motor fuels as well as lead smelting. nervous system;
Lead pollution from vehicle Lead effects almost every organ

emissions is declining due to the in the body, whether it is inhaled

introduction of unleaded fuels and or ingested. Young children are
reductions in lead levels in leaded particularly susceptible;
fuel.
Other atmospheric sources of lead

include waste incineration and
renovation of old houses (from
leaded paint).
Hydro-carbons Most fuel combustion processes Exposure can cause headaches

(HC) - chemical result in the release of hydro or nausea, while some
compounds carbons to the environment. The compounds may cause cancer.
composed of largest fuel sources are natural gas Some may also damage plants.
Hydrogen and and petrol. Note that hydrocarbons
Carbon atoms can enter the environment both as
evaporative emissions from vehicle
fuel systems, or in exhaust
emissions. They are also a
component of the smoke from wood
fires.
Table: 2.1: Detailed information about air pollutants, their sources and their effects.
In the following table we can see which air pollutants are involved in various environmental
problems.
Atmospheric S O2 NO x NH3 VOC CO CH4
problems
Photochemical + + + +
smog
Winter smog +
Acidification + + + +
Eutrophication + +
Climate + + + +
change
2.3 Effect of air pollution on economy:

Increasing activity of agriculture, industrialization, fisheries, timber and mining has lead to:
i) Rapid and excessive constructions of factories and building.
ii) Increase in emissions of toxic and poisonous gases.
iii) Destruction of ecosystems.
And finally they lead to permanent and irreversible damage to the environment.
To control and limit the effects of pollution, greater finance and grants are needed for the
following purposes:
i) Medical facility for humans.
ii) Conservation of remaining ecosystem.

iii) Rehabilitation contaminated ecosystems.
iv) Clean up of toxic waste.
v) Restoration of historical landscapes.
vi) Revival of biodiversity to a new ecosystem.
vii) Preservation of endangered species.
viii) Maintaining air quality.
2.4 Photochemical air pollution:

Photochemical air pollution means formation of summer smog. Smog is a combination of the
words smoke and fog. We can distinguish two separate types of smog, summer smog and winter
smog.
In the 1950s a new type of smog, known as photochemical smog, was first described. This
forms when sunlight hits various pollutants in the air and forms a mix of chemicals that can be
very dangerous. A photochemical smog is the chemical reaction of sunlight, nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere, which leaves airborne
particles (called particulate matter) and ground-level ozone.
Ozone is formed according to the following chemical reactions:

NO2 + uv --> NO + O
O + O 2 - - > O3
The reverse reaction is:
NO + O 3 - - > NO 2 + O 2
Nitrogen oxides are released by nitrogen and oxygen in the air reacting together under high
temperature such as in the exhaust of fossil fuel-burning engines in cars, trucks, coal power
plants, and industrial manufacturing factories. VOCs are released from man-made sources such
as gasoline (petrol), paints, solvents, pesticides, and biogenic sources, such as pine and citrus
tree emissions.
This noxious mixture (smog) of air pollutants can include the following:
Nitrogen oxides, such as nitrogen dioxide, Troposphere ozone, Volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), Peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN), Aldehydes (R'O).
All of these chemicals are usually highly reactive and oxidizing. Photochemical smog is therefore
considered to be a problem of modern industrialization. It is present in all modern cities, but it is
more common in cities with sunny, warm, dry climates and a large number of motor vehicles.
Because it travels with the wind, it can affect sparsely populated areas as well.

2.4.1 Effects of smog:
Smog is a problem in a number of cities and harms human health. Ground-level ozone, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide are especially harmful for senior citizens, children,
and people with heart and lung conditions such as emphysema, bronchitis, and asthma. It can
inflame breathing passages, decreasing the lungs' working capacity, and causing shortness of
breath, pain when inhaling deeply, wheezing, and coughing. It can cause eye and nose irritation
and it dries out the protective membranes of the nose and throat and interferes with the body's
ability to fight infection, increasing susceptibility to illness. Hospital admissions and respiratory
deaths often increase during periods when ozone levels are high. Plants are extremely vulnerable
to ozone. Even in low concentrations it can cause serious damage.
2.5 Air Pollution from Major Industrial Operations:
Even though there are many different sources which contribute to air pollution, industries
contribute a major share. There are a number of industries which are responsible for air
pollution. Table 2.2 shows the specific pollutants found in the emissions of some typical industrial
operations.
Source Typical pollutant emission
Fertilizer industry and aluminium manu- Sox, NOx, CO, Particulate matter, smoke
facturing plants Hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, fluorides,
fertilizer dust and Sulphuric acid mist.
Acid plants Sox, NOx, CO, Particulate matter, smoke Acid

fumes
Cement industry Sox, NOx, CO, Particulate matter, smoke

Cement and lime dust.
Coal and tar industries Sox, NOx, CO, Particulate matter, smoke, fly-
ash, Polynuclear hydrocarbons and aerosols of
ta r
Paper industries Sox, NOx, CO, Particulate matter, smoke

Hydrogen sulphide, mercaptans, strong intense
colour, lignite sulphonate and black liquor
Refinery and petrochemical industries Sox, NOx, CO, Particulate matter, smoke
Hydrogen sulphide, hydrocarbons,
aldehydes, odours of mercaptans
Table 2.2: Specific pollutants found in the emissions of some typical industrial operations

2.6 Air pollution due to automobiles:
Automobiles emissions contribute for nearly 40% of the pollution in world. Presently conventional
vehicles use Petrol or diesel as fuel for I.C. engines fitted on them. Analysis of energy usage and
pollution shows that alternative power systems are still a long way behind the conventional ones.
Further developments in petrol and diesel engines, combined with improvement in the vehicles,
will make fuel consumption reduction of 40% or more in future cars. This will result in emission
reduction. A viable alternative to I.C. engines or alternative fuel is not likely to be available within
next decade. Therefore all efforts are made to develop better engines (specific fuel consumption
should be less) and methods to reduce pollution from I.C. engines.
Internal combustion engines generate undesirable emissions during the combustion process. In
this, both SI and CI engines are equally responsible for the same. The emissions exhausted into
the surrounding pollute the atmosphere and causes the problems like:
i) Global Warming ii) Acid rain iii) Smog iv) Odours v) Respiratory and health hazards.
The harmful emissions are: Unburnt hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of carbon (COx), oxides of
nitrogen (NOx), oxides of sulphur (SOx), and solid carbon particulates.
2.6.1 Automobile Emissions:
The major causes of these emissions are non-stoichiometric combustion, dissociation of nitrogen,
and impurities in the fuel and air. Fuel does not completely burn, some of it exits from tailpipe as
vapour. The reaction is:
2HC + 3O = H20 + CO2 (Complete combustion)
2HC + O = H20 + CO2 + HC + CO (Incomplete combustion)
Automobile emissions can be classified in to two categories:
i) Non- Exhaust Emissions: The main non-exhaust emission is the unburn hydrocarbons.
These sources are:
a) Crankcase Emissions: (HC)
b) Evaporative emissions: (HC) Direct evaporation of petrol from carburetor
particularly in hot weather.
c) Fuel tank emissions: (HC)
ii) Exhaust Emissions: The engine exhaust contains

a) Unburnt hydrocarbons, (HC)
b) Oxides of carbon, (CO and C02),
c) Oxides of nitrogen, (NO and N02)
d) Oxides of sulphur, (S02 and S03)

e) Particulates, Soot and smoke.
f) odour.
The first four exhaust emissions are common to both SI and CI engines and the last two are
mainly from CI engines. The percentage of different constituents coming out from the above
mentioned sources are as shown in fig 2.1.
FIG 2.1 Engine Emissions
The relative amounts depend on engine design and operating conditions but are of order, NOx -
500 to 1000 ppm (20 g/kg of fuel), CO -1 to 2% (200 g/kg of fuel) and HC -3000 ppm (25 g/kg
of fuel).
2.6.2 Exhaust emissions as a function of Equivalence ratio:
Figure 2.2 shows the variation of HC, CO and NOx emissions as a function of equivalence ratio
for an SI engine. It is clearly seen that all the three emissions are a strong function of
equivalence ratio.
As can be noticed from the Fig.2.2 that a rich mixture does not have enough oxygen to react
with all the carbon and hydrogen, and both HC and CO emissions increase. For Φ < 0.8, HC
emissions also increase due to poor combustion and misfire. The generation of nitrogen oxide
emissions is a function of the combustion temperature, highest near stoichiometric conditions
when temperatures are at the peak value. Maximum NOx emissions occur at slightly lean
conditions, where the combustion temperature is high and there is an excess of oxygen to react
with the nitrogen.

FIG 2.2 Variation of HC, CO and NOx for S.I Engines Fig 2.3 Variation of HC, CO and NOx for C.I Engines
Figure 2.3 shows a qualitative picture of HC, CO and NOx emissions with respect to equivalence
ratio, Φ for a four-stroke DI Diesel engine. As can be seen HC will decrease slightly with increase
in Φ due to higher cylinder temperatures making it easier to burn up any over-mixed (very lean)
or under-mixed (rich) fuel-air mixture. At high loads, however, HC may increase again if the
amount of fuel in regions too rich to burn during primary combustion process. CO emissions will
be very low at all equivalence ratios since excess air always available. NOx emission will steadily
increase as Φ increase due to increasing fraction of cylinder contents being burnt gasses close to
stoichiometric during combustion, and also due to higher peak temperatures and pressures.
2.7 Exhaust Emission and Factors Affecting the Emission:
In previous section we have seen various emissions from I.C. engines. It is evident that they are
strong functions of equivalence ratio for I.C. engines. If the combustion is complete, the exhaust
will contain only CO2 and H20 vapor. But when the rich mixture is supplied, there is no sufficient
02 for complete combustion and part of the carbon converts to CO. Where as, lean mixtures,
form NO as excess 02 is available to react with N2 particularly at high temperatures. The different
constituents which are exhausted from I.C. engine and different factors which will affect the
percentages of different constituents are discussed below:

2.8 Hydrocarbon (HC) Emissions:
2.8.1 Hydrocarbon (HC) Emission from S.I. engines:
The unburnt hydrocarbon emission is the direct result of incomplete combustion. The emission
amount of hydrocarbon is closely related to design variables as induction system and combustion
chamber design and operating variables as A : F ratio, speed, load and mode of operation as
idling, running or accelerating.
Induction system determines the optimum operating A : F ratio on the basis of evenness of fuel
distribution to the cylinders. The engine wear, lubrication, cooling and wall deposits are likely to
affect A : F ratio and indirectly emission of HC.
The design of combustion chamber is important as fuel air mixture when comes in contact with
the walls get quenched and do not burn this unburned quenched mixture is forced out of the
combustion chamber during the exhaust. Because of high local concentration of hydrocarbon
leads to exhaust unburned hydrocarbons.
The following factors affect HC emission:
i) Surface / Volume Ratio: A small displacement engine will have a higher surface to volume
ratio (S/V) which is responsible for forming HC. The factors like combustion chamber shape,
bore/stroke (d/L) ratio and compression ratio affect the S/V ratio and hence hydrocarbon
emissions. Lower compression ratio, lower d/L ratio, larger displacement per cylinder lowers S/V
ratio and hence reduces HC emission. The effect of S/V ratio on HC emission is shown in Fig. 2.4
ii) Wall Quenching: It is a combustion phenomenon which arises when a flame tries to
propagate in the vicinity of a wall. Normally, the effect of wall is to slow-down and stops the
reaction. Because of the cooling, there exists a cold zone next to the cooled combustion chamber
walls. This region is called the quench zone, and because of the low temperature, the A : F
mixture fails to ignite and remains unburned. The thickness of the quench layer is also influenced
by mixture temperature, pressure and equivalence ratio, wall surface material and combustion
deposits on the wall. The deposit on the wall may soak fuel vapor during suction and
compression and evaporated during expansion and exhaust.
iii) Incomplete Combustion: When the mixture supplied is rich or lean; the flame propagation
becomes weak which causes incomplete combustion and results in HC emission. The factors
which promote incomplete flame propagation and finally emit HC with exhaust are listed
b el o w :
x Poor condition of the ignition system.
x L o w c h a r g e t e m p e r at u r e .

x Non-uniform fuel in the mixture supplied to the engine.
x Too rich or too lean mixture
x Large exhaust residual gases left in the engine cylinder.
Fig 2.4
Fig 2 .5
Fig 2.6
Fig 2.7: fig showing various crevices

iv) Spark Plug Timing: It is observed that the HC emission is reduced by retarding the spark
plug timing during low speed (40 km/hr.) but has no effect when running at 40 km/hr.
The effect of spark time (in terms of crank-angle) on HC emission is shown in Fig 2.5 It can
be seen from the figure that the HC emission drops considerably when the spark was
r et a r d e d f r o m 4 0 ° t o 1 0 ° .
v) Effect of compression Ratio: The experiments have shown that the emission of HC in
exhaust is decreased with an increase in compression ratio as shown in Fig. 2.6 This is
because, higher compression ratio has a higher exhaust temperature which may promote
oxidation of hydrocarbons carried with the exhaust and reduces HC-emission.
vi) Crevice Volumes and flow in crevices: The volumes between the piston, piston rings,
and cylinder wall are shown schematically in Fig.2.7These crevices consist of a series of volumes
(numbered 1 to 5) connected by flow restrictions such as the ring side clearance and ring gap.
The geometry changes as each ring moves up and down in its ring groove, sealing either at the
top or bottom ring surface. The gas flow, pressure distribution, and ring motion are therefore
coupled. During the compression stroke and early part of the combustion process, air and fuel
are compressed into the crevice volume of the combustion chamber at high pressure.
As much as 3.5% of the fuel in the chamber can be forced into this crevice volume. Later in the
cycle during the expansion stroke, pressure in the cylinder is reduced below crevice volume
pressure, and reverse blow-by occurs. Fuel and air, flow back into the combustion chamber,
where most of the mixture is consumed in the flame. However, before the last element of
reverse blow-by occurs flame will be quenched and unreacted fuel particles come out in the
exhaust. Location of the spark plug relative to the top compression ring gap will affect the
amount of HC in engine exhaust. The farther the spark plug is from the ring gap, the greater is
the HC in the exhaust. This is because more fuel will be forced into the gap before the flame
front passes.
Crevice volume around the piston rings is greatest when the engine is cold, due to the
differences in thermal expansion of the various materials. Up to 80% of all HC emissions can
come from this source.
As pressure increases during compression and combustion, some amount of air-fuel mixture is
forced into the crevice volume around the edges of the exhaust valve and between the valve and
valve seat. A small amount even leaks past the valve into the exhaust manifold. When the
exhaust valve opens, the air-fuel mixture which is still in this crevice volume gets carried into the

exhaust manifold. This causes a momentary increase in HC concentration at the start of blow
down process.
Valve overlap is a must to obtain satisfactory performance from the engine. During valve overlap,
both the exhaust and intake valves are open, simultaneously creating a path where the fresh air-
fuel mixture can flow directly into the exhaust. A well-designed engine minimizes this flow, but a
small amount of fresh fuel-air mixture escape is inevitable. The worst condition for this is at idle
and low speed, when the overlap in terms of time (milliseconds) is the largest.
vii) Deposits on Walls: Gas particles, including those of fuel vapor, are absorbed by the
deposits on the walls of the combustion chamber. The amount of absorption is a function of gas
pressure. The maximum absorption occurs during compression and combustion. Later in the
cycle, when the exhaust valve opens and cylinder pressure gets reduced, absorption capacity of
the deposit material becomes lower. Gas particles are desorbed back into the cylinder. These
particles, including some HC, come out from the cylinder during the exhaust stroke. This problem
is greater in engines with higher compression ratios due to the higher pressure these engines
generate. More gas absorption occurs as pressure goes up. Clean combustion chamber walls with
minimum deposits will reduce HC emissions in the exhaust. Most gasoline blends include
additives to reduce deposit buildup in engines.
Older engines will typically have a greater amount of wall deposit buildup. This increases HC
emissions correspondingly. This is due to age and to less swirl that was generally found in earlier
engine design. High swirl helps to keep wall deposits to a minimum. When unleaded gasoline is
used HC emissions from wall deposits becomes more severe. When leaded gasoline is burned the
lead compounds make the walls harder and less porous to gas absorption.
viii) Oil on combustion chamber walls: A very thin layer of oil gets deposited on the cylinder
walls to provide lubrication between the walls and the moving piston. During the intake and
compression strokes, the incoming air and fuel comes in contact with this oil film. In the same
way as wall deposits, this oil film absorbs and desorbs gas particles, depending on gas pressure.
During compression and combustion, when cylinder pressure is high, gas particles, including fuel
vapor, are absorbed into the oil film. When pressure is later reduced during expansion and blow-
down, the absorption capability of the oil is reduced and fuel particles are desorbed back into the
cylinder. Some of this fuel ends up in the exhaust.
As an engine ages, the clearance between piston rings and cylinder walls becomes greater, and a
thicker film of oil is left on the walls. Some of this oil film is scraped off the walls during the
compression stroke and gets burned during combustion. Oil is a high molecular-weight
hydrocarbon compound that does not burn as readily as gasoline. Some of it comes out as HC

emissions. This happens at a very slow rate with a new engine but increases with engine age and
w e a r.
Figure 2.8 shows how HC emissions go up as oil consumption increases. Oil consumption
increases as the piston rings and cylinder walls wear. In older engines, oil being burned in the
combustion chamber is a major source of HC emissions. In addition to oil consumption going up
as piston rings wear, blow-by and reverse blow-by also increase. The increase in HC emissions is
therefore both from combustion of oil and from the added crevice volume flow.
Fig 2.8 HC exhaust emissions as a function of engine oil consumption.
Often as an engine ages, due to wear, clearance between the piston and cylinder walls increases.
This increases oil consumption tributes to an increase in HC emissions in three ways:
i) There is added crevice volume,
ii) There is added absorption-desorption of fuel in the thicker oil film on cylinder walls, and
iii) There is more oil burned in combustion process.
2.8.2 HYDROCARBON EMISSION FROM TWO-STROKE ENGINES
Older two-stroke SI engines and many modern small two-stroke SI engines add HC emissions to
the exhaust during the scavenging process. The intake air-fuel mixture is used to push exhaust
residual out of the open exhaust port which is called scavenging. When this is done, some of the
air and fuel mix with the exhaust gases and are expelled out of the cylinder before the exhaust
port closes. This can be major source of HC in the exhaust and is one of the major reasons why
there have been no modern two-stroke cycle automobile engines.
Some experimental automobile two-stroke cycle engines and just about all small engines use

crankcase compression, and this is a second source of hydrocarbon emissions. The crankcase
area and pistons of these engines are lubricated by adding oil to the fuel. The oil is vaporized
with the fuel and lubricates the surfaces which come in contact with the air-fuel-oil mixture.
Some of the oil vapor is carried into the combustion chamber and burned with the air-fuel
mixture. Lubricating oil is mostly hydrocarbon components and acts like additional fuel. However,
due to the high molecular weight of its components, oil does not fully burn as readily as fuel. This
adds to HC emissions in the exhaust.
Modern experimental two-stroke cycle automobile engines do not add fuel to the intake air, but
scavenge the cylinders with pure air. This to a great extent avoids putting HC into the exhaust.
After the exhaust port closes, fuel is added by injection directly into the cylinder. This creates a
need for very fast and efficient vaporization and mixing of the air and fuel, but it eliminates a
major source of HC emissions. Some automobile engines use superchargers instead of crankcase
compression, and this eliminates HC pollution from that source.
2.8.3 Hydrocarbon emissions from C.I. engines:
Because CI engines operate with an overall fuel-lean equivalence ratio, CI engines have only
about one-fifth the HC emissions of an SI engine. The components in diesel fuel have higher
molecular weights on average than those in a gasoline blend, and this result in higher boiling and
condensing temperatures. Therefore, soot formation is more in CI engines. Some HC particles
condense onto the surface of the solid carbon soot that is generated during combustion. Most of
this is burned as mixing continues and the combustion process proceeds. Only a small
percentage of the original carbon soot that is formed comes out of the cylinder. The HC
components condensed on the surface of the carbon particles, in addition to the solid carbon
particles themselves, contribute to the HC emissions of the engine.
In general, a CI engine has combustion efficiency of about 98%. This means that only about 2%
of the HC fuel being emitted. Because of the non-homogeneity of fuel-air mixture some local
spots in the combustion chamber will be too lean to combust properly. Other spots may be too
rich, with not enough oxygen to burn all the fuel. Local spots range from very rich to very lean,
and many flame fronts exist at the same time. With undermixing, some fuel particles in fuel-rich
zones never react due to lack of oxygen. In fuel-lean zones, combustion is limited and some fuel
does not get burned. With overmixing, some fuel particles will be mixed with already burned gas
and will therefore not combust totally.
It is important that injectors be constructed such that when injection stops there is no dribble.
However, a small amount of liquid fuel will be trapped on the tip of the nozzle. This very small

volume of fuel is called sac volume, its size depending on the nozzle design. This sac volume of
liquid fuel evaporates very slowly because it is surrounded by a fuel rich zone and, once the
injector nozzle closes, there is no pressure pushing it into the cylinder. Some of this fuel does not
evaporate until combustion has stopped, and this increases HC emissions.
CI engines also have HC emissions for some of the same reasons as SI engines do (i.e., wall
deposit absorption, oil film absorption, crevice volume, etc).
2.9 Carbon Monoxide (CO) emission:
Carbon monoxide is a colorless and odorless but a poisonous gas. It is generated in an engine
when it is operated with a fuel-rich equivalence ratio, as shown in Fig.15.1. When there is not
enough oxygen to convert all carbon to C02, some fuel does not get burned and some carbon
ends up as CO. Typically the exhaust of an SI engine will be about 0.2 to 5% carbon monoxide.
Not only is CO considered an undesirable emission, but it also represents lost chemical energy.
CO is a fuel that can be combusted to supply additional thermal energy:
CO + 1/2 O2 = CO2 + heat
Maximum CO is generated when an engine runs rich. Rich mixture is required during starting or
when accelerating under load. Even when the intake air-fuel mixture is stoichiometric or lean,
some CO will be generated in the engine. Poor mixing, local rich regions, and incomplete
combustion will also be the source for CO emissions.
A well-designed SI engine operating under ideal conditions can have an exhaust mole fraction of
CO as low as 0.001. CI engines that operate overall lean generally have very low CO emissions
[Fig.2.3].
Whatever may be the condition of running at any load or speed, and A : F ratio, it is not
possible to completely eliminate CO and 0.5% is considered a reasonable goal.
CO-emissions are high during idling and reach maximum during deceleration. They are
l o w e s t d u r i n g a c c e l e r a t i o n a n d a t s t e a d y s p e e d s . D e c el e r a t i o n f r o m h i g h s p e e d p r o d u c e s
highest CO because the throttle partly closes and reduces the 02 supply suddenly.
2.10 Oxides of Nitrogen emission:
2.10.1 S.I engines
Exhaust gases of an engine can have up to 2000 ppm of oxides of nitrogen. Oxides of N2
generally occur mainly in the form of NO and N02These are generally formed at high

temperature. Hence higher temperature and availability of free O2 are the main two reasons for
the formation of NO and N02. Many other nitrogen oxides, like N204, N20, N203, N205 are also
formed in low concentrations but they decompose spontaneously at ambient conditions to N02.
The maximum NOx levels are observed with A : F ratios of about 10% above stoichiometric. More
air than this reduces peak temperature and therefore NOx concentration falls even free O2 is
available.
The factors affecting formation of NOx are A:F ratio, RPM and angle of advance. The effect of A:
F ratio on NOx formation for two different speeds is shown in fig 2.9. and effect of angle advance
is shown in fig 2.10.
Fig: 2.9 Fig: 2.10
The effect of A: F ratio on NOx formation is already explained. The trend remains same with
increasing RPM except its % increases. Figure 2.10 shows that with decreasing angle of advance
decreases the formation of NOx appreciably. However, spark timing cannot be retarded very
much as this will adversely affect the fuel economy and drivability. It is also observed that NOx
increases with increasing manifold pressure, engine load and compression ratio. This
characteristic is different from HC and CO emission which are nearly independent of engine load
except for idling and deceleration.
2.10.2 C.I engines
Among the gaseous pollutants emitted by the diesel engine, NOx are the most significant. In this
respect, the diesel engine is not very much behind the gasoline engine. NOx being most
hazardous, the limit is set to 350 ppm in many countries. In many diesel engines, NOx varies
from a few hundreds to 1000 ppm.

The mechanism of formation of NOx is same as discussed in the petrol engine. The conditions
which create highest local-temperature (2000 K) and have sufficient O2 give highest NOx concen-
tration in diesel engine also.
The pre-combustion chamber diesel engines produce less NOx than a direct injection engines
because of low peak temperature. High fuel-air ratio (rich mixture), an additional fuel tends to
cool the charge and localized peak temperature falls and reduces the NOx emission.
In addition to above, injection pattern, injection period, Cetane number of the fuel, viscosity and
rate of burning also affect NOx formation significantly. The effect of load on Nox emission rates
for 4-stroke normally aspirated engine and 4-cyde turbo-charged engines are shown in Fig. 2.11.
The NOx emission for turbocharged engine is considerably high compared with normally
aspirated engine at all load conditions.
Fig 2.11
2.11 oxides of Sulphur (SO2 and SO3):
The increase in the levels of SO2, SO3, O3, NOx, has been observed in cities and smog formation
has taken place due to vehicle pollution.
2.12 C.I Engine emissions:
Other than above discussed, the pollutants especially seen in C.I. engines are Smoke and odour.
2.12.1 Smoke:
The smoke is divided into blue-white and black smokes.

i) Blue-White Smoke: The blue smoke is formed by burning the droplets of lubricating oil reaches
the combustion chamber because of worn piston rings and cylinder liners. It is generated
particularly during starting due to low surrounding temperature.
White smoke is the effect of unburned or partly burned fuel droplets. It is usually associated with
running of the engine at less than normal operating temperature after starting, long periods of
idling, running at light loads and water leakage into the combustion chamber. This smoke
disappears as the engine is warmed up and brought to normal operation.
ii) Black Smoke: It consists of unburned Carbon particles (0.5 to 1 µ diam.) and other solid
products of combustion and usually associated with operating loads and speeds. This smoke
appears after the engine is warmed-up and is accelerating or running at normal speed. This type
of smoke is more normal and needs the control to reduce the air-pollution.
The main cause of smoke formation is inadequate mixing of fuel and air. Smoke is formed when
the local temperature is high enough to decompose fuel and there is insufficient O2 to burn the
carbon formed. Over rich localized mixture generates carbon and it appears as smoke and carried
with exhaust if there is insufficient air or insufficient mixing of fuel & air or if the local
temperature drops below the carbon reaction temperature (1OOO°C).
The following factors affect the smoke formation:
i) Injection System: The fuel pattern formed by the injector in the combustion chamber can
affect smoke level. The excess penetration, higher droplet size, excessive injection duration, and
improper dispersion increase the smoke formation.
ii) Type of Fuel: The quality of fuel affects the white smoke produced. More volatile fuels give
less smoke than heavier fuels of same Cetane number. High volatility and high Cetane number,
both improve the cold smoking performance of the engine. A Cetane number of 45 gives
maximum acceptable white smoke. The Cetane number has no effect on the black smoke.
iii) Load: A rich mixture results in higher smoke because of non-availability of 02 for
combustion. Therefore, any overloading of the engine results in black smoke as the quantity off
fuel supplied is more for the same quantity of air. The smoke level rises from no load to full load.
iv) Engine Speed: The smoke level is considerably high at low as well as at high speeds, at low
speeds due to charge heating and at high speeds due to wire-drawing at inlet value. In addition
to this, the air motion in the combustion chamber tends to mismatch the fuel motion at the two
ends of the speed range resulting higher smoke level in exhaust.
The smoke level in turbo-charged engine is low compared with naturally aspirated engines
because of sufficient availability of O2 even at full load conditions.

v) Fuel-Air Ratio: Fig. 2.12 shows the effect of fuel air ratio on the sinking tendency for
naturally aspirated and turbo-charged engines. The smoke increases with increasing fuel air ratio.
This increase occurs even with 25% excess air in the cylinder. This clearly indicates that the
diesel engine suffers from mixing problem even in the presence of excess 02.
The turbo-charged engine emits less smoke within increasing fuel air ratio as the mixing is much
better in this engine as well as sufficient O2 is also available in the engine cylinder at all times.
Thus we can say that Smoke from vehicles is generally caused by unburnt or partly burnt fuel.
Burning engine oil can also cause a smoky exhaust.Black smoke is generally caused by
incompletely burnt diesel fuel.Blue, white and other coloured smoke is generally caused by
burning engine oil or unburnt fuel vapour. Easily seen, blue smoke is usually caused by a serious
engine fault.
Fig 2.12 Effect of fuel-air ratio on smoke

density
2.12.2 Possible causes of smoke
The following factors can contribute to causing smoke:

x how the car is serviced
x how the car is driven
x engine wear
x fuel quality
x engine design
x pollution control equipment
x The length of a journey.
2.12.3 Faults that can cause smoke
These are just some of the faults that can cause smoke. Not all of them apply equally to petrol
and diesel engines.
The following faults can cause smoke:

x an overfilled sump
x a blocked air cleaner
x faulty fuel enrichment systems used for cold starts
x faulty electronic or mechanical controls
x fuel quality (poor, contaminated or incorrect density/grade)
x a blocked or damaged fuel filter
x incorrectly set or damaged fuel injectors or fuel pump
x worn piston rings, pistons, cylinder bores, valve stems, seals or guides
x Incorrectly set or damaged turbochargers or superchargers.
2.12.4 Diesel Odour
It has been observed from the experiments that the products of partial oxidation are the main
cause of odour in diesel exhaust. This partial oxidation may be because of very lean mixture
during idling or due to wall quenching effect. The effect of fuel-air ratio and odour is shown in
Fig. 2.13.
The members of the aldehyde family are considered responsible for the pungent odours of diesel
exhaust. The aldehydes in the exhaust are found maximum 30 ppm but it is observed that even 1
ppm can cause irritation to the nose and eyes. There is no standard method yet developed for
measuring the odour. However, a number of odour producing components like nepthaldehyde,
n-butylbenzene, etc., are given standard rating and trained person can give odour rating for the
diesel exhaust sample by comparison.
Fig 2.13 Effect of fuel-air ratio on odour in diesel

exhaust.

The factors which affect the odour formation in the diesel engine are discussed below:
i) Fuel Air Ratio: lean mixtures produce odours.
ii) Mode of Engine operation: The mode of operation of the engine affects the exhaust odour
significantly. Maximum odour occurs when engine is accelerated from idling.
iii) Engine Type: The odour intensity does not change with the type of engine as two strokes or
four-stroke engine.
It is also claimed by few research workers that the intensity of odour is reduced by additive
compounds.
CI and SI engine exhaust may contain some additional impurities like sulphur oxides,
lead oxides, and phosphorous in small quantity but they can be controlled by properly
purifying fuel
The harmful effects of various emissions of vehicles are discussed in article 2.2.2 of
this chapter.
2.13 Comparison of Diesel and Petrol Emissions
The emissions of HC, CO, NOx, smoke and odour in the exhaust gases for petrol and diesel
engines are shown in Fig. 2.14.
Fig 2.14 Comparision of emissions and odour from

petrol and diesel engine.
Although, the exhaust emission is the result of incomplete combustion in both the engines, but
the type of fuel used, nature of combustion and design of combustion chamber in both cases are
totally different. All the petrol engines show the same pattern of emission irrespective of
combustion chamber design and fuel control system but there is wide variations in emission
pattern as they are very much affected by operating variables and design of combustion
chambers.
Therefore, diesel engines have different emission characteristics. This is because, combustion in

diesel engine occurs over a wide range of A : F ratio, ranging from very lean (35 : 1) to very rich
mixture (10 : 1). In addition to this, the diesel engines have large amount of excess air at all
loads as it is controlled by qualitative governing method.
2 .1 4 Automobile Emissions Control
Automobile emissions control covers all the technologies that are employed to reduce the air
pollution-causing emissions produced by automobiles. Exhaust emissions control systems
were first required on 1966 model year vehicles produced for sale in the state of California,
followed by the United States as a whole in model year 1968, although the overall reduction in
pollution has been much slower.
It is to be noted that combustion process in the four-stroke cycle occurs only for about 25 to 50
milliseconds depending upon the operating conditions. After the combustion process ends, the
exhaust gas constituents in the cylinder gas mixture that have been partially burned continue to
react during the expansion stroke, during exhaust blowdown, and into the exhaust process. Over
90 to 95% of the HC remaining after combustion reacts during this time either in the cylinder,
near the exhaust port, or in the upstream part of the exhaust manifold. CO and small component
hydrocarbons react with oxygen to form C02 and H20 and reduce undesirable emissions. The
higher the exhaust temperature, the more these secondary reactions occur and the lower the
engine emissions. Higher exhaust temperature can be caused by stoichiometric air-fuel
combustion, high engine speed, retarded spark, and/or a low expansion ratio. Hence, in order to
reduce emissions, some after-treatments are necessary with add on devices. The details are
discussed in the following sections.
2.14.1 Tailpipe emissions control:
Tailpipe emissions control strategies can be categorized into five parts:
i) Increasing engine efficiency: Engine efficiency has been gradually improved with progress
in following technologies:
a) Modification in engine design.
b) Electronic ignition
c) Fuel injection systems (MPFI, DI, etc.)
d) Electronic control unit
ii) Cleaning up the emissions: Advances in engine and vehicle technology continually reduce
the amount of pollutants generated, but this is generally considered insufficient to meet

emissions goals. Therefore, technologies to react with and clean up the remaining emissions have
long been an essential part of emissions control. These technologies include,
a) Air injection
b) Exhaust Gas Recirculation
c) Catalytic converters
iii) Modifying the fuel used:
iv) Increasing vehicle efficiency: Contributions to reducing fuel consumption and related
emissions come from
a) Lightweight vehicle design
b) Minimized air resistance
c) Reduced rolling resistance
d) Improved powertrain efficiency
e) Increasing spark to the spark plug (
f) Regenerative braking
v) Increasing driving efficiency: Significant reduction of emissions comes from:

a) driving technique (some 10-30% reduction)
b) unobstructed traffic conditions
c) cruising at an optimum speed for the vehicle
d) reducing the number of cold starts
2.14.2 Evaporative emissions control:
Efforts at the reduction of evaporative emissions include the capturing of vented vapours from
within the vehicle, and the reduction of refueling emissions.
2.15 S.I Engine technologies for pollution reduction:

In petrol engines, the main pollutants which are objectionable and are to be reduced are HC, CO
and NOx. The methods used for pollution reduction are:
i) Modifications in the Engine design.
ii) Exhaust Gas treatment Devices
iii) Modifying the Fuel used
iv) Evaporative emissive control devices

2.15.1 Modifications in the Engine Design
Engine modifications improve the emission quality. A few parameters which improve an emission
are listed below:
i) Combustion Chamber Configuration: Modification in the combustion chamber as reducing

surface/volume ratio can reduce quenching zone and can reduce HC emission. This includes
reducing surface to volume ratio, reduced squish area, reducing dead space around piston ring
and reduced distance of top piston ring from the top of the piston.
ii) use of leaner air-fuel ratios: The carburetor may be modified to provide relatively lean and
stable air-fuel mixtures during idling and cruise operation. With this modification idle speed needs
to be increased to prevent stalling and rough idle associated with leaner fuel-air ratios. Fuel
distribution is improved by better manifold design, inlet air heating, raising of coolant
temperature and use of electronic fuel injection system.
iii) Retarding ignition timing: Retarding ignition timing allows increased time for fuel to burn.
The controls are designed to retard the spark timing at idle while providing normal spark advance
during acceleration and cruising. Retarding the spark reduces NOx emission by decreasing the
maximum temperature. It also reduces HC emission by causing higher exhaust temperature,
however retarding the ignition timing results in greater cooling requirement and there is some
loss in power and fuel economy.
iv) Lower Compression Ratio: Lower compression ratio also reduces the quenching area and
thus reduces HC emission. Lower compression ratio also reduces NOx emission due to lower
maximum temperature. But lowering compression ratio reduces thermal efficiency and increases
fuel consumption. But using petrol of lower Octane number, it is possible to phase the lead out of
petrol, i.e., use of unleaded petrol.
v) Induction System: The supply of designed A : F ratio mixture to multi-cylinder engine is

always difficult under all operating conditions of load and power. This can be achieved by proper
design of induction system or using high velocity or multi-choke carburettors.
vi) Ignition Timing: Retarding spark ignition allows increased time for the fuel to burn.
Retarding the spark reduces NOx formation by decreasing NOx emission. It also reduces HC
emission by causing higher exhaust temperature. However, retarding the ignition results in loss
of power and consumption of fuel. The controls are designed to retard the spark timing during
idling and providing normal spark advance during acceleration.

vii) Reduced Value Overlap: Increased overlap carries fresh mixture with the exhaust and
increases emission level. This can be avoided by reducing the value overlap.
A new variable value timing (VVT) system allows for controlled scheduling of value timing events.
Many vehicle manufacturers are developing this system. An incorporation of VVT -system
improves engine performance and it will also help the engine to meet harsher emission
requirements imposed by the Government. It is also claimed that VVT system will work best with
petrol injection. VVT system is also applicable to petrol as well as to diesel engines.
viii) Meeting emission requirements by variable valve timing and air-fuel mixture
control combined: Two parameters which can be metered accurately in order to help optimize
fuel economy are the fuel and air flow rates. Electronic fuel injection systems and advanced
carburetion systems have been developed with the capability for precise control and
programming of air/fuel mixtures to meet the engine's performance requirements while achieving
good fuel efficiency and satisfactory emission characteristics. However, meeting the more
stringent emissions specifications will require more improvements than can be provided by the
air/fuel mixture controls. Combining the improvements available from cam-lobe phasing with
those already achieved from management of the fuel/air system will increase the capability of
engines to meet the more stringent requirements. This is particularly true at the extreme ends of
the engine's operating range, very high speed and idling/low speed operation. An added benefit
of cam-lobe phasing is the capability of making engines run smoother
ix) Variable Valve Timing & Lift (VVT&L): Also called variable valve actuation (VVT),
variable-cam timing and variable valve timing and lift electronic control (VTEC).
Valves control the flow of air and fuel, into the cylinders and exhaust out of them. When and how
long the valves open (timing) and how much the valves move (lift) both affect engine efficiency.
Optimum timing and lift settings are different for high and low engine speeds. Traditional
designs, however, use fixed timing and lift settings, which are a compromise between the
optimum for high and low speeds. VVT&L systems automatically alter timing and lift to the
optimum settings for the engine speed.
x) Cylinder Deactivation: Also called multiple displacement, displacement on demand (DOD),

and variable cylinder management: This technology merely deactives some of the engine's
cylinders when they are not needed. This temporarily turns an 8- or 6-cylinder engine into a 4- or
3-cylinder engine. This technology is not used on 4-cylinder engines since it would cause a
noticeable decrease in engine smoothness.
.
xi) Electric assisted Choke: To help reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions

during starting and warm-up, all Chrysler-built engines are equipped with an electric assist choke.
When the driver turns on the ignition, electric current from the battery is directed to the choke
control unit, then to the electric-assist heating coil in the automatic choke well, shortening the
period of choke operation and thereby reducing the emissions.
The system operates when outdoor temperatures are above 17°C. Heating uses 3 amps. A time
delay in the control switch regulates the duration of heating. Heat applied to the automatic choke
bimetallic spring by the heater element causes the choke to open in a shorter time. The heater
element is completely covered with monoconductive insulating material. The engine computer
constantly monitors the content of the exhaust as it leaves the engine, using a 02 sensor in the
exhaust pipe ahead of the catalyst, and alters the amount of fuel being injected into the
cylinders.
Design Parameter HC CO NOx

Surface/ volume ratio Increase - -
Combustion chamber Area Increase - -
(L/d) Ratio - - -
Displacement/cylinder Decrease - -
Compression Ratio Increase - -
Operating HC CO NOx
p
A:aFra
ram
tio eter Increase Increase Decrease
Load - - Increase
Speed Decrease - Decrease
Valve overlap Decrease - Decrease
Spark Retard Decrease - Decrease
Exhaust back pressure Decrease - Decrease
Intake manifold pressure - - Increase
Combustion chamber deposits Increase - Increase
Air Injection Decrease Decrease - or Increase
Fuel Injection Decrease Decrease Increase
Coolant Temperature - or Decrease . - or Decrease Increase

Table 2.3: Effect of design and operating parameters on emission concentrations
Exhaust Constituent
S. Engine
No Variable NOx
CO HC
1. Air fuel ratio > 15: 1 > 15: 1 < 13 : 1 or > 17 : 1
2. Ignition timing --- Retard Retard

3. Manifold depression --- < 3 8 0 mm H g High
4. Air inlet temperature ---- High 70 to 190°C
5. Coolant temperature --- High Low
6. Compression ratio preferably low Low Low
7. . Surface/volume ratio High Low Assumed high
8. Exhaust temperature --- High High
9. Combustion chamber Avoid Avoid Avoid
deposit
10. Valve overlap ---- Minimum ---

11. Mode of operation in which Not significant Deceleration Large loads
exhaust emissions are And idling at low speeds
highest
Table 2.4: Engine design characteristics for low emission
2.15.2 Exhaust Gas Treatment
The exhaust gas coming out of exhaust manifold are treated to reduce HC and CO emission, A
few devices are discussed below. The first two methods are called as Thermal Converters
i) Use of After Burner:
After burner is nothing but a burner where air is supplied to the exhaust gases and the mixture is
burned with the help of ignition system. The HC and CO which are formed in the engine
combustion chamber because of inadequate O2 and inadequate time to burn are further burned
by providing air in a separate box, known as after burner. The after-burner is located very near
to the exhaust manifold with an intention that the temperature of exhaust should not fall. The
oxidation of HC in the after burner depends upon the temperature of exhaust and mixing
provided in the after burner. Air injection does nothing to the NOx emission.
A simple arrangement of an after burner is shown in Fig. 2.15. The performance of this system
was not satisfactory as combustion was not sustained during low HC emission.

Fig 2.15: After Burner Fig 2.16: Exhaust Manifold reactor
ii) Exhaust Manifold Reactor:
This is a further development of after-burner where high temperature exhaust gases and
secondary air are mixed properly and burn. Where HC carried with exhaust combines with 02 and
forms non-objectionable gases.
There are different types of after burners where heat losses are minimized and sufficient time
and mixing of exhaust and secondary air are provided. A special after-burner designed by
Du-Point, where the entry of exhaust gases is radial and air flow is peripheral is shown in Fig.
2.16.
iii) Catalytic converters: The catalytic converter is a device, placed in the exhaust pipe, which
converts various emissions into less harmful ones using, generally, a combination of platinum,
palladium and rhodium as catalysts. They make for a significant, and easily applied, method for
reducing tailpipe emissions. Catalytic converters are damaged when used on engines that burn
leaded fuels. Two types of catalytic convertors are:
a) Two-way catalytic converters: A two-way catalytic converter has two simultaneous

tasks:
x Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
x Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially-burnt fuel) to carbon dioxide
and water: 2CxHy + (2x+y/2)O2 → 2xCO2 + yH2O
This type of catalytic converter is widely used on diesel engines to reduce hydrocarbon and
carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on spark ignition (gasoline) engine
automobiles up until 1981in USA, when they were replaced by three-way converters due to

regulatory changes requiring reductions on NOx emissions. Reduction of the NOx emissions
requires an additional step. Platinum catalysis can be used.
b) Three-way catalytic converters: A three-way catalytic converter has three

simultaneous tasks:
x Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen: 2NOx → xO2 + N2
x Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
x Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water:
2CxHy + (2x+y/2)O2 → 2xCO2 + yH2O
These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives exhaust from
an engine running slightly above the stoichiometric point. This is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air
to 1 part fuel, by weight, for gasoline (the ratio for LPG, natural gas and ethanol fuels is slightly
different, requiring modified fuel system settings when using those fuels). When there is more
oxygen than required, then the system is said to be running lean, and the system is in oxidizing
condition. In that case, the converter's two oxidizing reactions (oxidation of CO and
hydrocarbons) are favoured, at the expense of the reducing reaction. When there is excessive
fuel, then the engine is running rich. The reduction of NOx is favoured, at the expense of CO and
HC oxidation. If an engine could be operated with infinitesimally small oscillations about the
stoichiometric point for the fuel used, it is theoretically possible to reach 100% conversion
efficiencies.
iii) Construction of Catalytic convertors: The catalytic converter consists of several

components:
a) The core, or substrate: In modern catalytic converters, this is most often a

ceramic honeycomb, however stainless steel foil honeycombs are also used. The purpose of
the core is to "support the catalyst" and therefore it is often called a "catalyst support".

Fig 2.17: Catalytic converters.
b) The washcoat: In an effort to make converters more efficient, a washcoat is utilized,

most often a mixture of silica and alumina. The washcoat, when added to the core, forms a
rough, irregular surface which has a far greater surface area than the flat core surfaces, which
then gives the converter core a larger surface area, and therefore more places for active precious
metal sites. The catalyst is added to the washcoat (in suspension) before application to the core.
c) The catalyst: It is most often a precious metal. Platinum is the most active catalyst
and is widely used. However, it is not suitable for all applications because of unwanted additional
reactions and/or cost. Palladium and rhodium are two other precious metals that are used.
Platinum and rhodium are used as a reduction catalyst, while platinum and palladium are used as

an oxidization catalyst. Cerium, iron, manganese and nickel are also used, though each has
its own limitations. Nickel is not legal for use in the European Union (due to reaction with carbon
monoxide). While copper can be used, its use is illegal in North America due to the formation of
dioxin.
iv) Air injection: A very early emissions control system, the Air injection reactor (AIR)
reduces the products of incomplete combustion (hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide) by
injecting fresh air into the exhaust manifolds of the engine. In the presence of this oxygen-
laden air, further combustion occurs in the manifold and exhaust pipe. Generally the air is
delivered through an engine-driven 'smog pump' and air tubing to the manifolds.
v) Exhaust Gas Recirculation: Many engines produced after the 1973 model year have an
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valve between the exhaust and intake manifolds; its sole
purpose is to reduce NOx emissions by introducing a metered, and quite small amount of inert
gas into the air/fuel mixture, lowering peak combustion temperatures. In the case of EGR, the
exhaust gasses are inert enough to serve this purpose.
Fig 2.18: Exhaust gas recirculation system.
As shown in fig 2.18. the exhaust gas is taken through an orifice and passed through control
valve for the regulation of quantity of recirculation.
vi) Exhaust Gas ignition System (EGI) with catalyst convertor:A new approach to
minimize cold starting emission is exhaust-gas-ignition system which was first developed by
Ford-Motors and Combustion Ltd. in 1991 is shown in Fig. 2.19.

It is a simple method of firing-up a catalytic converter to make it active in a fraction. of time
normally taken. EGI method involves heating the catalyst by igniting a measured mixture of fuel
and air in the exhaust system in an after-burner just ahead of the catalyst converter. Fuel to the
after burner is delivered using exhaust gases from the engine which is calibrated to run rich;
while air to the after burner is supplied from a separate air-pump as shown in figure. The catalyst
is heated to 350oC - the level at which it becomes active.
Fig 2.19: Exhaust Gas ignition System (EGI)
2.16 Evaporation Loss Control Device (ELCD):
This device aims at controlling all evaporative emissions by capturing the vapours and
recirculating them at the appropriate time. The device, as shown in Fig.2.20, consists of an
canister (absorbent chamber), the pressure balance valve and the purge control valve.
The adsorbent chamber, which consists of a charcoal bed or foamed polyurethane, holds the
hydrocarbon vapour before they can escape to atmosphere. The carburettor bowl and the fuel
tank, main sources of HC emissions, are directly connected to the adsorbent chamber when
engine is turned off, i.e. under hot soak. Hot soak is the condition when a warmed up car is
stopped and its engine turned off. This results in some boiling in the carburettor bowl and
significant amount of HC loss occurs. Thus the hot soak loss and also the running loss from the
carburettor as well as the tank are arrested in the chamber and the absorbed there.
Also diurnal cycle loss from the tank is taken care of. Diurnal cycle is the daily cyclic variation in

the temperature which causes tank 'breathing' or forcing the gasoline out of tank.
Fig 2.20: Hot soak condition Fig 2.21: Purging condition
Fig 2.22: Layout of vapour recovery system
The adsorbent bed when saturated is relieved of the vapours by a stripping action allowing the
air from the air cleaner to draw them to the intake manifold through the purge valve. The
internal seat of the pressure valve at that time is so located that there is a direct pressure
communication between the internal vent and the top of the carburettor bowl, maintaining
designed carburettor metering forces. The simple line diagram of system is shown in fig 2.22.
2.16.1 Working: The canister adsorbs the fuel vapours and stores them. Adsorption
refers to the process of trapping of the gasoline vapours by the activated charcoal particles filled
inside the canister. Vapour laden air from both the fuel tank and the carburettor passes through
the canister. Hydrocarbons (HC) are left in the canister due to the process of adsorption, and air

leaves from the canister into the atmosphere. When an engine is started, the inlet manifold sucks
fresh air through the canister.
The fresh air purges the gasoline vapours from the canister. 'Purging' is the process by which the
gasoline vapours are removed from the charcoal particles inside the canister. The air carries the
hydrocarbons (HC) through the purge control solenoid valve to the engine induction system.
The operation of the purge control valve is taken care of by the exhaust back pressure. Under
idling conditions the fuel supply is cut off so that the level of HC can be reduced.
The ELCD completely controls all types of evaporative losses. However, the tolerance of the
carburettor for supplying fuel-air ratio reduces to about 3 per cent only. This requires very
accurate metering control.
In modern automobiles the purge control solenoid valve is controlled by the Electronic Control
Module (ECM) of the Computer Command Control (CCC) system.
2.16.2 Charcoal canister
A charcoal canister used for trapping gasoline vapours is shown in Fig.2.23. This type of charcoal
canister is used in the evaporative emission control system of a petrol engine. Fuel vapours from
the float· chamber of the carburettor enter into the canister though the left end passage. Fuel
vapours from the fuel tank enter through the mid passage into the canister.
Fig 2.23: Charcoal canister
The flow of these vapours is shown by the arrows pointing downwards. When the engine is not
running, the fuel vapours flow in this manner. The fuel vapours are absorbed by the charcoal
particles present in the canister. When the engine runs, air reaches the charcoal, canister due to
the suction provided by the engine. This air carries away the hydrocarbons (HC) in the fuel
vapours to the engine manifold. This purging action is shown at the right end of the charcoal
canister by the arrows pointing upwards. As charcoal is a form of carbon, the charcoal canister is

also called the carbon canister.
2.17 Crankcase blowby:
The blowby is the phenomenon of leakage past the piston and piston rings from the cylinder to
the crankcase. The blowby HC emission are about 20 per cent of the total HC emission from the
engine. This is increased to about 35 per cent if the rings are worn.
The blowby rate is greatly affected by the top land clearance and the position of the top ring
because some of quenched gas is recycled in the combustion chamber and the ability of this to
burn will depend on nearness to spark plug and the flame speed etc. and it will burn only when
favourable conditions are there, otherwise it will go in the form of HC.
2.17.1 Blowby Control:
The basic principle of all types or crankcase blowby control is recirculation of the vapours back to
the intake air cleaner. There are a large number of different systems in use. Figure 2.24 shows
typical closed or positive crankcase ventilation systems. In the PCV system the draft tube as
shown in Fig.2.25 is eliminated and the blowby gases are rerouted back into the intake manifold
or inlet of the carburettor. The blowby gases are consequently reintroduced into the combustion
chamber where they are burned along with fresh incoming air and fuel. Since the blowby
handling devices place the crankcase under a slight vacuum, they quickly became known as
positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) systems.
2.17.2 Intake Manifold return PCV System (open type):
Figure 2.24 (a) shows the intake manifold return PCV or open type system. It has a tube
leading from crankcase or else the rocker arm cover through a flow control valve and into the
intake manifold, usually, through an opening just below the carburettor. To provide proper
ventilation of the interior of the engine, fresh air is usually drawn in through a rocker arm cover
opposite that containing the PCV system. The closed PCV system Fig.2.24 (b) has a tube con-
nected between the oil fill tube cap and the air cleaner, both open and closed systems function in
the same manner as long as the PCV valve remains unplugged. If the PCV valve plugs, using an
open system, the blowby gases exhaust out of the oil fill tube cap and into the atmosphere. With
PCV valve plugged it is no longer possible for fresh air crankcase ventilation to occur.

FIG 2.24: Positive Crankcase Ventilation
Fig 2.25: Blowby path without crankcase ventilation
In closed PCV system if the PCV valve is plugged the blowby is rerouted through the tube to the
air cleaner and subsequently into the air horn of the carburettor. As can be seen from
Fig.2.24(b) there is no possible escape of blowby into the atmosphere, even with 100 per cent
PCV valve plugging. Again, with the PCV valve plugged, fresh air ventilation cannot take place.
The closed system, however, requires the engine to digest all blowby developed regardless of the

mechanical condition of the PCV system.
The PCV valve, located between the crankcase and the intake manifold, controls the flow rate of
blowby gas and fresh air mixture going into the intake manifold below the carburettor [Fig.2.24
(b)]. If there is no crankcase ventilation, the blowby will be passed on to the atmosphere as per
the path shown in Fig.2.25.
Figure 2.26 shows the two positions of the PCV valve. The design of the valve is such that at
high speed and power, i.e. at low manifold vacuum the valve opens and allows a free flow of
blowby gases to the intake system. This is consistent with the high quantity of blowby gas which
has to be transferred to carburettor at high speed. The valve restricts the flow at high manifold
vacuum as the corresponding blowby gas is in small quantity. The air drawn for the ventilation of
blowby gas has a very small tolerance. A small amount of air will not effect any circulation and
too much air will lift the lubricating oil. Also the carburettor has to be modified and adjusted to
account for the charge coming from the crankcase in order to meter exact fuel-air ratio into the
combustion chamber. The carburettor deposits and deposits on the blowby gas metering valve
will significantly affect the performance of the carburettor. So high grade motor oil has to be
used. In the closed ventilation system a provision is made for the blowby gases to escape to
atmosphere in case of the metering valve failure.
Fig2.26: Two Position PCV valve

TurboCharger:
A turbocharger, or turbo (colloquialism), is a centrifugal compressor powered by a turbine

which is driven by an engine's exhaust gases. Its benefit lies with the compressor increasing the
pressure of air entering the engine (forced induction) thus resulting in greater performance
(for either, or both, power and efficiency). They are popularly used with internal combustion
engines (e.g. four-stroke engines like Otto cycles and Diesel cycles). Turbochargers have
also been found useful compounding external combustion engines such as automotive fuel
cells.
The objective of a turbocharger, just as that of a supercharger, is to improve an engine's

volumetric efficiency by increasing the intake density. The compressor draws in ambient air
and compresses it before it enters into the intake manifold at increased pressure. This results
in a greater mass of air entering the cylinders on each intake stroke. The power needed to spin
the centrifugal compressor is derived from the high pressure and temperature of the engine's
exhaust gases. The turbine converts the engine exhaust's potential pressure energy and kinetic
velocity energy into rotational power, which is in turn used to drive the compressor.
A turbocharger may also be used to increase fuel efficiency without any attempt to increase
power. It does this by recovering waste energy in the exhaust and feeding it back into the engine
intake. By using this otherwise wasted energy to increase the mass of air it becomes easier to
ensure that all fuel is burned before being vented at the start of the exhaust stage. The
increased temperature from the higher pressure gives a higher Carnot efficiency.

2.18 Control of Emission from Diesel Engine
The main pollutants from diesel engine as mentioned earlier are HC, CO, NOx, smoke, odour and
C02. The methods of reducing HC, CO and NOx from petrol engine are already discussed in
details and same methods are also used for reducing the pollutants from diesel engine.
Therefore, the methods used to reduce the smoke and odour which are additional pollutants
from diesel engine are discussed here.
2.18.1 Smoke and Control of Smoke:
Formation of smoke is basically a process of conversion of molecules of hydrocarbon fuels into

particles of soot. It should be noted that soot is not carbon but simply an agglomeration of very
large polybenzenoid free radicals. It is also observed that soot formation during the early part of
the actual combustion process is common to all diesel engines but it is consumed during later
part of combustion.
Pyrolysis of fuel molecules themselves is thought to be responsible for soot formation. Fuel
heated with insufficient O2 will give carbonaceous deposits. It is believed that the ''heavy ends" of
diesel fuel may pyrolyze to yield the type of smoke that is observed from the diesel engine. This
is believed to be the path of formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzo-pyrene) found
in soot.
Many theories have been put forward for the formation of smoke but the basic reactions leading
to the formation of smoke are not fully known.
There is hardly any successful method to control the formation of soot except the engine has to
run at lower load and maintain the engine at best possible condition.
Some methods suggested for the control of smoke are listed below.
i) Smoke Suppressing Additives: It has been found that some berium compounds added in
fuel reduce the temperature of combustion and avoids the soot formation. It is further observed
that if the soot is found, the berium compounds break them in very fine particles and reduces the
smoke. But berium salts added in fuel form the deposit on engine parts and reduces the filtering
capacity of the filter.
ii) Fumigation: Fumigation is a method of injecting a small amount of fuel in the intake
manifold. This helps for pre-combustion reactions during compression stroke and reduces the
chemical delay because the intermediate products like peroxides and aldehydes react more
rapidly with O2 than hydrocarbons. Reducing the chemical delay curbs thermal cracking which is
responsible for soot formation.

The cracking even may not happen which is mainly responsible for soot formation when
fumigation is used because it requires about 350 kJ/mole to break C-C bond and 425 kJ/mole to
break C-H bond and this much energy may not be available due to easy oxidation during
precombustion reaction.
iii) Catalytic Convertors: The catalytic converters are not effective like in petrol engine
because of large soot formation which interferes in the oxidation of HC, CO and NOx. Therefore
these catalysts have very small effect on engine smoke. Lot of research work is going on
presently to use catalysts for the effective removing of soot as well as for removing other
emissions.
2.18.2 Odour Control:
It is claimed by many manufacturers that odour additive compounds can reduce the odour
intensity. But it is observed that by using additives, there is hardly any effect on odour formation
and carried by exhaust gases.
The control of odour by using catalyst is under development and it is found by experiment that a
few oxidation catalysts reduce odour intensity.
Unfortunately, study of exhaust odour is hampered by lack of standard tests and lack of standard
units to measure the intensity of odour and type of odour.
Lot of work on suppressing the odour by different methods is carried out in different countries.
2.18.3 Cleaning up Diesel Emissions with Plasma and a Converter:
While the diesel engines are more economical, they produce NOx during combustion and puts
engine designers in a catch-22 situation.
The major problem faced to reduce NOx by Catalytic converter which has proved successful in
conventional engines, cannot be applied to lean burn S.I. engines or diesel engines because
these engines burn their fuel with high excess air (A : F = 30 : 1) and O2 in the exhaust prevents
the catalytic decomposition of NOx.
An efficient exhaust gas purification process for diesel engine (SINOx) has developed by Siemens
and Partners. This system comprises a catalytic converter, a control system and dosing device for
urea. The urea undergoes hydrolysis into CO2 and NH3, which acts as a reducing agent,
transforming the NOx into environmentally compatible N2 and water. However, in order to
chemically reduce NOx effectively in catalytic converter, a minimum temperature of 200°C is

essential - a condition that is usually met in trucks. In passenger cars, on other hand, the low
efficiency of the process at temperatures below 200°C causes problems typical of urban driving
and cold start phase.
2.18.4 Plasma-Induced Exhaust Gas Purification
The basic idea behind plasma purification process; the exhaust emissions are fed into a reactor in
which a non-thermal plasma generates radicals through collisions of molecules with high-energy
electrons. Doing so, it initiates chemical reactions that preferentially attack pollutants. In order to
remove unburned hydrocarbons, either O2 or hydroxide radicals are used to initiate the oxidation
process, which results in CO2 and water. However, for the reduction of NOx to N2 and water,
nitrogen radicals are necessary.
2.18.5 Particulate Traps
Compression ignition engine systems are equipped with particulate traps in their exhaust flow to
reduce the amount of particulates released to the atmosphere. Traps are filter-like systems often
made of ceramic in the form of a monolith or mat, or else made of metal wire mesh. Traps
typically remove 60-90% of particulates in the exhaust flow. As traps catch the soot particles,
they slowly fill up with the particulates. This restricts exhaust gas flow and raises the back
pressure of the engine. Higher back pressure causes the engine to run hotter, the exhaust
temperature to rise, and fuel consumption to increase. To reduce this flow restriction, particulate
traps are regenerated when they begin to saturate. Regeneration consists of combusting the
particulates in the excess oxygen contained in the exhaust of the lean-operating CI engine.
Carbon soot ignites at about 550-650 °C, while CI engine exhaust is 150-350 °C at normal
operating conditions. As the particulate trap fills with soot and restricts flow, the exhaust
temperature rises but is still not high enough to ignite the soot and regenerate the trap. In some
systems, automatic flame igniters are used which start combustion in the carbon when the
pressure drop across the trap reaches a predetermined value. These igniters can be electric
heaters or flame nozzles that use diesel fuel. If catalyst material is installed in the traps, the
temperature needed to ignite the carbon soot is reduced to the 350-450 °C range. Some such
traps can automatically regenerate by self-igniting when the exhaust temperature rises from
increased back pressure. Other catalyst systems use flame igniters.

2.19 Modern Diesel Engines technologies:
Carbon soot particulate generation has been greatly reduced in modern CI engines by advanced
design technology in fuel injectors and combustion chamber geometry. With greatly increased
mixing efficiency and speeds, large regions of fuel-rich mixtures can be avoided when
combustion starts. These are the regions where carbon soot is generated, and by reducing their
volume, far less soot is generated. Increased mixing speeds are obtained by a combination of
indirect injection, better combustion chamber geometry, better injector design and higher
pressures, heated spray targets, and air-assisted injectors. Indirect injection into a secondary
chamber that promotes high turbulence and swirl greatly speeds the air-fuel mixing process.
Better nozzle design and higher injection pressures create finer fuel droplets which evaporate and
mix quicker. Injection against a hot surface speeds evaporation, as do air-assisted injectors.
Some modern, top-of-the-line CI automobile engines have reduced particulate generation enough
that they meet stringent standards without the need for particulate traps.
2.20 Air quality and emission standards of India and Europe:
2.20.1: What are the emission norms?
Emission norms are the limits prescribed under Rule 115 of the Central Motor Vehicle Rules 1989
for various types of emissions coming out of the vehicles, with a view to controlling environment
pollution.
Emission norms are prescribed maximum, CO (Carbon Monoxide), HC (Hydrocarbons) NOX

(Nitrous oxide) and PM (Particulate matter), levels set by the government which a vehicle would
emit when running on roads. All the manufacturers need to implement the same for vehicles
being manufactured from the date of implementation.
The emission norms have been tightened from time to time to address the environment concerns
and health hazards arising from vehicular pollution.
Implementation of various stages of emission norms have been advanced in the case of Delhi
and other cities having high density of vehicle population.
2.20.2 Emission Norms in India:
The first Indian emission regulations were idle emission limits which became effective in 1989.
These idle emission regulations were soon replaced by mass emission limits for both gasoline
(1991) and diesel (1992) vehicles, which were gradually tightened during the 1990’s. Since the
year 2000, India started adopting European emission and fuel regulations (Euro norms) for four-

wheeled light-duty and for heavy-duty vehicles. Indian own emission regulations still apply to
two- and three-wheeled vehicles.
On October 6, 2003, the National Auto Fuel Policy has been announced, which envisages a
phased program for introducing Euro 2 - 4 emission and fuel regulations by 2010. The
implementation schedule of EU emission standards in India is summarized in Table 2.5.
Standard Reference Date Region

India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide
Bharat Stage II Euro 2 2001 NCR*, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai
2003.04 NCR*, 11 Cities†
2005.04 Nationwide
Bharat Stage III Euro 3 2005.04 NCR*, 11 Cities†
2010.04 Nationwide
Bharat Stage IV Euro 4 2010.04 NCR*, 11 Cities†
* National Capital Region (Delhi)
† Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Secunderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat,
Kanpur and Agra
Table 2.5 Indian Emission Standards (4-Wheel Vehicles)
The above standards apply to all new 4-wheel vehicles sold and registered in the respective
regions. In addition, the National Auto Fuel Policy introduces certain emission requirements for
interstate buses with routes originating or terminating in Delhi or the other 10 cities.
For 2-and 3-wheelers, Bharat Stage II is applicable from April 1, 2005 and Stage III standards
come in force from April 1, 2010.
Table 2.6 to Table 2.10 shows Emission Standards notified from time to time:
Table 2.6 Indian Emission Norms for Petrol Driven Passenger Cars
All India 11 Cities
BS - III
BS - I BS - II
Pollutant 1991 1996 1998 2000 2005 2005
CO g/km 14. 3 - 27. 1 8. 68 - 12. 4 4. 34 - 6. 20 2. 72 2. 2 2. 30
HC g/km 2. 0 - 2. 9 - - - - 0. 20
NO x g/km - - - - - 0. 15
HC+NOx
- 3. 0 - 4. 36 1. 5 - 2. 18 0. 97 0. 50 -
g/km

Table 2.7 Euro Norms for Petrol Pssenger Cars
1991-
1996 2000 2005
92
Pollutant EURO-I EURO-II EURO-III EURO-IV
CO g/kwh 2.72 2.2 2.30 1.0
HC g/kwh - - 0.20 1.0
NOx g/kwh - - 0.15 0.08
HC+NOx
0.97 0.50 - 0.08
g/kwh
Table 2.8 Indian Norms for Diesel Driven Passenger Cars

BS - III
BS - I BS - II
Pollutant 1991-92 1996 2005 (11
2000 2005
cities)
CO g/km 14.0 g/kwh 5.0 - 9.0 2.72 - 6.90 1.00 0.64
HC g/km 3.5 g/kwh - - - -
NOx g/km 18 g/kwh - - - 0.50
HC+NOx g/km - 2.0 - 4.0 0.97 - 1.70 0.70 0.56
PM g/km - - 0.14 - 0.25 0.08 0.05
Table 2.9 Indian Norms for Diesel Vehicle > 3.5 tonnes (Trucks/Passenger Vehicles)
BS - I BS - II BS - III
Pollutant 1991-92 1996
2000 2005 2005 (11 cities)
CO g/kwh 14.0 11.2 4.5 4.0 2.1
HC g/kwh 3.5 2.4 1.1 1.1 0.66
NOx g/kwh 18 14.4 8.0 7.00 5.0
PM>85 g/kwh - - 0.36 0.15 0.1
PM<85 g/kwh 0.36 0.15 0.1
Table 2.10 Indian Emission Norms for Diesel Vehicles<3.5 tonnes (Trucks/Passenger Vehicles)
Pollutant All India
BS - I BS - II BS - III
1991-92 1996
2000 2005 2005 (11 cities)
CO 14.0 g/kwh 11.2 g/kwh or 4.5 g/kwh or 1.0 - 1.5 g/km or 0.64 - 0.95
5.0 - 9.0 g/km 2.72 - 6.90 g/km 4.0 g/kwh g/km
HC 3.5 g/kwh or 2.4 g/kwh or 1.1 g/kwh 1.1 g/kwh
-
HC+NOx HC+NOx
NOx 18 g/kwh 14.4 g/kwh 8.0 g/kwh 7.0 g/kwh 0.50 - 0.78 g/km
or or or
HC+NOx 2.0+4.0 g/km 0.97 - 1.70 g/km 0.7 - 1.2 g/km 0.56 - 0.86 g/km
PM 0.36 - 0.61 g/kwh or 0.15 g/kwh or 0.05 - 0.10
- -
0.14 - 0.25 g/km 0.08 - 0.17 g/km g/km

2.21 Air pollution in Indian metro cities:
There are four reasons of air pollution: emissions from vehicles, thermal power plants, industries
and refineries.
India’s environmental problems are increased by its heavy reliance on coal for power generation.
This energy source has led to a nine-fold jump in carbon emissions over the past forty years. The
government estimates the cost of environmental degradation has been running at 4.5% of GDP
in recent years. The low energy efficiency of power plants that burn coal is a contributing factor.
The government has taken steps to address its environmental problems. As of now the use of
washed coal is required for all power plants.
Vehicle emissions are responsible for 70% of the country’s air pollution. The major problem with
government efforts to safeguard the environment has been enforcement at the local level. Air
pollution from vehicle exhaust and industry is a worsening problem for India.
Exhaust from vehicles has increased eight-fold over levels of twenty years ago; industrial
pollution has risen four times over the same period. The economy has grown two and a half
times over the past two decades but pollution control and civil services have not kept pace.
Air quality is worst in the big cities like Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, etc. Bangalore holds
the title of being the asthma capital of the country. Studies estimate that 10 per cent of
Bangalore’s 60 lakh population and over 50 per cent of its children below 18 years suffer from air
pollution-related ailments.
2.21.1 DELHI:
Delhi is entering its bitter battle against being the fourth most polluted city in the world. In Delhi,
today pollution is one of the most critical problems faced by the public and concerned
authorities. Rapid rate of industrialisation and migration has created unique challenges for the
municipality to overcome.
The unexpected growth in the number of vehicles in Delhi is a major concern as everyday over
1000 vehicles joining the line in Delhi? The city is regularly choked in thick fog as an array of
traffic and heavy industries throw 3,000 ton of pollutants into the air everyday. Pollution from
thermal power plants contributes 13 per cent of air pollution. The city could become impossible
to live in because of air and water pollution.
There are 28 industrial areas in Delhi. Most of the small scale industries don’t have individual
facilities to treat liquid waste. With increase in the number of hospital waste has become another
major concern. Private nursing home and small hospital don’t have arrangements to treat

hospital waste. Even ground water is being contaminated by toxic elements released by industrial
untreated discharge.
The terrible air quality in the Indian capital has just became even worse due to construction work
for the common wealth games, large scale construction have taken a toll on Delhi’s air quality.
Massive building work for October’s games and the subsequent traffic congestion are to blame
for a large increase in nitrogen oxides in Delhi’s environment.
Environmentalists have also been highlighting the damage cause to human health by allowing the
discharged sewage to re-enter the food chain via agriculture. There is a government body called
Delhi Pollution Control Committee existing in Delhi (DPCC) basically established for controlling
pollution in Delhi’s pollution.
Emerging middle classes of Delhi will have to scale down expectations and start curbing their
own polluting activities to avoid the prospect of the city becoming impossible to live in. Even
students from various schools, colleges and institutions convey a message to the locals that we
should keep our city clean and healthy.
The fact that particulate matter has had a downward curve in Delhi over four years is because of
the success of the CNG programme. Delhi is also one of the few Indian cities to have done more
than its fair share to cut air pollution in the last six years. Polluting industries have been
relocated, government buses, three-wheelers, and taxis run on CNG, 15-year-old commercial
vehicles are off roads and there is a tighter control on power plants, but none of this is able to
combat 4.5 million registered vehicles with 1,000 being added every day. Again an ever
increasing number of diesel vehicles and the future look completely dull. Concern with New
Delhi's air quality got so bad that the Supreme Court recently stepped in and placed a limit on
the number of new car registrations in the capital.
2.21.2 Kolkata:
Kolkata has upstaged Delhi as the air pollution capital of India, accounting for more deaths due
to lung cancer and heart attack than the capital city. More than 18 persons per one lakh people
in Kolkata fall victim to lung cancer every year compared to the next highest 13 per one lakh in
Delhi. Not only lung cancer, cases of heart attack were also rising fast.
Some 70% of people in the city of Kolkata suffer from respiratory disorders caused by air
pollution one of the major reason is fuel of auto rickshaws is bad for air quality and there are
around 50,000 auto rickshaws, who use "kantatel". This is a fuel made out of a deadly mixture of
kerosene and petrol.

Plastic bags are another area where the West Bengal government has failed to check pollution.
Elsewhere in all other major cities of India, plastic bags are banned as they cause widespread
pollution which is difficult to remove. But not in Kolkata - where the "poor" have to carry their
daily bread in plastic bags! The result is that the drainage system is choked in the city and the
roads look like an unending garbage yard. Dirt and disease accumulate in this waste causing
diseases and generally making the whole city an unhealthy place to live in.
2.21.3 Mumbai:
According to WHO, Mumbai is next to Kolkata and Delhi as one of the top ten most polluted cities
in the world In India, the urban agglomerations are restricted to a selected few cities, which
have attracted migration. Mumbai being the trade and commercial capital of India, has been the
destination for all types of population groups such as literates, illiterates; skilled and unskilled;
and persons from all walks of life. The population of Mumbai grew by 38 per cent during 1971-81
and, 20 per cent during 1981-91 to reach 10 million. Currently, the Mumbai’s population is
standing at 18 million making it one of the most populous metropolises in the world. With this
increase in population there has been an increase in number of vehicles and industrial activities
aggravating of air pollution levels. With this growing peril of air pollution there is a serious threat
to the health of its citizens (World Bank).
There are approximately 40,000 small and big industries in the city, of which 32 have been
classified as hazardous. Industries in the air-polluting category include textile mills, chemical,
pharmaceutical, engineering and foundry units. Process emissions and those from fuel
consumption, constitute the main sources of air pollution. Major air pollution sources include a
giant fertilizer/chemical complex; two oil refineries and a thermal power plant, all based in
CHEMBUR, a suburb on the eastern coast of Bombay
Not only are levels of Suspended Particulate Matter above permissible limits in Mumbai, but the
worst pollutant after vehicular emissions has grown at an alarming rate. The levels of Respirable
Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM), or dust, in Mumbai’s air have continued to increase over
the past few years. The air pollution in Mumbai is so high that Mumbai authorities have
purchased 42,000 litres of perfume to spray on the city’s enormous waste dumps at Deonar and
Mulund landfill sites after people living near the landfill sites complained of the stench. The
Deonar landfill site, one of India’s largest, was first used by the British in 1927. Today, the
festering pile covers more than 120 hectares and is eight story's high.
Steps are taken by government to reduce pollution by monitoring air quality at various sites in
city, also new sea-link (bridges), and transport facilities like monorail are developed, but this is
also not in pace with rapid growth of city.

2.21.4 CHENNAI:
Exhaust from vehicles, dust from construction debris, industrial waste, burning of municipal and
garden waste are all on the rise in the city. So are respiratory diseases, including asthma. At least
six of the 10 top causes of death are related to respiratory disease. Many green projects are
developed by various authorities and organizations to check pollution.
On june 24, 2010 the Tamilnadu news paper ‘The Hindu’ has reported Air quality in Chennai is
slowly deteriorating with the city topping the State with high levels of particulate matter, both
Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) and Total Suspended Particulate Matter (TSPM).
Thus all These Indian cities are on the World Health Organization's list of top most polluted cities.
Vehicle exhaust, untreated smoke, and untreated water all contribute to the problem. Continued
economic growth, urbanization, and an increase in the number of vehicles, together with low
enforcement of environmental laws, will result in further increases in pollution levels.
Exersice:
1. Classify automobile emissions and write its sources.
2. List the recent developments in automobile industry to reduce air pollution.
3. What are the following factors on the formation of Nox- i) Air-fuel ratio ii) Spark ignition timing
4. Define smoke and discuss factors affecting smoke formation in SI engine.
5. With suitable example explain methods of minimize crankcase emissions and evaporative
emissions.
6. Compare Pollution due to C.I. engine and Pollution due to S.I. engine.
7. What causes the engine emissions?
8. What are the major emissions that come out of engine exhaust?
9. Describe in detail the causes of hydrocarbon emissions from SI engines.
10. What are particulates? Describe in detail how particulate emissions are caused.
11. What is a thermal converter? How does it help to reduce emissions from engines?
12. What are catalytic converters? How are they helpful in reducing HC, CO and NOx emissions?
13. Give a brief account of emissions from CI engines.
14. What do you understand by the term EGR? Explain how EGR reduces NOx emission.
15. Explain with a neat sketch fuel system evaporation loss control device.
16.Give a layout of a vapour recovery system and explain.
17.With a neat sketch explain a charcoal canister for controlling non-exhaust emission.
18. What is Crank case blowby? How it is controlled?
19. Explain intake manifold open type PCV system.

20. What are the problems created by exhaust emissions?
22. What are the main pollutants emitted by petrol engine? Explain the effect of the following
factors on the exhaust emission (i) A : F ratio (ii) Surface volume ratio (iii) Engine speed.
23What are the causes of formation of NOx in petrol engine? Explain the effect of A: F ratio
and spark advance on emission of NOx.
24.Define the crankcase blowby and explain how it can be controlled.
25. Explain the effect of A: F ratio on CO, HC and NOx emission from petrol engine.
26. What are the sources of HC formation in petrol engine? Explain different factors which affect
HC formation.
27. Define smoke and discuss different factors which affect smoke formation in C.I. engines.
28. What is diesel odour? Explain the effect of different factors on the formation of odour in C.I.
Engines.
29. The measures taken to reduce NOx try to increase HC and CO. Explain.
30. Compare the emissions from S.l. and C.l. engines giving proper explanation for the same.
31. Discuss the effects of CO, HC, NOx and smoke emission of human and biological life.
32. What engine modifications are used to reduce the emission in S.l. engine?
33. State sources of air pollution
34. Classify air pollution.
35. State effects of air pollution on economy.
36. Explain formation of photochemical Smog.
37. What is emission Norms? State its importance.
38. Write Euro-I and Euro-II norms for petrol cars.
39. Comment on status of air pollution in Indian metro cities.
40. Write specific air pollutants from i) Cement industry ii) Petrochemical Industry iii) Fertilizer
industry. iv) Paper industry.
41. What is turbocharger? How it reduces pollution?.

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Chapter 2. Air Pollution

2.2 Sources of air pollution:

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 1

2.2.1 Classification of air pollution:

Air pollution is classified in different ways as follows:

ii) On basis of pollutant:

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 2

2.2.2 Air Pollutants and their effects:

The main air contaminants are:

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 3

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 4

The air pollutants may be classified in different ways as follows

ii) According to chemical composition:

a) Organic pollutants: e.g. Hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, amines and alcohols

iii) According to state of matter:

2.2.5 Effect of air pollution on human health:

The following effects of environmental pollution on humans have been reported:

x Reduced lung functioning

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 5

Pollutant Source Human Health Effects

Ozone (O3) Formed by various complex Ozone effects the

Lead pollution from vehicle Lead effects almost every organ

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 6

Other atmospheric sources of lead

Hydro-carbons Most fuel combustion processes Exposure can cause headaches

2.3 Effect of air pollution on economy:

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 7

2.4 Photochemical air pollution:

Ozone is formed according to the following chemical reactions:

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 8

2.5 Air Pollution from Major Industrial Operations:

Source Typical pollutant emission

Acid plants Sox, NOx, CO, Particulate matter, smoke Acid

Cement industry Sox, NOx, CO, Particulate matter, smoke

Paper industries Sox, NOx, CO, Particulate matter, smoke

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 9

2.6.1 Automobile Emissions:

Automobile emissions can be classified in to two categories:

ii) Exhaust Emissions: The engine exhaust contains

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 10

FIG 2.1 Engine Emissions

2.6.2 Exhaust emissions as a function of Equivalence ratio:

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 11

2.7 Exhaust Emission and Factors Affecting the Emission:

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 12

2.8.1 Hydrocarbon (HC) Emission from S.I. engines:

The following factors affect HC emission:

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 13

Fig 2.7: fig showing various crevices

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 14

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 15

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 16

Fig 2.8 HC exhaust emissions as a function of engine oil consumption.

2.8.2 HYDROCARBON EMISSION FROM TWO-STROKE ENGINES

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 17

2.8.3 Hydrocarbon emissions from C.I. engines:

I.T.E Malegaon (BK) S.R.Shaha / Ele-I / Chap 2 --- 18

2.9 Carbon Monoxide (CO) emission:

CO + 1/2 O2 = CO2 + heat

2.10 Oxides of Nitrogen emission:

2.10.1 S.I engines