FCE 411 - Geotechnical Engineering II 2019-2020-1

University of Nairobi
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering
FCE 411
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING II
LECTURE NOTES
DR. NYAMBANE OSANO

sosano@uonbi.ac.ke
2019/2020
FCE 311 – GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I OSN - Lecture Notes
TABLE OF CONTENTS
OVERVIEW...................................................................................................... 1
COURSE DESCRIPTION 1
PREREQUISITE 1
STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME 1
TEACHING METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES 2
REQUIRED TEXT BOOKS 2
1 SOIL STRESSES UNDER SURFACE LOADING ....................................3
1.1 INTRODUCTION 3
1.2 POINT LOAD 3
1.2.1 BOUSSINESQ ANALYSIS 3
1.2.2 ISOBAR AND PRESSURE BULB 7
1.2.3 VERTICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION ON HORIZONTAL PLANE 8
1.2.4 VERTICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION ON A VERTICAL LINE 9
1.3 VERTICAL STRESS UNDER UNIFORMLY LOADED CIRCULAR AREA 10
1.4 VERTICAL PRESSURE UNDER A UNIFORMLY LOADED RECTANGULAR AREA12
1.5 NEWMARK CHART 16
2 SETTLEMENT OF SOILS .................................................................. 18
2.1 FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT 18

2.2 COMPONENTS OF SETTLEMENT 18
2.2.1 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT 18
2.2.2 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT 18
2.2.3 SECONDARY SETTLEMENT 18
2.3 CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT 19
2.4 ELASTIC SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS 19
2.4.1 COMPUTATION OF ELASTIC SETTLEMENTS BENEATH THE CORNER OF A UNIFORMLY LOADED
FLEXIBLE AREA BASED ON THE THEORY OF ELASTICITY 19
2.4.2 SETTLEMENT AT CENTRE OF FLEXIBLE AREA 21
2.5 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT 22
2.5.1 INTRODUCTION 22
2.5.2 CONSOLIDATION PROCESS 23
2.5.3 TYPES OF CONSOLIDATION 24
2.5.4 ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION (CONSOLIDATION OF LATERALLY CONFINED SOIL SPECIMEN)25
2.5.5 RATE OF CONSOLIDATION 33
2.5.6 MODEL LAW OF CONSOLIDATION 35
2.5.7 DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT 36
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FCE 311 – GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I OSN - Lecture Notes
3 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS ....................................................................... 38
3.1 ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW 38

3.2 TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW 40
3.2.1 DARCY’S LAW FOR FLOW 40
3.2.2 LAPLACE EQUATION 41
3.3 FLOW NET 43
3.3.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS 43
3.3.2 PROPERTIES OF FLOW NET 43
3.3.3 FLOW NET BY GRAPHICAL METHOD 44
3.3.4 APPLICATIONS OF FLOW NET 45
3.4 SEEPAGE THROUGH ANISTROPIC SOIL 54
3.5 QUICK AND OR QUICK CONDITION 55
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FCE 411 – GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING II OSN - Lecture Notes
OVERVIEW
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course deals with foundations and focuses on soil stresses under surface
loading, settlement of soils and seepage analysis. The syllabus is as follows;
Stress Analysis:
Pressure bulbs. Stress distribution due to point load and distributed loads (Boussinesq).
Janbu et al, Fadun and Newmarks charts. Contact pressures.
Settlement of Soils
Elastic theory in soil mechanics. Immediate settlements of cohesive soils (Janbu et al.
Charts). Consolidation Settlements. Odometer test. Compressibility characteristic of soils,
coefficients of compressibility, compression, index, pre-consolidation pressures. One
dimensional consolidation settlements. Degree of consolidation. Rate of consolidation.
Secondary Consolidation.
Seepage Analysis
Seepage theory. Influence of seepage on effective stress. Critical hydraulic gradient, quick
sand conditions. Flow nets for homogenous soils, anisotropic homogenous soils and non-
homogenous soils. Seepage loss calculations and stability analysis in cofferdams and
concrete dams. Seepage through earth embankment dams. Seepage control. Laboratory
tests - consolidation tests.
PREREQUISITE
Introduction to Soil Mechanics

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME
Upon successful completion of this course, the students should acquire the following
knowledge:
a) Understand and apply the Principle of Effective Stress to a range of typical

geotechnical problems in order to predict the ground response under different
conditions of loading, soil type and groundwater states.
b) Understand how stresses are transferred through soils. Be able to compute both
geostatic stresses (total stress, effective stress, and pore pressures) and induced
stresses due to point, line, and area loads.
c) Understand basic consolidation theory. Be able to estimate the amount of settlement
and the time required for settlement under a given load.
d) Analyze problems of enclosed and open groundwater seepage to predict the
performance of structures and associated risks.
UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI Page 1

TEACHING METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES
This course relies on lectures and Power Point presentation by the lecturer. Worked
examples will be offered. Students will then be required to contribute to discussions
based on the explanations and will need to read the corresponding section in the
assigned textbook.
REQUIRED TEXT BOOKS

a) Modern Geotechnical Engineering, CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Dheli
b) Geotechnical Engineering (Basics of Soil Mechanics), S. Chand & Company Ltd,
New Dheli
c) Foundation Engineering Handbook, CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Dheli.

1 SOIL STRESSES UNDER SURFACE LOADING
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Any load placed on a soil mass induces stress changes within the soil. The changes
are greatest at shallow depths, close to the point of load application, and they
become smaller as the vertical distance below the load or the horizontal distance
from the load increases.
The stress distribution depends on;
a) The nature of loading, that is, shape of the loaded area, load distribution, and
the manner of load placement, and
b) The physical properties of soil, that is, modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio,
compressibility and stratification.
Because of great variations in these factors, an exact solution is not possible and
simplifying assumptions are made to arrive at reasonably accurate results. Most of
the methods currently used for studying stress distributions within the soil masses
are based on elastic theory or empirical modifications to precise analytical solutions
of elasticity. The commonly used assumptions are that the soil mass is;
a) Semi-infinite in extent,
b) Homogenous’
c) Isotropic, and
d) Elastic, and obeys Hooke’s law.
Natural soils seldom comply with any of these assumptions but the lack of acceptable
alternative approached makes their use a practical necessity.
1.2 POINT LOAD
1.2.1 Boussinesq Analysis
In order to estimate the stresses due to applied loads, foundation engineers have
used the theory of elasticity. However, for the theory to be used, it is not necessary
that the soil be truly elastic; only the ratio of stress to strain should be constant.
Hence, even in the case of non-elastic soil masses, the elastic theory can be used,
provided we are dealing with relatively small orders of stress. Since foundations are
designed with an adequate factor of safety against shear failure of soil, it is safe to
presume that operating stresses in soil are, in fact, small enough to assume a stress-
strain proportionality. This is the justification for the use of elastic theory in soils.
The stresses induced in a soil mass due to surface loading can be calculated from the
theory of elasticity if the following assumptions are made:
a) The soil mass is an elastic medium for which the stress-strain ratio or the
modulus of elasticity E is constant.
b) The soil mass is homogenous, that is, all its constituent parts or elements are
similar and it has identical elastic properties at every point in it in identical
directions.

c) The soil mass is isotropic, that is, it has identical elastical properties in all
directions through any point of it.
d) The soil mass is semi-infinite (or half space), that is, it extends infinitely in all
directions below a level surface.
The distribution of stresses in an elastic, homogenous, isotropic, semi-infinite mass
due to the application of a vertical point load was first derived by Boussinesq.
The vertical stress σz at a point O located at a depth z and a horizontal distance r
from the point of application of the point load Q is given by Equation 1.1.
A stress component at a point inside a soil mass can be the sum of corresponding
stress components due to self-weight of soil and external loading. Considering the
soil mass to be semi-infinite, bound by the ground surface, the stress components on
an element inside soil mass due to its self weight can be shown to be as indicated in
Fig. 1-1.
Fig 1-1: Intensity of pressure σ based on Boussinesq approach
3Q
z  2
cos5  ...Equation 1.1
2z
The point is considered to be at depth z below the ground surface.
The equation for σz can be modified as below;

z z
cos   2
R (r  z 2 )1 / 2
where z = depth of point below surface of soil mass
R = radial distance of point Q below from axis of load =  r2  z2
3Qz 3
z 
2R 5
5/ 2
3Q  1 
z 
2z 2 1  (r / z ) 2 
...Equation 1.2
Equation 1.2 may also be written as;
Q
z  KB ...Equation 1.3
z2
Where KB is an influence factor given by;

5/ 2
3  1 
KB  1  (r / z )2 
2  
KB is a number and is a function of r/z ratio and is called the Bousisinesq influence
factor. Thus, the vertical stress at a certain depth z is dependent on the r/z ration
and independent of the material. One may specifically take note of the fact that soil
modulus does not figure in the equation. Table 1.1 gives the values of KB Boussinesq
influence factor, for various values of r/z.
Table 1.1: Values for Boussinesq influence factor for vertical stress due to pint load
r/z KB r/z KB r/z KB r/z KB
0.00 0.47746 2.45 0.00368 4.90 0.00015 7.35 0.00002
0.05 0.47449 2.50 0.00337 4.95 0.00015 7.40 0.00002
0.10 0.46573 2.55 0.00310 5.00 0.00014 7.45 0.00002
0.15 0.45163 2.60 0.00285 5.05 0.00013 7.50 0.00002
0.20 0.43287 2.65 0.00262 5.10 0.00013 7.55 0.00002
0.25 0.41032 2.70 0.00241 5.15 0.00012 7.60 0.00002
0.30 0.38492 2.75 0.00223 5.20 0.00011 7.65 0.00002
0.35 0.35766 2.80 0.00205 5.25 0.00011 7.70 0.00002
0.40 0.32946 2.85 0.00190 5.30 0.00010 7.75 0.00002
0.45 0.30111 2.90 0.00176 5.35 0.00010 7.80 0.00002

0.50 0.27332 2.95 0.00163 5.40 0.00010 7.85 0.00002

0.55 0.24660 3.00 0.00151 5.45 0.00009 7.90 0.00001
0.60 0.22136 3.05 0.00140 5.50 0.00009 7.95 0.00001
0.65 0.19784 3.10 0.00130 5.55 0.00008 8.00 0.00001
0.70 0.17619 3.15 0.00121 5.60 0.00008 8.05 0.00001
0.75 0.15646 3.20 0.00113 5.65 0.00008 8.10 0.00001
0.80 0.13862 3.25 0.00105 5.70 0.00007 8.15 0.00001
0.85 0.12261 3.30 0.00098 5.75 0.00007 8.20 0.00001
0.90 0.10833 3.35 0.00091 5.80 0.00007 8.25 0.00001
0.95 0.09564 3.40 0.00085 5.85 0.00006 8.30 0.00001
1.00 0.08440 3.45 0.00080 5.90 0.00006 8.35 0.00001
1.05 0.07449 3.50 0.00075 5.95 0.00006 8.40 0.00001
1.10 0.06576 3.55 0.00070 6.00 0.00006 8.45 0.00001
1.15 0.05808 3.60 0.00066 6.05 0.00006 8.50 0.00001
1.20 0.05134 3.65 0.00062 6.10 0.00005 8.55 0.00001
1.25 0.04542 3.70 0.00058 6.15 0.00005 8.60 0.00001
1.30 0.04023 3.75 0.00054 6.20 0.00005 8.65 0.00001
1.35 0.03567 3.80 0.00051 6.25 0.00005 8.70 0.00001
1.40 0.03167 3.85 0.00048 6.30 0.00005 8.75 0.00001
1.45 0.02816 3.90 0.00045 6.35 0.00004 8.80 0.00001
1.50 0.02507 3.95 0.00043 6.40 0.00004 8.85 0.00001
1.55 0.02236 4.00 0.00040 6.45 0.00004 8.90 0.00001
1.60 0.01997 4.05 0.00038 6.50 0.00004 8.95 0.00001
1.65 0.01786 4.10 0.00036 6.55 0.00004 9.00 0.00001
1.70 0.01600 4.15 0.00034 6.60 0.00004 9.05 0.00001
1.75 0.01435 4.20 0.00032 6.65 0.00003 9.10 0.00001
1.80 0.01290 4.25 0.00030 6.70 0.00003 9.15 0.00001
1.85 0.01161 4.30 0.00028 6.75 0.00003 9.20 0.00001
1.90 0.01046 4.35 0.00027 6.80 0.00003 9.25 0.00001
1.95 0.00945 4.40 0.00026 6.85 0.00003 9.30 0.00001
2.00 0.00854 4.45 0.00024 6.90 0.00003 9.35 0.00001
2.05 0.00773 4.50 0.00023 6.95 0.00003 9.40 0.00001
2.10 0.00701 4.55 0.00022 7.00 0.00003 9.45 0.00001
2.15 0.00637 4.60 0.00021 7.05 0.00003 9.50 0.00001
2.20 0.00579 4.65 0.00020 7.10 0.00003 9.60 0.00001
2.25 0.00528 4.70 0.00019 7.15 0.00002 9.70 0.00001
2.30 0.00481 4.75 0.00018 7.20 0.00002 9.80 0.00001
2.35 0.00439 4.80 0.00017 7.25 0.00002 9.90 0.00000
2.40 0.00402 4.85 0.00016 7.30 0.00002 10.00 0.00000
It can be seen from Table 1.1 that for r=0, KB = 0.47746. Thus, the vertical stress
directly below the point load on its axis of loading is given by;
Q
 z  0.47746 ...Equation 1.4
z2
It is clear from Equation 1.4 that the decrease in vertical stress with increase depth is
very rapid – it decreases with the square of the depth.

Also, theoretically, the vertical stress will be zero only at an infinite distance from the
load. Practically, however, the value can be considered to be zero at a relatively
small finite distance from the load.
By means of Boussinesq Equation 1.2, the following vertical pressure distribution

diagrams can be prepared:
a) Isobar diagram
b) Pressure distribution diagram on a horizontal plane;
c) Pressure distribution diagram along a vertical plane.
1.2.2 Isobar and pressure bulb
An isobar is a line or contour joining points inside soil mass at which the vertical
stress have same value. An isobar of a given vertical stress intensity can be
constructed using Boussinesq equation for vertical stress due to point load. All other
quantities in the equation being known, the radial distance r is computed for
different values of z and then plotted to obtain an isobar. The following example, in
which an isobar of intensity 0.1Q is plotted, illustrates the procedure.
The Boussinesq equation for vertical stress due to point load is;
5/ 2
3Q  1 
z  1  (r / z ) 2 
2z 2  
Subsituting σz = 0.1Q, we have;
5/ 2
3Q  1 
0.1Q  1  (r / z )2 
2z 2  
Rearranging and solving;
r  1.869z1.2  z 2 ...Equation 1.5
Putting r = 0, we get,
z = 2.18
The isobar cuts the axis of loading at z = 2.18m. For values of z at suitable interval
up to 2.18m, r is evaluated using Equation 1.5 and then plotted to obtain the isobar.

z(m) r(m)
0.50 0.89
1.00 0.93
1.50 0.89
2.00 0.54
When an isobar is rotated about the axis of loading, a volume is generated which is
referred to as pressure bulb. The pressure bulb is of great significance in practice.
Isobars for 0.1Q, 0.2Q, 0.5Q, 1.0Q and 2Q are shown in Fig. 1-2.
Fig 1-2: Family of isobars (Curves of equal vertical pressure) under a point load
1.2.3 Vertical Stress Distribution on Horizontal Plane
The vertical stress distribution on a horizontal plane at a given depth z can be

determined using Boussinesq equation. z being constant, σz is calculated for different
values of r. The procedure is illustrated in the following example. The Boussinesq
equation for vertical stress due to point load acting at surface is
5/ 2
3Q  1 
z  1  (r / z ) 2 
2z 2  
For example, let Q = 100 kN and z = 2m

5/ 2
3(100)  1  381.97
z    z (kN / m2 )
8 1  (r / 2)2  2
(r  4) 5/ 2
Using the last equation, σz is calculated for different values of r and plotted as shown
in Fig. 1.3.
σz
r(m)
(kN/m2)
0 11.94
1 6.83
2 2.11
3 0.63
Fig 1-3: Vertical stress distribution on horizontal plane
1.2.4 Vertical Stress Distribution on a Vertical Line
The vertical stress distribution on a vertical line due to a point load acting on the
surface of soil mass can be determined using Boussinesq equation for vertical stress
due to a point load. Keeping r constant, σz is evaluated for different values of z. The
Boussinesq equation for vertical stress due to point load is:

5/ 2
3Q  1 
z  1  (r / z ) 2 
2z 2  
For example, let Q = 100 kn and r = 2m
Then
150  z3 
z   2 5/ 2 
  (4  z ) 
σz is calculated for different values of z using the last equation and plotted as shown
in Fig. 1.4.
σz
r(m)
(kN/m2)
0.5 0.16
1.0 0.85
2.0 2.11
3.0 2.12
4.0 1.71
5.0 1.32
6.0 1.02
Fig 1-4: Vertical stress distribution on vertical plane
1.3 VERTICAL STRESS UNDER UNIFORMLY LOADED CIRCULAR AREA
Consider a circular area of radius R on the surface of an elastic, isotropic, semi-

infinite mass carrying a uniformly distributed load of intensity q per unit area. The
intensity of loading per unit area is also referred to s the unit load. Consider an

elementary ring of radius r and width δr on the loaded area. If the elementary ring is
further divided into small parts, each of area δA, the load on each elementary area
δA may be considered as a point load of magnitude qδA as shown in Fig. 1-5.
Fig 1-5: Vertical stress under loaded circular area
Vertical pressure at point O due to point load qδA as given by Equation 1.2 is;
5/ 2
3qA  1 
2  2 .
2z 1  (r / z ) 
Integrating for the entire ring the vertical pressure ∆ σz is given by:
5/ 2
3q  A  1 
 z  2  2
2z 1  (r / z ) 
5/ 2
3q(2rr )  1 
 z 
2z 2 1  (r / z ) 2 
 ...Equation 1.6

The total vertical pressure σz at point O due to the distributed load on the entire
circular area of radius R is obtained by integrating Equation 1.6 between the limits 0
and R:
3/ 2
   
  1  
 z  q 1    
  1  ( R )2   ...Equation 1.7
  z  
or σz = KBq
3/ 2
 
 1 
KB  1   
where: R ...Equation 1.8
 1  ( )2 
 
 z 
Equation 1.7 and 1.8 gives the vertical pressure on points located below the centre
of a uniformly loaded circular area. The dimensionless quantity KB is the influence
factor for vertical pressure under the centre of a uniformly loaded circular area.
Values of KB for different values of R/z are given in Table 1.2. The vertical pressure
at a given point can be obtained by multiplying the unit load q with the appropriate
influence factor as given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Influence Factor for Vertical pressure Under Centre of Uniformly Loaded
Circular Area
R/z KB R/z KB R/z KB
0.00 0.00000 1.00 0.64645 2.00 0.91056
0.10 0.01481 1.10 0.69562 3.00 0.96838
0.20 0.05713 1.20 0.73763 4.00 0.98573
0.30 0.12126 1.30 0.77334 5.00 0.99246
0.40 0.19959 1.40 0.80364 6.00 0.99556
0.50 0.28446 1.50 0.82932 7.00 0.99717
0.60 0.36949 1.60 0.85112 8.00 0.99809
0.70 0.45018 1.70 0.86966 9.00 0.99865
0.80 0.52386 1.80 0.88546 20.00 0.99988
0.90 0.58934 1.90 0.89897 100.00 1.00000
1.4 VERTICAL PRESSURE UNDER A UNIFORMLY LOADED

RECTANGULAR AREA
The vertical pressure σz at depth z below a corner of uniformly loaded

rectangular area (Fig. 1-6) of length L and width B has been obtained by
Newmark on integration of Equation 1.1, reproduced herebelow;

5/ 2
3Q  1 
z  1  (r / z ) 2 
2z 2  
σz = KBq ...Equation 1.9
where: q = uniform load intensity
KB = influence factor given by Equation 1.10
1  2mn(m2  n 2  1)1 / 2 m2  n2  2 2 2
1 2mn(m  n  1)
1/ 2

KB     tan 
4  m2  n2  m2 n 2  1 m2  n 2  1 m2  n 2  m2n2  1 
...Equation 1.10
B L
where m and n
z z
(Note: L and B, or m and n are interchangeable)
The values of KB for different values of m and n are given in Table 1.3.
Fig. 1-6: Division of Rectangle into Four Areas (Point A within the rectangle)
If the point at which vertical pressure is required is not located below a corner but
below some other point A of the rectangle (Fig. 1-6), the loaded area is divided into
four rectangles, each with a corner at A. The rations m and n are calculated for each
one of the areas marked 1, 2, 3 and 4. The corresponding values of KB1, KB2, KB3 and
KB4 for the four areas are obtained from Table 1.3. The total vertical pressure at
depth z below point A is given by;
σz = q (KB1+KB2+KB3+KB4) ... Equation 1.11

Fig. 1-7: Construction of rectangles when Point A is located outside the loaded Area
When the point A is at the centre of a rectangular area, the subdivision will be in the
form of four quadrants and then Eq.1.11 becomes;
σz = 4q KB1 ... Equation 1.12
where: KB1 = influence factor for one quadrant.
When the point A is located outside the loaded area abcd, the construction of
rectangles is illustrated in Fig. 1-7. The area abcd may be considered to be algebraic
sum of rectangles, each with a corner at A, as given in Eq. 1.13.
Abcd = Ab1cd1 – Ab1ba2 – Aa1dd1 + Aa1aa2 ... Equation 1.13

If KB1, KB2, KB3 and KB4 are respective influence factors for the four areas given on the
right-hand side of Eq. 1.13, the vertical pressure below point A is given by;
σz = q (KB1-KB2-KB3+KB4) ... Equation 1.14

Table 1.3: Influence Factor for Vertical pressure Under Corner of Uniformly Loaded
Rectangular Area
n
m 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.10 0.0047 0.0092 0.0132 0.0168 0.0198 0.0222 0.0242 0.0258 0.0270 0.0279
0.20 0.0092 0.0179 0.0259 0.0328 0.0387 0.0435 0.0473 0.0504 0.0528 0.0547
0.30 0.0132 0.0259 0.0374 0.0474 0.0559 0.0629 0.0686 0.0731 0.0766 0.0794
0.40 0.0168 0.0328 0.0474 0.0602 0.0711 0.0801 0.0873 0.0931 0.0977 0.1013
0.50 0.0198 0.0387 0.0559 0.0711 0.0840 0.0947 0.1034 0.1103 0.1158 0.1202
0.60 0.0222 0.0435 0.0629 0.0801 0.0947 0.1069 0.1168 0.1247 0.1311 0.1360
0.70 0.0242 0.0473 0.0686 0.0873 0.1034 0.1168 0.1277 0.1365 0.1436 0.1491
0.80 0.0258 0.0504 0.0731 0.0931 0.1103 0.1247 0.1365 0.1461 0.1537 0.1598
0.90 0.0270 0.0528 0.0766 0.0977 0.1158 0.1311 0.1436 0.1537 0.1618 0.1684
1.00 0.0279 0.0547 0.0794 0.1013 0.1202 0.1360 0.1491 0.1598 0.1684 0.1752
1.20 0.0293 0.0573 0.0832 0.1063 0.1263 0.1431 0.1570 0.1684 0.1777 0.1851
1.40 0.0301 0.0589 0.0856 0.1094 0.1300 0.1475 0.1620 0.1739 0.1836 0.1914
1.60 0.0306 0.0599 0.0871 0.1114 0.1324 0.1503 0.1652 0.1774 0.1874 0.1955
1.80 0.0309 0.0606 0.0880 0.1126 0.1339 0.1521 0.1672 0.1797 0.1899 0.1981
2.00 0.0311 0.0610 0.0887 0.1134 0.1350 0.1533 0.1686 0.1812 0.1915 0.1999
2.50 0.0314 0.0615 0.0895 0.1145 0.1363 0.1548 0.1704 0.1832 0.1937 0.2024
5.00 0.0316 0.0620 0.0901 0.1154 0.1374 0.1561 0.1718 0.1849 0.1956 0.2044
10.00 0.0316 0.0620 0.0902 0.1154 0.1374 0.1562 0.1720 0.1850 0.1958 0.2046
∞ 0.0316 0.0620 0.0902 0.1154 0.1374 0.1562 0.1720 0.1850 0.1958 0.2046
Equation σz = KBq can also be written as σz = qIσ. Influence value Iσ can be

obtained from chart prepared by Fadum (1941) reproduced in Fig. 1-8.
Fig. 1-8: Influence factors for vertical stress beneath a corner of a uniformly loaded
rectangular area (After Fadum, 1941)

1.5 NEWMARK CHART
Newmark (1942) evolved an influence chart on the basis of the Boussinesq

solution which can be used for finding the vertical pressure below any irregularly
shaped area carrying a uniform load.
Rewriting Equation 1.7
 
z  1 
 1   ...Equation 1.15
q  (1  ( R )2 )3 / 2 
 z 
R 
(1  ( ) 2 ) 3 / 2  (1  z )
z q
2
R 
 (1  z ) 2 / 3  1
z q
2 0.5
R   
 (1  z ) 2 / 3  1 ...Equation 1.16
z  q 
If a series of values are assigned to the ratio σz/q (say, 0, 0.1, 0.2, etc), the
corresponding values of the ratio a/z are obtained as given in Table 1.4:
Table 1.4: Values of the Ratios σz/q and a/z from Boussinesq Analysis
σz/q R/z σz/q R/z

0.0 0.00 0.6 0.92
0.1 0.27 0.7 1.11
0.2 0.40 0.8 1.39
0.3 0.52 0.9 1.92
0.4 0.64 1.0 ∞
0.5 0.77
Choosing a particular value of depth for z a series of ten concentric circles can
be drawn. In practice, only nine circles will be drawn as the tenth circle has an
infinite radius. If the diagram of concentric circles is further divided into smaller
areas by drawing a set of equally spaced radial rays from the centre (say m
divisions), there will be 10 x m such area units, where σz is the total pressure.
If, for example, m = 20 (i.e. total units = 200), each influence unit contributes
σz/200 = 0.005σz. Thus the influence factor is 0.005. Adopting for z (say 3 cm),
the radii of the circles are 0.81cm, 1.20cm and 1.56cm, etc. The resulting
diagram is shown in Fig. 1-9. The scale line AB represents 3 cm.

Fig. 1-9: Newmark influence chart based on Boussinesq analysis. Influence factor 0.005.
AB=z=3cm
The chart can be used for a uniformly loaded area of any shape. The plan of the
loaded area is drawn on a tracing paper to a scale that the actual depth z at
which the pressure is required is represented by the scale line AB (=3cm). The
plan is then placed over the chart, and the point below which pressure is
required, is coincided with the centre of the chart. The number of influence units
(including fractions of units) contained within the boundaries of the plan are
added to get the total number of units. The vertical pressure is then given:
σz=0.005q x number of influence units
If the plan of the loaded area extends beyond the 9th circle, it may be assumed
to approach the 10th circle for the purpose of counting the influence units.

2 SETTLEMENT OF SOILS
2.1 FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT
Is the vertical component of soil deformation beneath the load under consideration.
2.2 COMPONENTS OF SETTLEMENT
The settlement of a foundation comprise three parts as follows (Equation 2.1);

S = Se + Sc + Ss ...Equation 2.1
Where:
S = total settlement
Se = elastic or immediate settlement
Ss = Consolidation settlement
Sc = secondary settlement
2.2.1 Immediate Settlement
Is that part of total settlement which is supposed to take place during the
application of loading. Immediate settlement concerns the initial pressure on the
soil under and surrounding the foundation. It is ‘immediate’ because it occurs
during and right after construction. It has nothing to do with water
displacement, but merely caused by the weight of the structure. In terms of
building foundations, immediate settlement is relatively easy to predict and
measure. In many cases, given the nature of the soil, foundations are
constructed with the ability to withstand a certain amount of shift without
damage. Damage usually occurs in the long term as the shift slowly continues
over time. It is primarily due to change of shape and not change of volume.
2.2.2 Consolidation Settlement
Is that part which is due to expulsion of pore water from the voids and is time-
dependent settlement.
It refers to settlement in which the rate of settlement is controlled by the rate at
which water can be expelled from the void spaces in the soils. This leads to
volumetric deformation.
2.2.3 Secondary Settlement
Secondary settlement normally starts with the completion of the consolidation. It

means, during the stage of the settlement, the pore water pressure is zero and
the settlement is only due to the distortion of the soil skeleton.
Settlement in cohesionless soils;

Footing founded in cohesionless soil reach almost the final settlement, S, during
the construction stage itself due to the high permeability of soil. The water in the
voids is expelled simultaneously with the application of load and as such the
immediate and consolidation settlements in such soils are rolled into one.

Settlements in cohesive soils

In cohesive soils under saturated conditions, there is no change in the water
content during the stage of immediate settlement. The soil mass is deformed
without any change in volume soon after the application of the load. This is due
to the low permeability of the soil. With the advancement of time there will be
gradual expulsion of water under the imposed excess load. The time required for
the complete expulsion of water and to reach zero water pressure may be
several years depending upon the permeability of the soil.
Consolidation settlement may take many years to reach its final stage.
Secondary settlement, though in some of the organic soils there will be
overlapping of the two settlements to certain extent.
Immediate settlements of cohesive soils and the total settlements of

cohesionless soils may be estimated from elastic theory. The stresses and
displacements depend on the stress-strain characteristics of the underlying soil.
2.3 CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT

a) Static loads, such as those imposed by the weight of a structure or an
embankment.
b) Dynamic loads, such as those produced by machinery or moving loads on
roads or airfield pavements, pile driving, blasting etc.
c) Changes in moisture content, e.g. from seasonal fluctuations in the water
table.
2.4 ELASTIC SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
2.4.1 Computation of Elastic Settlements beneath the corner of a uniformly

loaded flexible area based on the theory of elasticity
The net elastic settlement equation for a flexible surface footing may be
written as;
(1   2 )
Se  qn B If ...Equation 2.2
Es
where;
Se = elastic settlement
B = width of foundation
Es = modulus of elasticity
μ = Poisson’s ratio
qn = net foundation pressure
If = influence factor
Footings founded at a depth D below the surface settle under the imposed
loads due to the compressibility characteristics of the subsoil. The depth
through which the soil is compressed depends upon the distribution of
effective vertical pressure P’0 of the overburden and the vertical induced
stress ∆p resulting from the net foundation pressure qn.

The depth Ds as shown below is called the Zone of Significant Stress.
Fig. 2-1: Distribution of effective vertical pressure
In the case of deep compressible soils, the lowest level considered in the
settlement analysis is the point where the vertical induced stress ∆p is of the
order of 0.1 to 0.2qn where qn is the net foundation pressure on foundation
from superstructure.
If is a function of the L ratio of the foundation, and the thickness H of the

B
compressible layer.
Evaluation of Modulus of Elasticity

Modulus of Elasticity can be evaluated either by Laboratory Method or by
Field Method. The field tests that are normally used for this purpose are;
1. Plate load test
2. Standard penetration test
3. Static cone penetration test
4. Pressuremeter test
5. Flat dilatometer test
Fig. 2-2: Modulus of Elasticity from a stress-strain curve

Example 1:
Estimate the immediate settlement of a concrete footing 1.5x1.5m in size
founded at a depth of 1m in silty soil whose modulus of elasticity is
9,000kN/m2. The footing is expected to transmit a unit pressure of 200kN/m2.
Assume μ =0.35.
Solution:
(1   2 )
Se  qn B If
Es
For square footing (rigid), If =0.82.
Given q = 200kN/m2, B = 1.5, Es = 9,000kN/m2, by substituting into
equation, Se = 24mm.
2.4.2 Settlement at centre of flexible area
To obtain settlement at the centre of the loaded area, the principle of

superposition is followed (Fig. 2-3). In such a case, N, as shown below, will
be at the centre of the area when B1=B4=L2=B3 and B2=L1. Then the
settlement at the centre is equal to four times the settlement at any one
corner.
Fig. 2-3: Settlement at the Centre of a Loaded Area
Example 2
Compute the immediate settlement at the centre of the uniformly loaded
flexible area measuring 6m x 6m. The applied unit pressure is 200 kN/m2 and
depth to firm bottom is 3m. Assume modulus of elasticity is 9,000 kN/m2.
Assume μ =0.35.
Solution
Use If values for the corners of four equally sided rectangles 3mx3m. In this
case, H/B=1 and L/B=1, and from Charts, If = 0.15.

(1   2 ) 1  0.352 
 Se  qn B I f  4  200  3   0.15  4  35.1mm
Es  9000 
2.5 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
2.5.1 Introduction
Consolidation is a process whereby soil particles are parked more closely

together over a period of time under the application of continued pressure. It is
accompanied mainly by the gradual drainage of water from the soil pores.
Consolidation is strictly applicable only to saturated or nearly saturated clays or

other soils of low permeability.
Fig. 2-4: Loading on a saturated clays
When a saturated clay is loaded externally, the water is squeezed out of the clay
over a long time due to low permeability of the clay. This leads to settlement
occurring over a long time (Fig. 2-5).

Fig. 2-5: Settlement on a saturated clay
In granular soils drainage is free, and thus the settlement is instantaneous (Fig.
2-6).
Fig. 2-6: Settlement on granular soil

2.5.2 Consolidation Process
When an external pressure (termed the total pressure) is applied to a saturated

cohesive soil, the entire pressure is at first carried by the pore water, because
the soil structure must compress to take any additional load. The pore water
pressure which is induced, is called the “excess pore water pressure” since it is
in excess of the original hydrostatic pressure.
If the soil is bounded by surfaces from which water can escape (such as sand or
gravel layer), the excess pore water pressure will cause the water to drain out
into the adjoining layers. This will, however, occur slowly because of the low
permeability of the soil. As water drains out, the soil begins to compress and a
portion of additional pressure is transferred to the soil grains forming the soil
‘skeleton’ and the pore pressure correspondingly falls. The difference between

the total pressure σ and the pore pressure u at any instant is the effective
pressure σ’ carried by the soil particles.
At equilibrium when the drainage of water ceases, whole of the external

pressure is carried by the soil particles as the effective pressure which is known
as the “consolidation pressure σc’ and the excess pore pressure reduces to zero.
This process of expulsion of water from the soil due to excess pore pressure with
gradual reduction in soil volume accompanied by transfer of pressure from pore
water to soil skeleton is called the “process of consolidation”.
Spring analogy
The process of consolidation is often explained with an idealized system
composed of a spring, a container with a hole in its cover, and water. In this
system, the spring represents the compressibility or the structure of the soil
itself, and the water which fills the container represents the pore water in the
soil.
Fig. 2-7: Process of Consolidation using spring analogy
1. The container is completely filled with water, and the hole is closed. (Fully
saturated soil)
2. A load is applied onto the cover, while the hole is still unopened. At this
stage, only the water resists the applied load. (Development of excess pore
water pressure)
3. As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out through the hole and
the spring shortens. (Drainage of excess pore water pressure)
4. After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the spring
alone resists the applied load. (Full dissipation of excess pore water pressure.
End of consolidation)
2.5.3 Types of Consolidation

a) Primary consolidation
Is the compression of soil due to the dissipation of the excess pore
pressure under loading.
b) Secondary consolidation
Is the compression that continues after the excess pore pressure has
virtually dissipated and no more water drains out.

2.5.4 One-dimensional consolidation (consolidation of laterally confined soil

specimen)
If a soil specimen is laterally confined and subjected to vertical pressure,

compression or consolidation takes place in the vertical direction. In the
laboratory, consolidation tests can be conducted both on remoulded soil
specimen and undisturbed soil specimen. The drainage condition in the field is
simulated by using two porous plates for double drainage condition and one
porous plate and a non-porous plate for single drainage condition. The soil
specimen is sandwiched between the two plates and pressure applied in
increments on the top plate.
Under any applied pressure, excess pore pressure builds up and as the pore
water drains out compression in vertical direction proceeds and after sometime
when excess pore pressure is fully dissipated i.e. u  0, the equilibrium state is
reached. At this stage the effective stress σ’, in soil specimen becomes equal to
applied pressure. The final equilibrium void ratio, e, can be computed. During
the progress of test the equilibrium void ratio attained under different applied
pressures are found.
a) ∆H - ∆e Relation
Fig. 2-8: ∆H - ∆e Relation
H
Average vertical strain 
H
Consider an element where Vs = 1 initially.

Fig. 2-9: Element where V s = 1 initially

e
Average vertical strain 
1  e0
Equating the two expressions for average vertical strain, we have;
H e
 ...Equation 2.3
H 1  e0
Where:
∆H = consolidation settlement
H = initial thickness of clay later
∆e = change in void ratio
e0 = initial void ratio
b) Coefficient of volume compressibility

Denoted by Mv and defined as the volumetric strain in a clay element per unit
increase in stress,
i.e.
V / V
Mv  ...Equation 2.4

V H e
Also note that  
V H 1  e0
c) Consolidation test
It is the simulation of 1-D field consolidation in a laboratory. The apparatus used
in the laboratory is known as Consolidometer or Oedometer.

Fig. 2-10: The Oedometer
Fig. 2-11: Consolidation test procedure
H1
e1  (1  e0 ) ...Equation 2.5
H
The void ratio e is plotted as ordinate against effective stress σ’ as abscissa to

obtain the relation between the two.

Fig. 2-13: Void ratio against effective stress in normal scale
The curve AB is obtained by increasing the applied pressure in increments

allowing equilibrium stage to be reached under each pressure. If at stage
corresponding to point B, the applied pressure is completely removed, the soil
specimen expands as indicated by curve BC. However, the soil specimen will not
attain again the original void ratio corresponding to beginning of test because it
will have undergone some permanent compression which can be attributed to
irreversible orientation undergone by soil particles.
If the specimen is recompressed and the test continued the curve CD and DE are
obtained. The curves AB and DE correspond to consolidation of soil during which
at any stage the applied pressure is greater than any pressure which the soil
specimen has been subjected to in the past. They are referred to as virgin
compression curves. The curve BC is called expansion curve and the curve CD
the recompression curve.
If void ratio e is plotted as ordinate on natural scale against effective stress σ’ as

abscissa on logarithmic scale, the virgin compression curves and expansion
curve becomes nearly straight lines.

Fig. 2-14: Void ratio against effective stress in logarithmic scale
d) Settlement computation
There are two ways of calculating settlement;
 Using Mv
Settlement = Mv.∆σ.H
 Using e-logσ’ plot
e
Settlement  H
1 e0
e) Compression and recompression indices
Fig. 2-15: Compression and recompression indices
Cc = compression index
Cr = recompression index

f) Preconsolidation pressure, σp’

Is the maximum vertical effective stress the soil element has ever been
subjected to.
g) Normally consolidated clay

A clay which has been subjected only to an increase in pressure is a normally
consolidated (NC) day. The existing pressure is thus the greatest pressure so far
applied to the day. Compression characteristics of an element of normally
consolidated day in the field are similar to the straight portions of the virgin
curves.
h) Overconsolidated clay
Is a clay which has been consolidated in the past under an effective pressure
which is greater than the existing pressure. The maximum pressure to which a
clay was subjected in the past is called “preconsolidation pressure σp’. This
pressure value forms the boundary between recompression and virgin
compression range.
i) Oversonsolidation ratio (OCR)

The ratio of the preconsolidation pressure to the present effective overburden
pressure is called the “Overconsoladation ratio, OCR”. Thus OCR>1 indicates an
overconsolidated day and OCR=1 indicates a normally consolidated curve.
Fig. 2-16: Overconsolidation ratio
j) Computing ∆e using e – logσ’ plot

If the clay is normally consolidated, the entire loading path is along virgin
compression curve.

Fig. 2-17: The case of normally consolidated clay
 0 '  '
e  cc log ...Equation 2.6
0'
If the clay is overconsolidated, and remains so by end of consolidation.
Fig. 2-18: The case of overconsolidated clay
 0 '  '
e  cr log ...Equation 2.7
0'

If an overconsolidated clay becomes normally consolidated by the end of

consolidation,
Fig. 2-19: The case of overconsolidated clay becoming normally consolidated by

the end of consolidation
 p'  '  '

e  cr log  cc log 0 ...Equation 2.8
0'  p'
Example 3:
In a consolidation test void ratio decreased from 0.70 to 0.65 when the load was
changed from 50kN/m2 to 100kN/m2. Compute compression index and coefficient
of volume change.
Solution
σ1 = 50 kN/m2
σ2 = 100 kN/m2
e1 = 0.70
e2 = 0.65
e
(i) cc 
 '   '
log 0
0'
In this problem, σ0’+∆σ’ =100
and σ0’= 50
∆e = 0.70 – 0.65
Substituting and solving, cc = 0.166.
V 1 e 1 0.70  0.65 1
(ii) mv  .  .    5.88  10 4 m 2 / kN
V  1  e0  1  0.7 100  50

Example 4:
A 5m thick saturated soil stratum has a compression index of 0.25. If the void
ratio is 1.9 at vertical stress of 0.15N/mm2, compute the void ratio when the
vertical stress is increased to 0.2N/mm2. Also calculate settlement due to above
stress increase.
Solution
H = 5m
cc = 0.25
σ0 = 0.15N/m2
σ1 = 0.2N/m2
e0 = 1.9
e1 = ?
∆H1 = ?
e e e
(i) cc   0 1
1 
log log 1
0 0
 0.2
e0  e1  cc log 1  0.25 log( )  0.0312
0 0.15
e1 = e0 – 0.0312 = 1.9 – 0.0312 = 1.869
e  H 0.2 5000
(ii) H  .H  cc log( 1 )   0.25 log   53.8mm
1  e0  0 1  e0 0.15 1  1.9
2.5.5 Rate of consolidation
If ∆Hf denotes final settlement under pressure increment ∆σ and ∆Ht and the
settlement at any intermediate time t, then the degree of consolidation attained
at that time t is given by Equation 2.9;
H t
U%  100 ...Equation 2.9
H f
Therefore, the degree of consolidation is a ratio, expressed at as a percentage, of

the amount of consolidation at a given time within a soil mass, to the total
amount of consolidation obtainable under a given stress condition.
The degree of consolidation is a function of time factor, TV,
U %  f (Tv ) ...Equation 2.10
The time factor TV is a dimensionless parameter defined by the following

equation;

cvt
Tv  ...Equation 2.11
d2
where;
d = drainage path
cv = coefficient of consolidation.
The drainage path represents the maximum distance a water particle has to
travel within the layer to reach a drainage face. When a day layer is bound by
two drainage faces, double drainage occurs. When a clay layer is bound by a
drainage face at one end and an impervious boundary at other end, single
drainage occurs.
H
For the case of double drainage, d 
2
For the case of single drainage, d  H
where H= thickness of layer.
From Terzaghi’s Theory of One Dimensional Consolidation, the time factor can be
written as;
cvt k t
Tv  2
  2 ...Equation 2.12
d mv w d
k
The coefficient of consolidation cv  indicates the combined effects of
mv w
permeability and compressibility of soil on the rate of volume change. If k is
expressed in m/sec, mv in m2/kN and  w in kN/m3, unit of cv will be m2/sec.
The time factor, and hence the degree of consolidation depends upon;
i) Coefficient of permeability, k
ii) Coefficient of volume compressibility, mv
iii) Thickness of layer
iv) Number of drainage faces
Therefore the time factor contains the physical constraints influencing the time-
rate of consolidation.
The following approximate expressions may be used to compute TV.
When U <60%
2
U 
Tv   ...Equation 2.13
4 100 
And when U>60%

 U 
Tv  0.9332 log10 1   0.0851 ...Equation 2.14
 100 
The coefficient of consolidation cv can be obtained from results of soil specimen

in laboratory test from a consolidation test.
Example 5
In a consolidation test, a soil sample 20mm thick takes 20 minutes to reach 20%
consolidation. Find the time taken for a clay layer 6m thick to reach 40%
consolidation. Assume double drainage in both cases.
Solution
20
For laboratory sample, drainage path, d   10mm
2
Degree of consolidation, u  20% at time t  20 min .
2
U 
Time factor, Tv    0.0314
4 100 
ct
Also Tv  v2
d
d 2 0.0314 102
cv  Tv   2.617 10 3 mm 2 / sec
t 20  60
For field clay layer,
6
d  3m, U=40%, t = ?
2
c v is same for field clay layer and laboratory sample.
2
  40 
Tv    0.1257
4 100 
ct
Tv  v2
d
Tv d 2 0.1257  (3000) 2
t  secs .......days?
cv 2.617 103
2.5.6 Model law of consolidation
If two layers of the same clay with different drainage paths d1 and d2 are
subjected to the same pressure and reach the same degree of consolidation in
times t1 and t2, then theoretically their coefficients of consolidation must be equal
as must their time factors.
cvt
From Tv 
d2
cv1 t1
Tv1  2
d1

cv2 t2
Tv2  2
d2
Equating cv1 = cv1 and Tv1 = Tv2 ,
t1 t
2
 22 ...Equation 2.15
d1 d2
This equation gives a simple method for predicting the time for a clay layer in the
field to reach a certain degree of consolidation by testing an undisturbed sample
of clay and measuring the time it takes to reach the same degree of
consolidation.
Example 4
During a pressure increment a test specimen, 20mm thick, attained 50% primary
consolidation in 45 minutes. How long would it take a 10m thick layer of the
same soil to reach the same degree of consolidation if;
a) The clay layer was drained on both surfaces
b) It was drained on the top surface only.
Solution
20
a) For a specimen with double drainage, d 1   10mm
2
10
Field clay layer with double drainage, d 2   5m
2
t1 2 45  (5  1000)2 1 1 1
t2  2
 d 2  2
    21.4 yrs
d1 10 60 24 365
b) Clay layer with single drainage, d1=10m, t2 = 4×21.4 = 85.6 years.
2.5.7 Differential settlement
Differential settlement is when one part of a foundation settles more than the
other part.
Consider the diagrams below showing different shapes of settlement.

Fig. 2-20: (a) Uniform settlement, (b) Tilt, (c) Non-uniform settlement
Differential settlement = H max  H min
Causes of differential settlement;

1. Variation in soil strata
One part of structure may be founded on a compressible soil and the other
part on incompressible material.
2. Variation in foundation loading
Some parts heavy load and other light
3. Difference in time of construction of adjacent parts of structure
This is the case when extension of a structure is to be done after many years.
4. Variation in site conditions
One part of building area may have been occupied by heavy structure which
had been demolished or on sloping site, the removal of considerable thickness
of overburden to form level site results in different stress conditions.
Methods of preventing excessive differential settlement

1. Provision of a rigid raft foundation either with a thick slab or with deep beams
in the two or three directions.
2. Provision of deep basements to reduce the net bearing pressure on the soil.
3. Transference of foundation loading to deeper and less compressible soil by
means of basements, piers or piles.
4. Provision of additional loading on lightly loaded areas in the form of
embankment.
5. Improve the properties of the foundation soil by increasing shear strength
and reducing the compressibility of the problem material.

3 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS
3.1 ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW
Seepage is the percolation or slow movement of water through soil or rock. It may
be one dimensional (unidirectional), two dimensional in one plane, or three
dimensional. A simple example of one dimensional flow is illustrated in Fig. 3.1 where
water is flowing in the horizontal direction through a sample of sand contained within
a tube of square cross section. If a dye is injected in sand on certain points on the
upstream face where water is entering the sample, coloured streaks will form
indicating the path taken by the percolating water. The path which a particle of
water follows in its course of seepage under laminar flow conditions is called a ‘flow
line’ or a ’stream line’. An infinite number of flow lines is possible; however, only a
limited number is adopted to represent a given flow. Only two flow lines are shown
in Fig. 3-1. There is also a limiting flow line at each horizontal boundary of the
sample; these are known as the ‘boundary flow lines’. These four flow lines divide
the area into three flow channels of equal dimensions. A ‘flow channel’ is the space
bounded by two adjacent flow liens. All the flow lines are straight because the
confining boundaries are parallel. In most flow problems, however, the flow lines are
curved.
Fig. 3-1: Illustration of flow lines
As water moves along the flow lines, it experiences a continuous loss of head. The
line AB in Fig. 3-2 represents the piezometric surface upto which water will rise if
small piezometers are inserted at several positions along the length of the sample. If
several piezometers are inserted at different elevations on any vertical section, say C
or D, water rises to exactly the same level. The line along which water rises to the
same elevation in piezometric tubes is called ‘equipotential line’ or the ‘piezometric
line.’ It indicates that the same energy level (head or potential) exists everywhere

along a given equipotential line. An equipotential line intersects the flow lines at
points of equal head. In the typical case of horizontal flow of Fig. 3-2, the
equipotential lines are vertical.
Fig. 3-2: illustration of equipotential line
Just as there is an infinite number of flow lines, there is also an infinite numbers
equipontential lines; but only a limited number is selected which is considered
enough to give a readable pattern. If the length of the specimen is divided with
equipotential lines at equal intervals, the loss of head between any two pairs of
adjacent equipotential lines will be the same. Combining flow lines with equipotential
lines, a flow net is obtained, as shown in Fig 3-3. The portion of a flow channel
bounded by two flow lines and two equipotential lines is called a ‘field’. In an
isotropic soil the flow lines and equipotential lines intersect at right angles, meaning
that the flow direction is normal to the equipotential lines. The simplest pattern of
orthogonal lines is one of squares. Thus the simple flow net of Fig. 3-3 is composed
of square fields. Typical lines of equal pressure (piezometric head) are also shown in
the figure.

Fig. 3-3: Simple flow net
3.2 TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW
3.2.1 Darcy’s law for flow
In the mid-eighteenth century, H. Darcy (1856), working in Paris, studied

experimentally the flow of water through sands. For laminar flow through
saturated soil, Darcy established experimentally that the velocity of flow, v, is
directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient, i.
v∝i
We can write v = k i ...Equation 3.1
The loss of hydraulic head per unit distance of flow is called the hydraulic
gradient i, i.e.,
h h
i or i  ...Equation 3.2
L L
where:
h = hydraulic head or head loss
L = distance along flow path over which head loss is h.
The constant of proportionality, k between v and i is called Darcy’s coefficient of

permeability. When i = 1, we have k = 1. Therefore the coefficient of
permeability can also be defined as the velocity of flow through soil under unit
hydraulic gradient and has the same unit the velocity. It is usually expressed in
mm/sec, m/hr or m/day.
Further, q = Av = Aki ...Equation 3.3

where
q = rate of flow or discharge per unit time
A = total area of cross section of flow perpendicular to direction of flow.
Table 3-1 gives typical values of coefficient of permeability of various soil types:
Table 3-1: Typical values of k

Soil type Coefficient of permeability (cm/sec)
Gravel 1 - 100
Sand 10-3 - 1
Silt 10-6 – 10-3
Clay <10-6
We notice that clay has very low value of k and is sometimes described as an
impervious soil with silt being described as semi-impervious.
3.2.2 Laplace Equation
To develop the Laplace equation for flow of water through porous media, the
following assumptions are made:
1. The soil is homogeneous and isotropic with respect to hydraulic conductivity

(permeability).
2. The soil it saturated and the capillary effects are negligible.
3. Both the soil and water are incompressible. No compression or expansion
takes place during the flow.
4. Flow is laminar and the Darcy law is valid.
Derivation of Laplace equation:

We consider an element of size ∆x, ∆y and of unit thickness perpendicular to
plane of figure. Let vx and vy be the velocity components at entry in x and y
direction. Then the corresponding velocity components at exit will be;
 v   v y 
 v x  x x  and  v y  y 
 x   x 
According to the assumption that quantity of water entering an element is equal

to the quantity of water leaving the element in any given time, we have;
 v   v 
v x (y.1)  v y (x.1)   v x  x x (y.1)   v y  y y (x.1)
 x   x 
i.e,

v x v y
 0 ...Equation 3.4
x y
This is the continuity equation for two-dimensional flow.
Fig. 3-4: Two-dimensional flow

According to the assumption that Darcy’s law is valid for flow through soil
medium, we have;
h
v x  k x .ix  k x
x
h
v y  k y .i y  k y
y
where kx and ky are coefficients of permeability in x and y directions.
By substituting in Equation 3.4, we get;
 2h  2h
kx  k y 0 ...Equation 3.5
x 2 y 2
For an isotropic soil medium, kx = ky = k

Then Equation 3.5 reduces to the form;
 2 h  2h
 0 ...Equation 3.6
x 2 y 2
This is Laplace equation for two-dimensional flow.

3.3 FLOW NET
3.3.1 Definition of terms
The solution of Laplace equation (Equation 3.6) gives two sets of curves, namely,
flow lines and equipotential lines. Flow lines and equipotential lines together
constitute a flow net. A flow line represents the path traced by an individual water
particle. An equipotential line is a contour or line joining points of equal potential or
head.
The flow lines and equipotential lines cut each other at right angles i.e. they are
mutually orthogonal as shown in Fig. 3-5.
Fig. 3-5: Portion of a flow net
The space between any two adjacent flow lines is called flow channel. The space
enclosed between two adjacent flow lines and two successive equipotential lines is
called a field.
3.3.2 Properties of flow net
Note the following properties of flow net before proceeding for construction and
application of flow nets:
1. Flow lines and equipotential lines cut each other at right angles i.e. they are
mutually orthogonal.
2. Each field is an approximate square and in a well-constructed flow net one
should be able to draw a circle in a field touching all the four sides.
3. In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the shape of the two types of curves
will be smooth, being either elliptical or parabolic in shape.
4. The rate of flow through each flow channel is same.

5. The same potential drop occurs between two successive equipotential lines.
3.3.3 Flow net by Graphical Method
The solution of the Laplace equation may be obtained by various methods subject to
the boundary conditions. These methods include:
1. Analytical method
2. Numerical methods, such as the finite differences and finite element
methods
3. Physical models and analogues
4. Graphical method
The commonest and the most effective method for practical use is the graphical
method. The graphical method of flow net construction involves sketching by trial
and error. It was first given by Forchheimer (1930). The hydraulic boundary
conditions are examined and keeping in mind the properties of flow net, initial
sketching is done, and by trial and error, the flow net is improved to make it
acceptable for practical applications. For beginners, A. Casagrande (1937) has given
the following excellent hints.
1. Well constructed flow nets should be studied and effort should be made to retain
the salient features in mind.
2. About four or five flow channels are sufficient for the first trial, as too many flow
channels will distract attention from essential features.
3. After initial sketching the flow net should be observed as a whole while adjusting
the finer details.
4. All transitions should be made smooth being either elliptical or parabolic in shape.
5. But for a few exceptional fields, all fields should be approximate squares.
The graphical method consists in sketching a trial flow net and observing whether it
satisfies the solution requirements and the boundary conditions.
By trial and error, the quality of the flow net is improved to meet the above
requirements and conditions. When the trial flow net is made to satisfy the
requirements of orthogonality and the boundary conditions and the fields are
curvilinear squares, it represents a plot of the unique solution to the problem, and
then
(i) head drop between adjacent equipotential lines is the same, and
(ii) rate of flow through adjacent flow channels is also the same.
For confined flow, all seepage boundaries are defined in advance of the flow net
construction, the step-by-step procedure is as follows.
a. Prepare a scale drawing of the flow region showing all boundary flow lines and
equipontential lines.
b. Sketch the first trial flow line such that it is approximately consistent with the
boundary conditions and represents a reasonable estimate of the flow path. Note
that the flow line is smooth and it should intersect the equipotential lines
including the boundary equipotential lines at right angles.
c. Divide the first flow channel into approximate square fields by drawing
equipotential lines starting from the boundary flow line. The first and last fields
and also those near the sharp edges of the structure may be irregular shapes;
they are called the ‘singular squares’. The number of fields should be a full

integer; if not, the first trial line is adjusted and the fields redrawn to be a whole
number.
d. Extend the equipotential lines obtained by dividing the first flow channel and
draw the second flow line cutting the extended equipotential lines at right angles
and forming square fields. The second flow channel is thus obtained.
e. Continue the extension of the flow net, keeping in view the requirement of
orthogonality and of curvilinear squares. If the first flow line has been correctly
chosen, the last flow line must coincide with the lower boundary line. If it is not
so, as is often the case in the first trial, ascertain the nature of change required
in the first flow line by visually examining the entire flow net backwards. Redraw
the first flow line and repeat the whole construction. Thus obtain by trial and
error the correct flow net.
f. Sketching could also be started by drawing a few flow lines (two to four are
usually sufficient) before starting to sketch equipotential lines. Alternatively, a
plausible family of equipotential lines may be drawn first.
The following practical hints and general suggestions are greatly helpful to beginners
in flow net construction (Casagrande 1973, Cedergren 1977);
1. Draw the boundaries of the problem on the back side of a sheet of tracing paper
and construct the flow net on the front side. Erasures and corrections can thus
be carried out without disturbing the boundaries.
2. Three to five flow channels may be sufficient for the first trial. Too many lines
may distract the attention from essential features. Remember that the flow net
can always be subdivided to any required degree.
3. Keep in view the overall shape while working on details. Do not refine a small
portion of the flow net before other parts have been fairly well drawn.
Corrections to the flow net should be attempted by modifying one line at a time
and then changing the entire flow net in accordance with this modification. The
next series of corrections should then be taken up.
4. Make smooth transitions around corners. Also use gradual transitions from small
to large squares.
Fig. 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-9 and 3-10 illustrate flow nets for seepage under sheet pile wall
and weirs.
3.3.4 Applications of flow net
A flow net can be used to determine (i) quantity of seepage, (ii) seepage pressure at
a point, (iii) hydrostatic pressure at a point and (iv) exit gradient.
(i) Determining of seepage

Let us consider the field marked in Fig. 3-5, which illustrates a portion of a flow net.
(Let b denote the length and breadth of the field (l=b=1)
If q = rate of discharge through each flow channel
H
h = head drop per field =
Nd
H = total head causing flow
Nd = Number of potential drops in the entire flow net
Nf = Number of flow channels for the complete flow net,

Applying Darcy’s law we have, for flow through the field of

h H b
q  k (b  1)  k .  (considering unit thickness perpendicular to plane of
l Nd l
figure).
H b 
For flow through entire flow net, q  q  N f  k   N f where   1
Nd l 
Nf
i.e., q  kH ...Equation 3.7
Nd
This equation is used to find the discharge through an isotropic soil for which
k x  k y  k.
(ii) Determination of seepage pressure at a point

Seepage pressure at a point, p s is given by
ps  h w ...Equation 3.8
Where h = total head at that point = ( H  n  h )
H = total head causing flow
n = number of potential drops upto the point under consideration.
H
h = potential drop per field =
Nd
(iii) Determination of hydrostatic pressure at a point
The hydrostatic head at a point is given by
hw  h  z ...Equation 3.9
where h = total head at that point =  H  n  h 
n = number of potential drops upto that point
H
h = potential drop per field =
Nd
z = datum head at that point
z will have positive value when the point is above datum and negative value when it
is below datum. The hydrostatic pressure at the point is given by
u  h w  Yw
(iv) Determination of exit gradient

h
The exit gradient, ie is given by ie  ...Equation 3.10
le
H
where h = head drop per field =
Nd
le = average length of smallest exist field (which will be adjacent to
structure).

Example 3-1
A soil stratum with permeability, k  5  10 7 cm/sec overlies an impermeable
stratum. The impermeable stratum lies at a depth of 18m below the ground surface
(surface of soil stratum). A sheet pile wall penetrates 8m into the permeable soil
stratum. Water stands to a height of 9m on upstream side and 1.5 m on downstream
side, above the surface of soil stratum. Sketch the flow net and determine (i)
quantity of seepage, (ii) the seepage pressure at a point P located 8m below surface
of soil stratum and 4m away from the sheet pile wall on its upstream side, (iii) the
pore pressure at a point P and (iv) the maximum exit gradient.
Solution:
The flow is shown in Fig. 3-6. This type of trial sketching requires about 10 minutes.
From the flow net, we have
No of flow channels, N f  4
Number of potential drops, N d  8
(i) Head causing flow, H  9  1.5  7.5m
Nf
Quantity of seepage, q  kH
Nd
4
 
= 5  10 7.5  
9
8
9
= 18.75  10 m3/sec per metre length.
H 7.5
(iii) Potential drop per field, h    0.9375 m
Nd 8
Number of potential upto point P, n = 2.5
 Total head at point P, h  H  n  h 
= 7.5  2.5  0.9375  5.16 m
Seepage pressure at P, Ps  h w  (5.16)(9.81)

= 50.62 kN/m2
(iii) Hydrostatic head at P, hw  h  Z

= 5.16  ( 9.5)  14.66
Pore pressure at P, u  hw w  (14.66) (9.81)  143.81 kN/m2
(iv) Average length of exit field adjacent to sheet pile wall, le  2.6 m
h 0.9375
Maximum exit gradient, ie    0.33
le 2.8
Note: In the flow net, the following have been clearly indicated.
(a) Boundary flow lines: BC, DE and JK
(b) Boundary equipotential lines: AB and EF

Example 3-1
From the net of Fig. 3-10 compute the seepage if k =0.005cm/sec for the soil below
the weir.
Solution:
H  9  1  8 m, N f  4 and N d  4
Nf  0.005   4  3
q  kH  (8)   0.0013 m /sec per metre run.
Nd  100   12
Nf
Note: The ratio is known as shape factor and is independent of coefficient of
Nd
permeability.

Fig. 3-6: Flow net for flow under sheet pile wall

Fig. 3-7: Flow net for flow under a weir
Problem: From flow net of Fig. 3-7, compute the quantity of seepage if k = 5 x 10-4 cm/sec for soil below weir.

Fig. 3-8: Flow net under weir with cut off at u/s end

Fig. 3-9: Flow net under weir with cut off at d/s end

Fig. 3-10: Flow net under weir with sheet pile cut off walls at both u/s and d/s ends

3.4 SEEPAGE THROUGH ANISTROPIC SOIL
The continuity equation for two –dimensional flow is;

v x v y
 0 ...Equation 3.11
x y
Applying Darcy’s law, we have
h
vx  k xix  k x
x
h
v y  k y  iy  k y
y
By substitution in the continuity Equation 3.11 we get
  h    h 
 k x     k y    0
x  x  y  y 
 2h 2h
kx  k y 0 ...Equation 3.12
dx 2 y 2
For anisotropic soil k x  k y . Equation 3.12 is not in Laplacian form and based on it
flow net cannot be obtained directly as in the case of isotropic soil medium. To
obtain net for anistropic soil medium we should reduce Equation 3.12 to Laplacian
ky
form. For this purpose, we introduce a new co-ordinate variable x n  x  Dividing
kx
Equation 3.12 by k y , we get
kx  2h  2h
  0 ...Equation 3.12
k y x 2 y 2
Therefore,
k x k y  2 h  2h
   0
k y k x xn2 y 2
Or
 2 h  2h
 0 ...Equation 3.12
xn2 y 2
This is a Laplacian form. Hence to construct flow net through anistropic soil, the
section of flow medium is drawn with all dimensions in x-direction plotted after
ky
multiplying by and those in y-direction plotted without change. The section thus
kx
obtained is referred to as transformed section. The flow net for transformed section
is constructed as for isotropic section.

3.5 QUICK AND OR QUICK CONDITION
In the case of upward flow of water through a soil mass, the seepage pressure acts
in the upward direction causing reduction in effective stress. In the case of
submerged soil mass, the upward seepage pressure may become equal to downward
pressure due to submerged weight of soil, at a certain level. When this happens in
the case of cohesionless soil, the soil at that level looses all its shear strength as the
effective stress becomes zero.
 f  c   ' tan   0  0(tan  )  0

Because of this the soil particles have the tendency to be carried away by flowing
water. This phenomenon of lifting of soil particles by flowing water is called quick
and quick condition (or boiling condition). It should be noted that quick sand is not a
type of sand but is another name for quick condition..

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University of Nairobi

Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

DR. NYAMBANE OSANO

1 SOIL STRESSES UNDER SURFACE LOADING ....................................3

2 SETTLEMENT OF SOILS .................................................................. 18

2.1 FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT 18

University of Nairobi Page i

3 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS ....................................................................... 38

3.1 ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW 38

University of Nairobi Page ii

Introduction to Soil Mechanics

a) Understand and apply the Principle of Effective Stress to a range of typical

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI Page 1

TEACHING METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES

REQUIRED TEXT BOOKS

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1 SOIL STRESSES UNDER SURFACE LOADING

1.2 POINT LOAD

1.2.1 Boussinesq Analysis

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Fig 1-1: Intensity of pressure σ based on Boussinesq approach

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R = radial distance of point Q below from axis of load =  r2  z2

Equation 1.2 may also be written as;

Where KB is an influence factor given by;

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0.50 0.27332 2.95 0.00163 5.40 0.00010 7.85 0.00002

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By means of Boussinesq Equation 1.2, the following vertical pressure distribution

Subsituting σz = 0.1Q, we have;

r  1.869z1.2  z 2 ...Equation 1.5

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1.2.3 Vertical Stress Distribution on Horizontal Plane

The vertical stress distribution on a horizontal plane at a given depth z can be

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Fig 1-3: Vertical stress distribution on horizontal plane

1.2.4 Vertical Stress Distribution on a Vertical Line

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Fig 1-4: Vertical stress distribution on vertical plane

1.3 VERTICAL STRESS UNDER UNIFORMLY LOADED CIRCULAR AREA

Consider a circular area of radius R on the surface of an elastic, isotropic, semi-

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Fig 1-5: Vertical stress under loaded circular area

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1.4 VERTICAL PRESSURE UNDER A UNIFORMLY LOADED

The vertical pressure σz at depth z below a corner of uniformly loaded

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Abcd = Ab1cd1 – Ab1ba2 – Aa1dd1 + Aa1aa2 ... Equation 1.13

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Equation σz = KBq can also be written as σz = qIσ. Influence value Iσ can be

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1.5 NEWMARK CHART

Newmark (1942) evolved an influence chart on the basis of the Boussinesq

σz/q R/z σz/q R/z

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2.1 FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT

The settlement of a foundation comprise three parts as follows (Equation 2.1);

2.2.3 Secondary Settlement

Secondary settlement normally starts with the completion of the consolidation. It

Settlement in cohesionless soils;

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Settlements in cohesive soils