CHAPTER 1 THE DESCRIPTION OF SPEECH

1. What are the main features of Pronunciation?

In order to study how something works it is useful to break it down into its constituent parts.
The following diagram shows a breakdown (phân tích) of the main features of pronunciation.

Consonants

Phonemes (âm v )
A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in speech within a language. Although there are
slight differences in how individuals articulate the sounds, we still describe reasonably
accurately how each sound is produced. When considering meaning, we see how using one
sound rather than another can change the meaning of the word. It is this principle which gives
us the total number of phonemes in a particular language. For example, the word rat has the
phonemes /ræt/. If we change the middle phoneme, we get rot /rot/, a different word.
Sounds may be voiced or unvoiced (sometimes refer to as voiceless). Voiced sounds occur
when the vocal cords in the larynx are vibrated. It is easy to tell whether the sound is voiced or
not by placing one or two fingers on your Adam’s apple. If you are producing a voiced sound,
you will feel vibration; if you are producing an unvoiced sound, you will not. The difference
between /v/ and /f/, for example can be heard by putting your top teeth on your bottom lip,
breathing out a continuous stream to produce /f/, then adding your voice to make /v/, hold your
Adam’s apple while doing this and you will feel the vibration.
The set of the phonemes consists of two categories: Vowel sounds and Consonant sounds.
However, these do not necessarily correspond to the vowel letter and consonant letter we are
familiar with in the alphabet. Vowel sounds are all voiced, and may be single (like /e/ in let) or
combination involving a movement from one vowel sound to another (like / eI / as in late), such
combination is known as diphthongs (nh trùng âm/ nguyên âm ôi). An additional term used is
triphthongs (tam trùng âm) which describes the combination of three vowel sounds (like / a /
in our, power). Single vowel sounds may be short (like / I /) and long (like / i: /).
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Consonant sound may be voiced or unvoiced. It is possible to identify many pairs of consonants
which are essentially the same except for the element of voicing- (for example /f/ in fan, and /v/
in van). The following table lists English phonemes gives examples of words in which it appears
Table lists English phonemes

Vowels (12) Diphthongs (8) Consonants (24)

hit /h t/ e play /ple / p pet /pet/ s sock /s k/
i heat /hi t/ boy /b / b bet /bet/ z zoo /zu /
e pet / pet / nice /n s / t ten /ten/ ship / p/
æ cat /kæt/ here /h / d den /den/ measure /'me /
cut /k t/ poor /p / k cot /k t/ h hot /h t/
ago / 'g / e where /we / g got /g t/ m man /mæn/
fur /f / know /n / t chin /t n/ n no /n /
cook /k k/ a how /ha / d jeans /d i n/ sing /s /
u hook /hu k/ f five /f v / l lend /lend/
not /n t/ v van /væn / r ring /r /
nor /n / think/ k/ j you /ju /
far /f / ð this/ð s / w wood /w d/
The list of Phonemes according to voiced and voiceless

VoicelessConsonants p, t, f, k, , s, , t
Voiced Consonants b, d, v, g, ð, z, , d , l, m, n, , w, r, h, j
i u e æ
Voiced Vowels

Suprasegmental Features (siêu o n tính)

Phonemes, as we have seen, are units of sounds which we can analyse. They are also known
as segments (b ph n / o n tính). Suprasegmental Features, as the name implies, are features
of speech which generally apply to groups of segments or phonemes. The features which are
important in English are stress, intonation, and how sounds change in connected speech.
With regard to individual words, we can identify and teach intonation as well as stress.
Usually one syllable in a word will sound more prominent than the others, as in paper, or bottle.
The stresses in words are usually indicated in dictionaries.
With regard to utterances (phát ngôn), we can analyse and teach intonation as well as stress,
although as features they can at times be quite hard to consciously recognize and to describe.
Stress gives rhythm to speech. One or more words within each utterance are selected by the
speaker as worthy of stressing, and thus made prominent to the listeners. Intonation, on the
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other hand, is the way in which pitch of the voice goes up or down in the course of an utterance.
(When discussing speech the term utterance is used rather than “sentence”, as it refers to
anything we say including grammatically incomplete sentences, and to different ways of saying
the same sentence.)
Utterance stress and intonation patterns are often linked to the communication of meaning. For
example, in the following utterance the speaker is asking question for the first time, the
intonation always goes down at the end of the question:
Where do you live?
However, if the speaker should ask the question for the second time (having already the given
information, but having forgotten it), then the voice falls on the word where and rises again
towards the end of the question. This indicates to the listener that the speaker is aware that they
should know the answer.
The next examples display how stress can have an equally significant role to play in the
communication of meaning. The most stressed syllables within the utterances are in capitals.
Changes to which syllable is stressed in the same sentence changes the meaning of the utterance
in various ways. The implied meaning is given in brackets after each utterance.
Ex: I’d like a cup of herbal TEA. (a simple request)
I’d like a cup of HERBAL tea (not any other sort of tea)
I’d like a CUP of herbal tea (not a mug)
Explanation:
The first example is like the default choice, a first time request, while in the other two examples
there is an apparent attempt to clear up some misunderstanding between the speaker and the
listener.
2. Phonemic Transcription
When writing in English, we use 5 vowels letters and 21 consonant letters. When speaking
English, we typically use 20 different vowel sounds (12 simple vowels & 8 diphthongs), and 24
consonant sounds.
In some languages, there is essentially a one-to-one relationship between spelling and
pronunciation, and there will be (with the occasional exception) the same number of phonemes
used in the language as there are letters in the alphabet.
The lack of a one-to-one relationship between spelling and pronunciation in English, while by
no means being unique, present learners with many problems. A typically cited example is the
pronunciation of ough, which has at least seven distinct sound patterns attached to it.
cough /k f/ through / ru / rough /r f/
bought /b t/ bough /b / thorough /' r /
although / l'ð /
Phonemic transcription (phiên âm) can give both teachers and students a way of accurately
recording the pronunciations of words and utterances.
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However, it is not suggested that teachers should introduce their students to all of the phonemic
symbols (các bi u t ng c a âm v ) at once. It makes far more sense to work on those sounds
which cause difficulty at first, and introduce other phonemic symbols as appropriate later on.
3. Pronunciation & Spelling
George Bernard Shaw, in a possibly idle moment created the nonsense word ghotti, saying it
should be pronounced in the same way as fish /fi /. He explained this by demonstrating how the
pronunciation of gh could be taken from the words tough /t f/; the o could be taken from
women /wimin/, and the ti could be taken from the words like notion /n u n/. What he was
showing was that there is not a one-to-one correspondence between spelling and pronunciation
in English. The 44 different sounds we use when speaking English are written down using only
use 26 letters. This means that although there obviously is some correspondence between
sounds and letters, many letters can represent more than one sound. This is seen, for example, in
the letter a, which can represent /æ/, as in apple, or /a:/ as in ask, among numerous numbers of
possibilities. With consonants too, the letter c can be pronounced as /k/ as in can, or /s/ as in
cinema. To add to the complication, many sounds can be represented by more than one letter or
combination of letters; for example, / / appears in put, book, could.
Since the relationship between spelling and pronunciation is more complex in English, it is
not always easy for learners of whatever L1 to see how a written English word should be
pronounced, or how a word they have only heard should be written. But it is not the case that
learners will always have to make a complete guess in such circumstances, not that they have to
learn the spelling and pronunciation of thousands of words without recourse to any general
rules. This is because English spelling is not as irregular as it seems. Surveys of the system have
shown that over 80% of English words are spelled according to the regular patterns, and that
there are fewer than 500 words (out of an estimated total of over half a million words) whose
spelling can be considered completely irregular. The fact that some of these words also happen
to be amongst the most common ones (e.g. said, come, how, what, could) gives a distorted
impression of irregularity in the system. Proficient readers, as well as applying sounds to
individual letters, can also successfully recognize and apply sounds associated with groups of
letters. For example, the pronunciation of could might seem quite irregular, but it can appear
quite regular, following exactly the same pattern as should and would.
Regular Features of English Pronunciation & Spelling
A. Letter Combinations and Sounds (các ch cái k t h p và âm phát ra)
Some pairs of letters are associated with a particular sound, as in the link between ph and the
sound /f/, as in photo, photograph and phone. Such letter-pairs are known as digraphs (ch
ghép). In certain cases, a digraph can have two or three different sound associations, depending
on the words in question: ch, for example, can be pronounced as /t / (i.e. chip), /k/ (character) or
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/ / (machine). Note that there is rule in operation here; it is generally not possible, for example,
for ch to have the sound / / when it appears at the beginning or end of a word except in
borrowed words like charlatan (lang b m/ l a b p), chignon (búi tóc), and charabanc (xe buýt
chuyên ch khách i tham quan).
With vowel digraphs (các ch ghép nguyên âm), it is possible to identify primary and
secondary values for particular pairings. For example, in the majority of words containing ea,
the pair will be pronounced as /i:/ as in eat, beat and cheap which is therefore the primary
value (giá tr chính), while secondary values (giá tr ph ) include the less frequent /ei/ as in
great and break and /e/ as in dead, weather, breakfast.
B. English Letters Behave According to the Environment
Many English letters fit comfortably into certain environments, behaving in certain predictable
ways when they are there. For example, many vowel letters, when sandwiched ( c t xen
vào gi a) between consonant letters (as in cap, cut and con), will have the short vowel sound
most commonly associated with the letter: /æ/, / /, / /. The addition of a final letter e, will
usually lead to change to either longer sound or a diphthong; cape /ei/, cute /kju:t/. cone / u/
C. Environmental restriction
Sometimes the environments that single letters or paired letters can exist in are restricted. For
example, wh usually appears at the beginning of a word (where, what), sometimes appears in
the middle of compound words (nowhere, somewhere), but does not appear at the end.
Similarly, ng and nk appear at the end of the words like sing and sink.
D. Common Patterns
In addition to the above, there are a number of sound/spelling patterns which can be presented
to students as safe and reliable. Here are some useful ones.
1. When talking about the incidence of / /, it can be noted that / / occurs only in unstressed
syllables. Spellings which students find difficult to pronounce can in fact be made much easier
by concentration on this sound. It can be very useful to draw students’ attention to its use in
prefixes and suffixes, as they are usually unstressed: technical, production, explanatory, bigger
2. Common suffixes are usually consistent in their pronunciations, for example, -tion is
pronounced / n/ as in explanation, pronunciation, promotion; cial is / l/ as in special, official,
prejudicial; -cious is / s/ as in precious, vicious, suspicious.
3. Certain vowels are usually elided ( c nu t i) in particular words: Secretary, vegetable.
4. Certain spellings are usually assimilated in connected speech ( ng hóa trong l i nói nhanh/
n i): Would you, could you using /d /..
E. Root Words and Derived Words (T g c và t phát sinh)
Root word Derived words
speak speaks, speaker, loudspeaker (spelling & Pronunication stays the same)
sign /sain/ signal, signalman, signature /sig/ (different)
in'vite invi'tation (different stress)
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Practical Exercise
1. How many English letters and English sounds are there in English?
2. How many English vowel letters and English consonant letters are there in English?
3. How many English vowel sounds are there in English? What are they? Give examples in words
for each type of vowel sounds.
4. How many English consonant sounds are there in English? How to distinguish between voiced
consonants and voiceless consonants?
5. What do we mean by saying there is no a one-to-one relationship between spelling and
pronunciation in English? Give an English letter which has more than one pronunciation in
English.
6. Give some examples in which a consonant letter has only one sound in English.
7. Give some examples in which a consonant letter has more than one sound in English.
8. Please give some vowel sounds which have a primary value and secondary value.
9. Look at the following lists of words. Each list includes a particular combination of letters. How
many different sounds can you find represented in each list?
ea ch ou ei
beat mechanic soup heir
neat microchip thought heifer
hearth machine tour heist
beach flout height
break trouble perceive
weather cough reign
learn boulder
10. Comment on the role played by the letters (e, y, r) in the following words
a. e: hat / hate: The addition of ‘e’ makes ………
b. y: tin / tiny
c. r: ham / harm
d. w: not / now
e. e: bit / bite
f. y: lad / lady
12. Transcribe the root and the derived words. Notice the sound changes
a. sign signal
b. invite invitation
c. courage courageous
d. photograph photographer
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CHAPTER 2 SOUNDS
Generally speaking, there are two distinct sounds in English, namely, vowel sounds and
consonant sounds.
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): One symbol for one sound and used in many good
dictionaries.
1. VOWELS (classified according to The British English sounds)
Vowels can be described in terms of three features:
- How far front or back the tongue is
- How open and closed the mouth is
- How rounded and spread/flat the lips are
In terms of vowels, English has 20 vowels which are, in turn, classified into 12 pure/simple
vowels and 8 diphthongs and some triphthongs; totally five types. Specifically, there are 7 short
vowels, 5 long vowels and 8 diphthongs.
1.1. PURE VOWELS (Nguyên âm !n): In terms of pure vowels, they are sub-divided into two
vowel sounds, namely, short vowels and long vowels.
1.1.1. SHORT VOWELS
The symbols for the short vowels are: [ , e, æ, , , , ] . Short vowels are relatively short.
Vowels can have different lengths in different context.
Some examples of the short vowels are: / / as in bit, bin and fish, /e/ as in bet, men, yes, /æ/ as in
bat, man, gas, / / as in but, some, rush, / / as in pot, gone, cross, / / as in put, pull, push, / /
as in about, teacher.
1.1.2. LONG VOWEL
The long vowels tend to be longer than the short vowels in similar contexts. It is necessary to say
in similar context because the length of all English vowel sounds varies very much according to
context (such as the type of sounds that follow them) and the presence or absence of stress. The
symbols consist of vowel symbols plus the length-mark made by two dots: Thus, we have: i", ",
", ", u"
Some examples of long vowels are: /i"/ as in beat, mean, peace, / "/ as in bird, fern, purse, / "/
as in card, half, pass, / "/ as in board, torn, horse, /u"/ as in food, soon, loose.
To know more, please look at the chart below:
Table 1: English Pure vowels

Vowel sounds Examples Vowel sounds Examples

/i"/ see, cheese / / cut, ton
/ / big, thick /u:/ food, June
/e/ bed, fed / / foot, good
/æ/ cat, sad / "/ door, short
/ "/ fur, shirt / / top, pot
/ / teacher, about / "/ car, dark
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1.2. DIPHTHONGS: A sound which consists of a movement or glide from one vowel to another
is called diphthongs. In terms of length, diphthongs are like the long vowels described above.
Perhaps the most important thing to remember about all the diphthongs is at the first part is much
longer and stronger than the second part; for example, most of the diphthongs “aI” (as in the word
eye) consists of “a” vowel, and only in about the last quarter of the diphthong does the glide at to
“I” become noticeable. As the glide to “ ” happens, the loudness of the sound decreases. As a
result, the “ ” part is shorter and quieter.
Examples:
/ /: (example words: beard, fierce)
/e /: (example words: scarce, aired, cairn)
/ /: (example words: moored, tour)
/ /: (example words: paid, pain face
/aI/: (example words: tide, time, nice)
/ I/: (example words: void, loin, voice)
/ /: (example words: load, home, most)
/a /: (example words: loud, gown, house)
In brief, there are three glides in diphthongs; moving towards /I/, moving towards / / and
moving towards / / respectively.

1.3. TRIPHTHONGS: (tam trùng âm): The most complex sounds of the vowel types are the
triphthongs. They can be rather difficult to pronounce and very difficult to recognize. A
triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third. All produced rapidly and
without interruption. For example, a careful pronunciation of the word “hour” begins with a
vowel quality similar to a:, goes on to a glide towards back close rounded area (for which we
use the symbol /u/), then ends with a mid-central vowel (schwa- âm y#u (weak forms) / /). We
use the symbol /au / to represent the way we pronounce “hour”.
We have five types of triphthongs and they are described as follows:
eI + = eI / examples: layer/ player
aI + = aI / examples: liar/ fire
I + = I / examples: loyal/ royal
+ = / examples: lower/ mower
a + = a / examples: power/ hour
1.4. ENGLISH VOWEL SOUND CHART
English Vowel Sounds are classified according to these four standards:
Tongue Height: High, mid, and low.
Tongue Position: Front, central, and back.
Lip Shaping: Rounded or Unrounded.
Mouth Muscle: Tense or Lax.
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 Tongue position Front Central Back
(Unrounded) (Unrounded) (Rounded) (Unrounded)
Tongue height
Tense /i/ /u/
High
Lax / / / /
Tense / /
Mid Lax
/e/ / /
/ /*
Tense / / / /
Low Lax /æ/ / /

EXPLANATION:
1. / i /: high front unrounded tense vowel
2. / /: high front unrounded lax vowel
3. / e / mid front unrounded lax vowel
4. / æ / low front unrounded lax vowel
5. / / mid central unrounded tense vowel
6. / /: mid central unrounded lax vowel
7. / / mid central unrounded lax vowel (It is called the Schwa sound)
8. / u /: high back rounded tense vowel
9. / /: high back rounded lax vowel
10. / / low back rounded tense vowel
11. / / low back rounded lax vowel
12. / / low back unrounded tense vowel

2. CONSONANTS
2.1. DEFINITION
A consonant is a sound when produced the airstream from the lungs is obstructed (b t$c) in a
certain way before coming out of the mouth. A consonant is voiced when there is the vibration
of the vocal cords (thanh qu%n). When there is no vibration, it is voiceless or unvoiced.

Voiceless consonants p f t s t k

Voiced consonants b v & d z d g l m n w r h j

2.2. CLASSIFICATION: English consonants are classified according to these four standards:
(1) place of articulation (V trí c a âm)
(2) manner of articulation (' c tính c a âm)
(3) voicing (âm): Voiced or unvoiced
(4) aspiration ( b t, rung): aspirated or unaspirated.
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 ENGLISH CONSONANTS
Alveolar palatal

/d /

EXPLANATION:
[p]: voiceless bilabial stop
[t]: voiceless alveolar stop
[k]: voiceless velar stop
[f]: voiceless labio-dental fricative
[ ]: voiceless dental fricative
[s]: voiceless alveolar fricative
[ ]: voiceless palato alveolar fricative
[t ]: voiceless palato-alveolar affricate
[h]: voiceless / voiced glottal fricative
[n]: voiced alveolar nasal
[l]: voiced alveolar lateral
[r]: voiced palato-alveolar gliding
A sound is aspirated when it is at the beginning of a word or in a stress syllable. It is
unaspirated in unstressed syllables or after /s/
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[b]: voiced bilabial stop
[d]: voiced alveolar stop
[g]: voiced velar stop
[v] voiced labio-dental fricative
[&] voiced dental fricative
[z]: voiced alveolar fricative
[ ] voiced palato alveolar fricative
[d ]: voiced palato-alveolar affricate
[m]: voiced bilabial nasal
[ ]: voiced velar nasal
[w]: voiced bilabial gliding
[ j]: voiced palatal gliding
2.3. Parts of the Mouth and Sounds we can make
2.3.1. Parts of the mouth, nose & throat

2.3.1.1. Parts of the mouth

Some of the parts of the mouth that come together to make sounds are at the top and some are at
the bottom.
• At the top of the mouth:
– the upper lip (môi trên) – the upper teeth (R ng trên)
– the alveolar ridge (l i) – the hard palate (vòm mi(ng c)ng)
– the soft palate (vòm mi(ng m*m)
• At the bottom of the mouth:
– the lower lip (môi d +i) – the tongue (l ,i)
2.3.1.2. Names of sounds made by bringing parts of the mouth together
• 2 lips – bilabial: âm hai môi (âm môi)
• Lower lip and upper teeth – labiodentals (âm môi r ng)
• Tip of the tongue and upper teeth – dental (âm r ng)
• Tip of the tongue and alveolar ridge – alveolar (âm - r ng/ âm xát l i)
• Blade of the tongue and hard palate – palatal (âm vòm ng c c)ng)
• Back of the tongue and soft palate – velar (âm vòm m*m)
• Larynx (thanh qu%n)
• Pharynx (h.u, h ng)
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2.4. Consonant practice (some difficult sounds)
1. The English consonant [ ]
Words: she, shall, should, shoes, sure, sugar, share, shave
Sentences:
She sells the seashell on the seashore.
I wished my shoes were shined.
2. The English consonant [ ]
Words: usual – casual – visual – vision – explosion – erosion – measure – pleasure –
treasure – leisure – beige – mirage – collage – sabotage – prestige – garage – rouge;
Sentences:
I have to measure the garage.
It’s a pleasure to see you.
3. The English consonant [t ]
Words: choke, cheap, cheese, change, check, chair, chin, choose
Sentences:
The children have vegetables and meat for lunch.
George bought chairs last week.
4. The English consonant [d ]
Words: germ, general, vegetables, subject, engine, language, June
Sentences:
Did Charles and Joe enjoy the lecture?
June, July and January begin with J.
5. Silent sounds.
doubt, debt, subtle; receipt, pterodactyl
knee, knife, know; gnome, sign, foreign; pneumonia, pneumatic
lamb, climb, bomb, comb, tomb; calm, palm, salmon
psalm, pseudonym, psychologist, psychiatrist
rhapsody, rhetoric, rheumatism, rhythm, rhyme
wrap, wreck, wrestle, wrinkle, wrist, write, wrong
2.5. Vowel Practice
1. I saw him saw a saw
2. ear/ hear/ near/ tear/ dear/ rear/ fear/ beer/ cheer/ mere
3. Shakespeare’s King Lear showed here last year.
4. Don’t walk near the deer.
5. Dear dear I fear the beer is deerer and deerer this year.
6. The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain.

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EXERCISES ON VOWEL AND CONSONANT SOUNDS

Theory:
1. Draw the English vowel sound chart classified according to its four major degrees/standards
as introduced and explained in your English phonetic class.
2. Draw a summary chart of vowel sounds including diphthongs.
3. Draw the English consonant sound chart also classified according to its four major
degrees/standards as introduced and explained in your English phonetic class.
4. Give a definition of a Diphthong, its classification, & its illustrative examples.
5. Give a definition of a Triphthong & its classification, & its illustrative examples.
6. Write down the phonetic symbols representing the following descriptions, and illustrate each
of the sounds with two English words.
a. A voiced labio dental fricative f. A high front tense unrounded vowel
b. A voiceless alveolar fricative g. A low back tense rounded vowel
c. A voiced bilabial semi-vowel h. A mid central tense unrounded vowel
d. A voiced bilabial nasal i. A mid front lax unrounded vowel
e. A voiced velar nasal j. A high back lax rounded vowel
7. Transcribe the following words. In each line, circle the word(s) that begin(s) with a
consonant that meet(s) the description on the left.

Alveolar meat put sit boat rate

Velar green tool case hot knot
Labio-dental cat photo chat vat fat
Bilabial brick psalm lick sick pick
Dental this pay theme with tough
Post alveolar sigh clay sugar tie judge
Affricate church noon jury tough touch
Lateral boat late never love note
Nasal laugh many sure noon soon

8. Transcribe the following words and circle the one(s) that contain(s) a vowel that fit(s) the
description on the left.
Rounded such mat group coarse meet
Low car bat small flea weed
Front tell trap river put song
Back trip mud coop left cop
High fall bank shop shore moose

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PRACTICAL EXERCISES
1. Write the phonetic symbols for the vowels & diphthongs in these following words
1. broad 6. team 11. style 16. hair 21. rough
2. ward 7. err 12. way 17. why 22. cough
3. calf 8. seal 13. out 18. they 23. foot
4. learn 9. curl 14. beer 19. bread 24. mat
5. cool 10. tone 15. coil 20. pull 25. hymn
2. Circle the words that contain
a. A low vowel: ward, hard, lead, lock, rude.
b. A high vowel: sat, suit, got, meet, mud.
c. A back vowel: mad, weep, coop, cop, good
d. A front vowel: get, caught, cat, kit, put
3. Write a symbol that corresponds to each of the following descriptions; then give an
English word that contains this sound.
a. Low front vowel
b. Long high back vowel
c. Short front high vowel
4a. Give the phonetic symbols for the first sound in the following words
Example: Bomb /b/
Now do the same with:
1. City 2. Physics 3. Pneumonia 4. Quick 5. Jug
6. Cake 7. Shoot 8. Zone 9. What 10. Thick
11. Thames 12. Usually 13. English 14. Choice 15. Knee
4b. Give the articulatory description for each of these first sounds
Example: Bomb /b/: Voiced bilabial stop
5a. Give the phonetic symbol for the final sound in the following words.
Example: Rock /k/
1. Ridge 2. Is 3. Bomb 4. Garage 5. Sonic
6. Moth 7. Gauge 8. Bathe 9. Wife 10. Relax
11. Traipse 12. Though 13. made 14. Log 15. Dogs
5b. Give the articulatory description for each of these sounds
Example: Rock/ k/ Voiceless velar stop
6a. Give the phonetic symbol for the vowel sounds in the following words.
Examples: meat /i:/
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Now do the same with:
1. Head 2. I 3. Late 4. Meat 5. Fun
6. May 7. Don 8. Boat 9. Ham 10. Down
11. Dawn 12. Toy 13. Ice 14. Strange 15. Hill
16. Food 17. Thing 18. Took 19. Stop 20. Weak
6b. Give the articulary description for each of these sounds
Example: Meat /i:/: High front tense unrounded vowel.
7. Write the following words (in full) in phonetic transcription.
Example: Lunge /l n//
Now do the same with:
1. Church 4. Thrive 5. Yelled 6. Pew
2. Compass 7. Stop 8. Feud 9. Caught
3. Campus 10. Awful 11. Possess 12. Huge

8. For each error provided below describe what the student has done wrong in
articulatory terms.

A. CONSONANT ERRORS:
Example: A Cantonese speaker pronounces “thought” as “fought”.
Answer: The Cantonese speaker has substituted a voiceless labio dental fricative for a voiceless
inter dental fricative. This is an error in place of articulation.
Now do the same with:
a. A Polish speaker pronounces “log” as “lock”
b. A Canadian French speaker pronounces “Those” as “doze”
c. A Korean speaker pronounces “Rip” as “Lip”
d. A Greek speaker pronounces “sheet” as “seat”
e. A Vietnamese speaker pronounces “march” as “marsh’
f. A Spanish speaker pronounces “vowel” as “bowel”
g. A Cantonese speaker pronounces ‘Right” as “White”
h. A Portuguese speaker pronounces “mass” as “mash”.
i. A Spanish speaker pronounces “Chip” as “Ship”
j. A German speaker pronounces “Grieve” as “grief”
B. VOWEL ERRORS:
Example: A Japanese speaker pronounces “live” so that it sounds like “leave”
Answer: The Japanese speaker has substituted a high front tense unrounded vowel for a high
front tense unrounded vowel. This is an error in the tense/lax distinction.
15
Now do the same with:
a. A Cantonese speaker pronounces “man” so that it sounds like “men”
b. An Italian speaker pronounces “cut” so that it sounds like “cot”
c. A French speaker pronounces “full” so that it sounds like “Fool”
d. A Spanish speaker pronounces “met” so that it sounds like “mate”
e. An Arabic speaker pronounces “bought” so that it sounds like “boat.”
9. Circle the words that begin with
1. A bilabial consonant: mat, gnat, sat, bat, rat, pat
2. A velar consonant: knot, got, cut, hot, pot
3. A labio-dental consonant: fat, cat, that, mat, chat, vat
4. An alveolar consonant: zip, nip, lip, sip, tip, dip.
5. An alveolar-palatal consonant: sign, shy, tie, thigh, thy
10a. Identify the word that has been transcribed (phiên âm) incorrectly, and then write
the correct form of the transcription.
1: [d tajm hæz c m]
2: [d w lr s sed]
3: [tu t lk v m0ni z]
4: [ v 1uz nd 1 ps]
5: [ænd sil wæx]
6: [ v kæb g z ænd k z]
7: [ænd w I & si: s bo l h t]
8: [ænd w0 r p gz hæv w z].
10b. Write each line in normal English orthography (hình th c chính t thông th ng).
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
16
 CHAPTER 3 STRESS
1. Stress is the degree of force used in producing a syllable.
2. Words of more than 2 syllables usually have one syllable which receives more force
than the other. It is called primary/ major stress (tr ng âm).
3. There are three types of stress in English: word stress, phrase stress and sentence stress.
4. We can use the symbols OO for word stress, phrase stress and sentence stress in which
the symbol O is used for stressed syllables or primary stress; the symbol O stands for
the unstressed syllables and/or minor/ unstressed words.
5. The word stress can cause the lexical ambiguity.
WORD STRESS
Words of more than 2 syllables usually have one syllable which receives more force than
the other. It is called primary/ major stress (tr ng âm).
Ex:
• (n): 'current, 'system, 'effort, 'campus
• (adj): 'decent, 'instant, 'rural, 'suburb
In addition to the primary/ major stress, we can observe another type of stress that is weaker
than primary stress which is called secondary stress/ minor stress.
Ex: (adj) photographic: /,f t 'græfik/
(n) anthropology: /,æn r 'p l d i/
Some important things to remember about word stress:
Words of Two Syllables
A good example of the difference in stress on nouns and verbs involves related noun-verb pairs
in English. These are words that function as nouns when stressed on the first syllable, and as
verbs when stressed on the second syllable. Consider the following examples, paying attention
to the placement of stress in the italicized words.
a. The unhappy customer may in'sult the manager
b. That’s an 'insult.
In (a), the verb “insult” receives major stress on the second syllable. In (b), the noun “insult”
receives major stress on the first syllable. There are many types of this type. Here are some
more examples.
Nouns Verbs
'present: món quà pre'sent: trình bày
'convict: ng i b k#t án con'vict: k#t án
'import: hàng nh p kh2u im'port: nh p kh2u

17
 'Export: hàng xu3t kh2u Ex'port: xu3t kh2u
'Refuse: v t không có giá tr Re'fuse: t ch i
'Desert: sa m c De'sert: ào ng4, b5 i
'Permit: gi3y phép Per'mit: cho phép
'Object: v t th Ob'ject: ph%n i
'Rebel: k6 n-i lo n Re'bel: n-i lo n, ch ng i
'Record: h s!, k7 l c, 8a hát Re'cord: ghi chép, thu âm
'Conflict: s9 xung t Con'flict: xung t/ mâu thu:n/ i l p
'Contract: h p ng, giao kèo Con'tract: ký k#t h p ng
Contrast: s9 t !ng ph%n Con'trast: làm t !ng ph%n/ i chi#u
'Perfect: hoàn thành Per'fect: hoàn h%o
* Adding Suffixes
a. Suffixes that receive stress: các h u t nh n d3u nh3n
'cigar ciga'rette
Tai'wan Taiwa'nese
'refuge refu'gee
'mountain mountai'neer
'picture pictu'resque
Note: The suffixes ending in “ette”, “ese”, “ee”, “eer” or “esque” will receive stress.
b. Suffixes that cause stress to shift: các h u t làm cho d3u nh3n chuy n -i.
'photograph pho'tography
'legal le'gality
Note: When the suffixes ending in “y” or “ity”, the stress will fall on the syllable right before it
c. Suffixes that do not affect stress: các h u t không %nh h ng #n d3u nh3n
at'tain at'tainment
re'fuse re'fusal
* Stress Placement in Compound Words: cách t d3u nh3n trong các t kép
a. In compound nouns, stress is on the first syllable:
– classmate – airplane – bedtime
– tablecloth – armchair – birthplace
– bookshelf – farmhouse – backache
– underwear – doorbell – file-clerk (nhân viên v n th )
– bookstore – haircut – gold-dust (vàng cát)
– classroom – hair-style – gold-mine
Note: In order to illustrate further the stress patterns of compounds, it is helpful to consider the
differences between adjective-noun phrases and compound noun.
18
 + In the adjective-noun phrases below, major stress falls on the noun.
That’s a black 'board (a board that is black)
He works in a green 'house (a house that is green)
I saw a black 'bird (a bird that is black)
+ In the compound nouns below, however, major stress falls on the adjective.
That’s a 'blackboard (a board for writing on - green or black)
He works in a 'greenhouse (a place to grow plant)
I saw a 'blackbird (a kind of bird)
b. Compounds with which the first element is a number in some forms tend to have
final stress.
three-'wheeler; second-'class; five 'finger
c. Compounds functioning as adverbs are usually final-stressed.
head-'first; north-'east; down'stream
d. Compounds functioning as verbs with an adverbial first element take final stress.
down'grade; back 'pedal; ill'treat
e. Compounds with an adjectival first element and the “ed” morpheme (hình v ) at the
end tend to have final stress .
bad-'tempered ; but a bad-tempered 'teacher
half-'timber ; but a half-timbered 'house
heavy-'handed ; but a heavy-handed 'sentence
f. Some words are written as a phrase but behave like compounds.
'field trip 'car park 'fire drill
g. Phrasal verbs are written as two words but represent a single unit of meaning.
get 'up come a'cross turn 'on take 'off
Some common patterns of English word stress.
1. Words of two syllables:
['dada]: 'father, 'any, 'enter, 'envy
[da'da]: be'gin, a'way, a'ssist
2. Words of three syllables:
['dadada]: 'Saturday, 'balcony
[da'dada]: to'mato, Sep'tember
[dada'da]: unders'tand, after'noon.
3. Words of more than three syllables:
['dadadada]: 'television, 'kindergarten
[da'dadadada]: la'boratory, re'frigerator
[dada'dadada]: conver'sation, inter'national.
19
 [dadada'dadada]: organi'zation, responsi'bility.
In detail:
A. Two-syllable word:
Here the choice is very simple: either the first or the second syllable will be stressed - not
both. We will look first at verbs. The basic rule is that if the second syllable of the verb
contains a long vowel or a diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, that
second syllable is stressed. Thus:
app'ly /ai/; ar'rive /ai/; a'ttract /kt/; a'ssist /st/
If the final syllable contains a short vowel and one (or no) final consonant, the first
syllable is stressed. Thus:
'enter 'open 'envy 'equal
Two-syllable simple adjectives are stressed according to the same rule, giving:
'lovely 'even di'vine co'rrect a'live
Nouns require different rule: If there second syllable contains a short vowel, the stress
will usually come on the first syllable. Otherwise it will be on the second syllable.
money ['m ni] ; but: e'state
product ['pr d kt] ; but: ba'lloon
larynx ['læri<ks] ; but: de'sign
Other two two-syllable words such as adverbs and preposition seem to behave like verbs
and adjectives.
B. Three-syllable words
Verbs: If the final syllable contains a short vowel and ends with not more than one
consonant, that syllable will be unstressed, and stress will be placed on the preceding
syllable. Thus:
encounter /in'kaunt / determine /di't :min]
If the final syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, or end with more than one
consonant, that final syllable will be stressed. Thus:
enter'tain resu'rrect
Nouns require different rule. Here, if the final syllable contains a short vowel or / /,
it is unstressed. If the syllable preceding this final syllable contains a long vowel or a
diphthong, that middle syllable will be stressed. Thus:
mi'mosa di'saster po'tato sy'nopsis
If the final syllable contains a short vowel, and the middle syllable contains a short vowel,
both final and middle syllables are unstressed and the first is stressed. Thus:
'quantity 'cinema 'emperor:
'custody 'stalactite 'marigold
20
 Adjectives seem to need the same rule, to produce stress patterns such as:
'opportune: úng lúc/ ph%i lúc 'insolent: x3c láo/ h=n x c
'derelict: vô ch 'anthropoid: (v n) gi ng ng i

SENTENCE STRESS
Content words vs Function words
English words can be divided into two groups: Content words and function words.
Content words are words that express independent meaning. Included in this group are:
• Nouns
• Main verbs
• Adverbs /Adjectives
• Question words (e.g. why, when, what)
• Demonstratives (this, that, these, those)
Content words are usually stressed.
Function words are words that have little or no meanings in themselves, but which express
grammatical relationships. Function words include:
• Articles
• Prepositions
• Auxiliaries
• Pronouns
• Conjunctions
• Relative pronouns
Function words are usually unstressed, unless they are to be given special attention.

Placement of Main Stress in Sentence.

While all content words receive major word stress, one content word within a particular
sentence will receive greater stress than all the others. We refer to this as the Major Sentence
Stress (d3u nh3n tr ng tâm c a câu). In most cases the Major Sentence Stress falls on the
last content word within a sentence.
Consider the pronunciation of the sentences below.
Susan (OO) bought (O) a (O) new (O) sweater (OO) at (O) Creeds (O)
I (O) walked (O) home (O) in (O) the (O) rainfall (OO)
Peter (OO) likes (O) your (O) suggestion (OOO)
Note: (O): unstress syllable/word; (O): major stress word/ (O): major sentence stress.
Note: In some cases major sentence stress will not fall on the major stressed syllable of the
final content word of a sentence. That is, when a speaker wishes to direct the hearer’s

21
 attention to some other content word in the sentence; This word will receive major sentence
stress. Consider the following dialogue.
Speaker A: What did you buy at Creeds? (O O O O O O)
Speaker B: I bought a new sweater at Creeds ( O O O O O O O O)
Notice the second sentence does not receive major sentence stress on “Creeds”, but rather
on the stressed syllable of “sweater”. This is the element of the sentence that speaker B is
directing the speaker A’s attention to. We call this the information focus of the sentence.
Generally, it is the stressed syllable of the content word representing information focus that
receive major sentence stress. Most often, the information focus occurs at the end of the
sentence. Indeed, a more natural response to speaker A’s question above would be: “I bought
a new sweater”, or simply “a new sweater.”
Word stress can cause the lexical ambiguity.
Noun + Noun
• yellow jacket (OO): a jacket which is yellow.
• yellow jacket (OO): a a kind of bee.
• English teacher (OO): a teacher who comes from England.
• English teacher (OO): a teacher who teaches English.
Adj + Noun
green house (OO): a house that is painted green.
green house (OO): a building with glass sides and a glass roof for growing plants in.
white house (OO): a house which is painted white.
White House (OO): a house where the American president lives and works.
Present participle/Gerund + Noun
dancing teacher (OO): a teacher who is dancing.
dancing teacher (OO): a teacher who teaches dancing.
A pause between words or phrases may cause the lexical ambiguity.
Read these two funny English stories.
1) One day, as a teacher walked into his classroom, he heard Tommy Andrew whisper to
the boy next to him: “Here’s the teacher. I’ll bet the silly donkey is going to talk about
putting in commas.” The teacher didn’t say anything but he began to talk about putting in
commas, and explained how important they could be. To show what he meant, he wrote on
the blackboard the sentence:
“Tommy Andrew says the teacher is a silly donkey”
The class laughed and Tommy Andrews looked very red. “Now,” said the teacher, “I will
show you how important commas are.” He put two commas into the sentence, and it now
read: “Tommy Andrew, says the teacher, is a silly donkey.”

22
 2/ I like the story about the barber who put the notice outside his shop:
What do you think I
shave you for nothing
and give you a drink
Of course he soon had his shop full of men all expecting to be shaved for nothing and then
given a glass of beer. But the barber explained that that wasn’t what he meant. A little
punctuation made all the difference, for the notice then read:
What! Do you think I
shave you for nothing,
and give you a drink?

EXERCISES ON WORD STRESS

1. Write the two ways of transcriptions for these following words, paying special attention to
the primary stress. Explain what the words mean according to the stress you give.

1. Abstract
2. Conduct
3. Contrast
4. Desert
5. Escort
6. Export
7. Refund
8. Insult
9. Object
10. Perfect
11. Permit
12. Present
13. Produce
14. Protest
15. Rebel
16. Record
17. Subject
18. Discount
19. Increase
20. Update

23
2. Write the stress for these words.

1. Entertain
2. Ascertain
3. Refugee
4. Mountaineer
5. Evacuee
6. Portuguese
7. Unique
8. Comfortable
9. Anchorage
10. Refusal

EXERCISES ON PHRASE AND SENTENCE STRESS

1. Write the stress for these compound nouns in two ways and explain what these compound
nouns mean according to the stress you use.

a. stone hammer.

b. leather jacket

c. dark room

d. black board

e. woman doctor

f. paper bag

g. toy factory

h. hot dog

i. heavy smoker

j. red line

k. sleeping baby/sleeping car

l. walking stick

m. flying horse / riding horse

24
2. Use the rhythm to separate the words and/or phrases in one of the following sentences and
explain the meanings according to rhythm separated.
a. If you want to get something good for nothing, you will get something good for nothing
If you want to get something good for nothing, you will get something good for nothing
b. It is dangerous for him to drive a car.
It is dangerous for him to drive a car.
c. His habit of speaking rapidly impressed the audience.
His habit of speaking rapidly impressed the audience
d. Who do you want to choose?
Who do you want to choose?
e. They don’t know how good meat tastes.
They don’t know how good meat tastes.
f. He fed her dog biscuits.
He fed her dog biscuits.
g. Lanlan the panda is sick.
Lanlan the panda is sick.

3. Analyze the reasons leading to the misunderstanding of the clerk in this small piece of
conversation. Suggest the way to correct it.
At the post office
Lady: Must I stick it on myself?
Clerk: Please stick it on the envelope, madam.

4. Put the stress on the following words:

a. protect b.clamber c. festoon d. detest
e. bellow f. menace g.disconnect h. entering
i. language j. captain k. career m. connection
n. jonquil o. injury p. paper q. event

5. Put an accent mark over the main stressed syllable of the following words.
1. politician 6. benefit 11. family
2. democratic 7. mechanician 12. telegraph
3. personality 8. mechanization 13. telegraphy
4. photograph 9. contemplate 14. diplomat
5. phottographical 10. meteorology 15. diplomatic
25
6. Transcribe these words. Remember to mark the stress
1. monotonous 2. autonomy
3. nobility 4. particular
5. generosity 6. comedian
7. secretary 8. grammatical
9. manipulate 10. geography

7. Put stress marks on the following words (try to put the secondary stress marks on as well)
and write the words in phonemic transcription for each.
1. shop-lifter 2. open-ended
3. Javanese 4. birth-mark
5. anti-clockwise 6. confirmation
7. eight-sided 8 fruit-cake
9. defective 10. roof-timber
8. Number the words with the appropriate stress patterns
1 OO 2 OO 3 OOO 4 O OO
5 OOO 6 O OO 7 OOOOO
student essential pronounce import (verb)
understand computer introduce accurate
surrounding persevere rebel (noun) analyze
rebel (verb) learner including cassette
Don’t forget What’s your name? That’s the man That could be the man

9. Match the utterances to the possible meanings. The tonic syllables (âm ti#t ch)a ng i(u)
are underlined

Utterances Possible Meanings

1. I’ll walk with you to the station
2. I’ll walk with you to the station
3. I’ll walk with you to the station
4. I’ll walk with you to the station
5. I’ll walk with you to the station
a. I don’t want to bring my car
b. But not back again
c. But not as far as the park
d. But I am not going with him
e. Nobody else has offered

26
CHAPTER 4 ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH

This section will focus on:

1. Rhythm (nh p)
2. Assimilation (s9 ng hóa âm)
3. Ellision (nu t âm)
4. Linking (n i âm) and Intrusion (nh p âm)
5. Juncture (âm n i)

1. Rhythm:
The notion of rhythm involves some noticeable events happening at regular intervals of time:
One can detect the rhythm of a heart-beat, of a flashing light or of a piece of music. It has often
been claimed that English speech is rhythmatical and that the rhythm is detectable in the regular
occurrence of stressed syllables, of course, it is not suggested the timing is as regular as a clock
– the regularity of occurrence is only relative. The theory that English has stress-timed rhythm
implies that stressed syllables will tend to occur at relatively regular intervals whether they are
separated by unstressed syllables or not.
Some writers have developed theories of English rhythm in which a unit of rhythm, the foot, is
used. The foot begins with a stressed syllable and includes all following unstressed syllables up
to (but not including) the following stressed syllable.
We can illustrate the rhythm of an English sentence under the feet symbols as follows.

1 2 3 4 5
'Walk 'down the 'path to the 'end of the ca 'nal

Some theories of rhythm go further than this, and point to the fact that some feet are stronger
than others, producing strong-weak patterns in larger pieces of speech above the level of the
foot. To understand how this could be done, let's start with a simple example: the word 'twenty'
has one strong and one weak syllable, forming one foot. A diagram of its rhythmical structure
can be made, where “s” stands for "strong" and “w” stands for weak”.

s w
twen ty
The word 'places' has the same form:
27
 s w
pla ces
Now consider the phrase 'twenty places', where 'places' normally carries stronger stress than
'twenty'. We can make our "tree diagram" grow to look like this:

w s

s w s w
twen ty pla ces
2. Assimilation

Assimilation: a process in which one sound becomes similar to a neighboring sound. This may
happen inside a word, or between two words, when the final sound of a word touches the first
sound of the next word.

Assimilation is only found in the most rapid and casual speech. It is a common phonological
process by which one sound becomes more like a nearby sound. When the phoneme that comes
first is affected by the one that comes after it, we have regressive assimilation ( ng hóa âm
thoái b /d ch lùi) and when the phoneme that comes first affects the one that comes after it, we
have progressive assimilation ( ng hóa âm ti#n lên). The change in manner is most likely to
be towards an “easier” consonant – one which makes less obstruction to the airflow. Thus it is
very possible to find cases where a final stop becomes a fricative or nasal. In what ways can a
consonant change? The main differences between consonants are of three types:
i) differences in place of articulation;
ii) differences in manner of articulation;
iii) differences in voicing.
that side: /&æs said/ ; /t/ assimilates into /s/ (regressive assimilation)
that person / &æp p :sn / ; /t/ assimilates into /p/ (regressive assimilation)
that car / &æk ka:/ ; /t/ assimilates into /k/ (regressive assimilation)
this shoe /&I1 1u: / ; /s/ assimilates into /1/ (regressive assimilation)
good night /g n nait/ ; /d/ assimilates into /n/ (regressive assimilation)
in the /inner/ ; /&/ assimilates into /n/ (progressive assimilation)

28
 get them /get t m/ ; /&/ assimilates into /t/ (progressive assimilation)
read these /ri:d di:z/ ; /&/ assimilates into /d/ (progressive assimilation)
Some Rules for Assimilation
a. /t/, /d/, and /n/ often become bilabial before the bilabial consonants /p/, /b/ and /m/
Ex. He’s a rather fat boy. / fæt b / ; / fæp b / (/t/ assimilates to /p/)
She’s got an apartment in Mahattan. / >p "tm nt/ ; / >p "pm nt/ (/t/ assimilates to /p/)
He’s a very good boy. /? d b / ; /? b b / (/d/ assimilates to /b/)
There are ten men in the class. /tenmen/ ; /temmen/ (/n/ assimilates to /m/)
b. /t/ assimilates to /k/ and /d/ assimilates to /g/ before /k/ or /g/
Ex. Where has that cat been all night? /&æt kæt/ ; /&æk kæt/ (/t/ assimilates to /k/)
Can you see that girl over there? / &æt g l/ ; / &æk g l/ (/t/ assimilates to /k/)
It was a very good concert. /g d k ns t / ; /g g k ns t / (/d/ assimilates to /g/)
c. /n/ assimilates to / / before / g / or / k /
Ex. I’ve been going out too much lately. /bi n g ; /bi g
He’s bringing his own car
d. /t/ and /d/ assimilates to /s / before /s /
Ex. It’s a goodsong. /g ds / ; /g ss / /d / assimilates to /s /
That salad /ðæt sæl d/ ; /ðæs sæl d/ /t / assimilates to /s /
e. /t/ and /d/ assimilates to /z / before /z /
Ex. That zoo / ðæt zu:/ ; / ðæz zu:/ /t / assimilates to /z /
bad zone /bæd z n/ ; bæz z n/ /d / assimilates to /z /
f. /s/ assimilates to / / before / / or / j /
Ex: I really love this shiny one over there. /ð s n / ; /ð s n /
g. /z/ can assimilate to / / before / / or / j /
Ex: We found this lovely cheese shop in Paris.
The above examples are cases of anticipatory assimilation where one sound changes to another
sound because of the sound which follows.
Here are some cases of coalescent assimilation ( ng hóa âm k#t h p), where two sounds
combine to form a different one.
+ /t/ and /j/ coalesce to form /t /

29
 We went to France last year. / l st j / ; / l st1 /
+ /d/ and /j/ coalesce to form / d /
Would you like a cup of tea? /w dju / ; /w d u /
3. Elision
The nature of elision may be stated quite simply: under certain circumstances sound disappears:
one might express this in more technical language by saying that in certain situation a phoneme
may be zero or have zero realization or be deleted. As with assimilation, elision is typical of
rapid speech, casual speech; the process of change in phoneme realizations produced by
changing the speed and casualness of speech is sometimes gradation. Producing elisions is
something which foreign learners need to learn to do, but it is important for them to be aware
that when native speakers of English talk to each other, quite a number of phonemes that the
foreigner might expect to hear are not actually pronounced. We will look at some examples,
though only a small number of the many possibilities can be given here.
1. Loss of weak vowels after p, t, k. In words such as potato, tomato, perhaps, today
2. Weak vowel + n, l or r. Examples: tonight, police, correct
3. Avoidance of complex consonant clusters: George the sixth’s throne.
4. Loss of final v in of before consonants: lots of them, waste of money.
Some Rules for Elision
a. /t/ and /d/ are elided when they appear within a consonant cluster.
Ex: We arrived the next day. (/t/ is elided between /ks/ and /d/)
When we reached Paris, we stopped for lunch. (between t @ABC@DE@FGHIGGB@D@ABC@J@K@
We bought a carved statuette. (/d/ is elided between /v/ and and /st/)
b. Complex consonant clusters are simplified.
Ex: She acts like she owns the place. (/ækts/ can be simplified to /æks/)
Teachers use authentic texts to teach from (/teksts/ can be simplified to /teks/)
c. / / can disappear in unstressed syllable.
Ex: I think we should call the police. (/ / can disappear in the first syllable of police)
It’s a question of collective responsibility (/ / can disappear)
Are you coming out tonight? (/ / can disappear)
Have we got any vegetable? (/ / is not pronounced by most speakers)

30
 d. /v/ can disappear in of, before consonants.
Ex: My birthday’s on the 11th of November.
It’s a complete waste of time.
That’s the least of my worries.
4. Linking and Intrusion
a.Linking /r/
In real connected speech, we sometimes link the words together. The most familiar case is the
use of linking r; the phoneme r cannot occur in the final-syllable position, but when a word’s
spelling suggests a final r, and a word beginning with a vowel follows, the usual
pronunciation is to pronounce with r. For example:
'here' hI but 'here are' hI r
'four' f : but 'four eggs' f :regz
When there is a written /r/ at the end of the word and it occurs between two vowel sounds,
speakers often use the phonem /r/ to link the preceding vowel to a following one:
Ex: Her English is excellent (/r/ is pronounced)
Her German is absolutely awful, though! (/r/ is not pronounced)
My brother lives in London (/r/ is not pronounced)
My brother always phones at the wrong time (/r/ is pronounced)
b. Intrusive /r/
English speakers often use r in a similar way to link words ending with a vowel in order to
ease the transition, even when there is no written letter r. This happens when the first word
ends in / /, /a:/, or / :/, as in:
'Formula A' / f :mj l r eI /
'Australia all out' / streIli r :l a t /
'media event' / mi:di r Ivent /
Princess Diana was a victim of media exploitatation.
It’s a question of law and order
Linking /j/
When a word ends in /i:/, or diphthongs (aI, eI, I), speakers often introduces a /j/ to ease
the transition to a following vowel sound:

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 Ex:
I agree, wholeheartedly. / aIj gri:/
I think therefore I am (Descartes) /aIj æm/
I am, therefore I ought to be. (G. Kelly) / aIj æm, aIj :t/
They are, aren’t they? (&eIj a:/
Linking /w/:
When a vowel ends in /u:/, or diphthongs ( , a ), speakers often introduces a /w/ to ease
the transition to a following sounds:
Ex: Go on! Go in!
Are you inside, or are you outside
Who is this?
You are.
5. Juncture
Read aloud these pairs of sentences
1. The clock keeps ticking/ the kids keep sticking on the wall
2. That’s my train/ it might rain.
3. The great apes/ the grey tapes.
4. Can I have some more ice?/ Can I have some more rice?

THEORY
1. Present shortly what assimilation is, types of assimilation and give illustrative examples for
each type of assimilation in “aspects of connected speech.”
2. Present shortly what intrusion is and give some illustrative examples for the intrusion in
“aspects of connected speech.”
3. Present shortly what elision is and give some illustrative examples for the elision in “aspects
of connected speech.”
4. Present shortly what linking sounds is and give some illustrative examples for the intrusion in
“aspects of connected speech.”

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PRACTICAL EXERICSES
Exercise 1: Decide what the assimilations are in the following sentences
Example: It’s in that box. (The /t/ at the end of that assimilates to /p/)
Explanation: Why not change into /b/: That is /t/ belongs to voicless alveolar, so /t/ has to be
changed into /p/: voiceless bilabial.

1. There are eleven players in a soccer team.

2. Can you see that kid over there?

3. There are ten cups on the table.

4. I’m going to give up smoking this year.

5. I think I should go home and get some sleep.

6. She met Peter when they were at school together.

Exercise 2. Decide what the elisions are in the following sentences

Example: We finally arrived the next day. /nekst/ becomes /neks/

1. This is Everton’s last chance to win the league.

2. We had a cold lunch in a small bar.

3. Tom spends most of his free time watching cartoon.

4. Mary is the most beautiful of the three girls.

5. If you visit Britain, you must try some fish and chips.

6. Her mum always served sherry on Christmas morning.

Exercise 3: Decide which sound intrudes or links sounds in the following sentences.

1. It was an important media event.

2. You can park the car over there.

3. Trevor’s weird. He eats raw onion for breakfast.

4. He was way over the speed limit.

5. Did you go out on New Year’s Eve?

6. He asked me to help him.

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Exercise 4: Write the transcription for the following words, paying special attention to the
elision. Write the two ways of pronunciations if possible.

1. Carefully. 9. I used to

2. Dictation 10. I want to

3. History 11. Blind man

4. Factory 12. Kind nurse

5. Family 13. Last month

6. Easily 14. I must go

7. University 15. Next door

8. Just now 16. Give me some more

Exercise 5: Write the transcriptions for these phrases, paying attention to the linking sounds.

1. This is 2. There is

3. Thank you 4. After all

5. That is 6. For us

7. Get up 8. In a minute

9. An old worker 10. Political affair

11. A man of forty 12. Go all out

13. Next year 14. This ship

15. Last year 16. Nice shoes

17. The first-year students 18. Won’t you?

19. I’m glad to meet you 20. Did you like it?

21. Don’t miss your train 22. There are four chickens in the courtyard

23. He has to go 24. Would you come along?

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Chapter 5 INTONATION
1. Intonation is the rise and fall of voice or changing the pitch of voice: high, medium and low.
2. Intonation is closely connected with stress.
3. There are different ways to mark intonation.
4. Symbols used in describing intonation
Intonation marking: (d3u ng i(u)
: Stressed mark
L: Falling mark
M: Rising mark
1. TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF INTONATIONS
Some types of intonations can be found in English and have the functions as follows:
a. Falling intonation:
• Used for Information Questions with Question Words such as: Who, what, where, etc.
• Used for Statements
• Used for Imperatives
• Used for tag questions expecting confirmation
Examples:
Information Questions
• What’s your name?L
• What’s the time?L
• Where do you live?L
Statements
• He lives in the house on the cornerL
• It’s over thereL
Imperatives
• Sit downL
• Put it on the table L
Tag Questions
• You’re French, aren’t you? L
• He’s tall, isn’t he? L
b. Rising Intonation: Use for
• “Yes/No question”
• “Tag-questions” used for tag questions showing less certainty

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 Examples:
“Yes-No” Questions
• Is it the blue one? M
• Have you got a pen? M
Tag-questions
• You’re French, aren’t you? M
• Your train leaves at six, doesn’t it? M
c. Rising, rising and finally falling: Used for lists of the items.
Examples:
• You need a Mpen, a Mpencil, and some papers L
• The stall sells Mribbon, Mbeads, Melastic and buttons L
In details:
a. Fall Yes No: This is the tone about which least needs to be said and which is usually
regarded as more or less neutral. If someone is asked a question, and replies Lyes or L no it
will be understood that the question is now answered and that there is nothing more to be
said. The fall could be said to give and impression of finality (Ch3m d)t cu c àm tho i).
b. Rise Yes No: In a variety of ways, this tone conveys an impression that something
more is to follow (nhi#u th) khác 2n ý theo sau); a typical occurrence in a dialogue
between two speakers whom we shall call A and B might be the following:
A: (wishing to attract B’s attention): Excuse me!
B: M yes? (B’s reply is, perhaps, equivalent to “What do you want?)
Another common occurrence would be:
A: Do you know John Smith?
B: M yes?
B’s reply may be explained in the sense that he invites A to continue with what he/she intends to
say about John Smith after establishing that B knows him. To reply instead Lyes would give a
feeling of finality or the end of the conversation.
We can see similar invitation to continue in someone’s response to a series of instructions of
direction. For example:
A: You start off on the ring road …..
B: MYes? (Tôi v:n ang l$ng nghe/ to show he/she engages in the conversation)
A: Turn left at the first roundabout …
B: M yes?
A: And ours is the third house on the left

36
Whatever B replies to this last utterance of A, it would be most unlikely to be Myes again since
A has clearly finished her instruction and it could be pointless to prompt her to continue.
c. Fall-rise v yes, v no: The fall-rise used in a lot in English and has rather special
functions. In the present context we will only consider one fairly simple, which could
perhaps be described as limited agreement or response with reservations (ph%n h i v+i s9
dè d t). Examples may make it clear:
A: I heard that it is a good school.
B: v yes.
B’s reply would be taken to mean that he would not completely agree with what A said, and A
would probably expect B to go on to explain why he was reluctant to agree.
Similarly:
A: It is really an expensive record, isn’t it?
B: v no
The fall rise in B’s reply again indicates that he would not completely agree with A.
Fall-rise in such contexts almost always indicate both something “given” or “conceded-th a
nh n” and at the same time some “reservation” or “hesitation: do d9”.
d. Rise-fall yes no: This is used to convey rather strong feelings of approval,
disapproval or surprise. It is not usually considered to be an important tone for foreign
learners to acquire, though it is useful to practice learning to distinguish it from other tone.
Here are some examples.
A: You wouldn’t do an awful thing like that, would you?
B: No
A: Isn’t the view lovely?
B: Yes
A: I think you said it was the best so far.
B: Yes
2. INTONATION IN CONTEXT
2.1. OPEN QUESTION & CHECK QUESTION
We pronounce an open question differently from a check question. An open question is where
we ask for information we didn’t have before, and the voice usually goes down at the end.
A check question (câu h5i ki m tra l i thông tin) is where we make sure that the information we
have is correct. The voice usually goes up at the end. Listen to the examples in this conversation.
A: What’s your name?L (Open Question)
B: Sonia.
37
 A: And where were you born?L (Open Question)
B: Surinam.
A: Is that in South America?M (check Question)
B: Yes, that’s right.
A: And how long have you lived here?L (Open Question)
B: Five years.
A: I see. Are you married?L (Open Question)
B: No, I am not.
A: And what do you do?L (Open Question)
B: I am a boxer.
A: You’re a boxer?M (Check Question)
2.2. OLD INFORMATION & NEW INFORMATION
In conversation we often refer back to something we said before. This is old information,
and the voice normally goes up at the end. We also tell the listeners things we haven’t
mentioned before. This is new information, and the voice normally goes down at the end.
In conversation 1 below, the voice goes up at the end, because the last word “tomorrow”
has already been mentioned. In conversation 2, the voice goes down, because the last
word “tomorrow” has not been mentioned.
1. A: I’ll come in tomorrow
B: We’re closed tomorrowM
2. A: When are you closed?
B: We’re closed tomorrowL
Listen to this example. They are talking about buying a television. Notice how the voice
goes up on the words in bold (ng i(u i lên t i t in m vì ây là thông tin c4). This is
because these are words which have been mentioned before, so they are old information.
A: Let’s get the Viewmaster. It’s really nice.
B: But the Megavision is nicer.
A: But the viewmaster has guarantee.
B: They both have the guarantee.
A: Anyway, the Megavision is too expensive.
B: I know it’s expensive, but it’s better quality.
A: They’re both good quality.
B: The Megavision has access to the internet.
A: We have access to the internet on the computer.
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 INTONATION EXERCISES
1. Write the intonation markings for the following sentences.
1. You must take him home.
2. I supposed it couldn’t happen again.
3. They had dinner at the restaurant and then went to a show.
4. Where have you put it?
5. Get on with your dinner.
6. Don’t forget to send me a postcard.
7. Remember to lock the car door.
8. Why didn’t she come to my wedding party?
9. The man didn’t keep his promise.
10. My father works in the big factory.
11. Did you have a good holiday?
12. Must you go now?
13. That’s right.
14. Please sit down.
15. Shall we have to meet again?
16. Are they going to have a meeting?
17. Stay here for lunch.
18. If you like, I’ll send the car for you.
19. I prefer red if you’ve got it.
20. You are wondering who I am, aren’t you? (falling)
21. You can drive a car, can’t you?
22. Before I went to school, I had had dinner.
2. In the following sentences and bits of dialogue, each underlined syllable must be given
an appropriate tone mark. Write a tone mark just in front of each of the syllables.
1. This train is for Leeds, York, Darlington and Durham
2. Can you give me a lift?
Possibly where to?
3. No certainly not! go away!
4. Did you know he had been convicted of drunken driving?
No!
5. If I gave him money, he goes and spends it.
If I lend him the bike he loses it.
He’s completely unreliable
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CHAPTER 6 WEAK FORMS

There are a number of words in English which can have a strong form and a weak form. For
example, compare the use of the word can and from in the following sentences.
She can /k n/ swim faster than I can /kæn/ (the first can is the weak form, and the second
can is the strong form)
She’s from /fr m/ Scotland. Where are you from /fr m/? (the first from is the weak form,
and the second from is the strong form)
As these words can be pronounced differently, it is important that learners be taught these two
forms of these words when they are introduced. These words are most often the function words,
filling in between content words, making sentences work grammatically.There are roughly forty
such words in English. It is possible to use only strong forms in speaking, and some foreigners
do. Usually they can be understood by other speakers of English, so why ist it so important to
learn how weak forms they are used? There are two main reasons; firstly, most native speakers
of English find “all strong form” pronunciation unnatural and foreign-sounding, something that
most learners would wish to avoid. Secondly, and more importantly, speakers who are not
familiar with the use of weak forms are likely to have difficulties understanding speakers who
do use weak forms; since practically all native speakers of British English use them, learners of
the language need to learn about these weak forms to help them to understand what they hear.
We must distinguish between weak forms and contracted forms. Certain English words are
shortened so severely (usually to a single phoneme) and so consistently that they are presented
differently in formal writing, e.g. it’s, we’ve, don’t.
Almost all the words which have both a strong form and a weak form belong to a category
that may be called function words-words that do not have a dictionary meaning in the way that
we normally expect nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. These function words are words such
as auxialaries, prepositions, conjuctions, and etc., all of which are in certain contexts where only
the strong forms are acceptable, and others where the weak forms are normal pronunciation.
The most frequently cited examples of these words are as outlined in the following table:

Grammatical category Word Strong form Weak form

am æm m
are a:

Verbs is Iz z/z
was w z w z
were w : w
do du: d

40
 does d z d z
have hæv v/v
has hæz h z/ z/z
had hæd h d/ d/d
can kæn k n
could k d k d
would w d w d/ d
should 1 d d/ d

you ju: j
your j : j
he hi: hI / I
him him im
Pronouns
she 1i: 1I
her h :
us s s
them &em & m

to tu: t
at æt t
Prepositions for f : f
from fr m fr m
of v v

and ænd nd / n
Conjunctions but b t b t
than &æn & n

a eI
Articles an æn n
the &i: &

any 'enI ni / ni
Indefite adjectives some s m s m
such s t s t

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 EXERCISES ON THE WEAK FORMS
Exercise 1: Write the transcription for the following sentences, paying attention to the weak
form words.
1. I want her to park that car over there.
2. Of all the proposals, the one that you made is the silliest.
3. Jane and Bill could have driven them to and from the party.
4. To come to the point, what shall we do for the rest of the week?
5. Has anyone got an idea where it came from?
6. Pedestrians must always use the crossings provided for them.
7. Each one was a perfect example of the art that had been developed there.
8. There it is.
9. Put it there.
10. There should be a rule.
11. We can’t wait for the bus
12. How do the lights work?
13. There are some new books I must read
14. She took her aunt for a drive.
15. The basket was full of the things to eat
16. Why shouldn’t a man earn more than a woman?
17. You ought to have your own car.
18. He wants to come and see us at home.

Exercise 2: Write the phonemic transcription of the underlined words as they are pronounced

1. What am I doing?
2. Yes, I am.
3. Those shoes are lovely!
4. Yes, they are.
5. I’ll see you at the party.
6. What are you looking at?
7. I can swim faster than you!
8. Oh, yes I can!
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