CHAPTER 1

MACHINING PROCESS
1.1INTRODUCTION-

Machining is a term used to define that the combination of all the processes involved
in removal of material of any work-piece.
Machining process is classified as shown below in the figure.

Fig 1.1 Classification of Machining Process

Unconventional manufacturing processes is defined as the group of processes that

remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal,
electrical or chemical energy & combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp
cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional manufacturing processes.
Extremely hard & brittle materials are difficult to machine by traditional machining
processes such as turning, drilling, shaping & milling. Non-traditional machining
processes, are also called advanced manufacturing processes, are employed where

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traditional machining processes are not at all feasible, satisfactory or economical due
to special reasons as outlined below.
• Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining
• When the work piece is too flexible or slender
• When the shape of the part is too complex
Several types of non-traditional machining process to meet extra required machining
conditions. When these processes are employed properly, they offer many advantages
over non-traditional machining processes.
Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into two groups
a)Primary manufacturing processes - Provide basic shape & size
b)Secondary manufacturing processes- Provide final shape & size with tighter control
on dimension, surface characteristics
Material Removal Processes Once Again Can Be Divided Into Two Groups
1. Conventional Machining Processes
2. Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes or Unconventional Machining processes

1.2 CONVENTIONAL MACHINING:-

Traditional, also termed conventional, machining requires the presence of a tool that
is harder than the work-piece to be machined. This tool should be penetrated in the
work-piece to a certain depth. Moreover, a relative motion between the tool and work-
piece is responsible for forming or generating the required shape. Tools have specific
number of cutting edges of a known geometry.

Fig 1.2 Conventional Machining

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1.2.1 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CONVENTIONAL MACHINING ARE:

• Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation

• Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces.
• Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature as well as under
machining Conditions
Combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be
used for traditional manufacturing processes. Material removal may occur with chip
formation or even no chip formation may take place. For example in AJM, chips are
of microscopic size & in case of Electrochemical machining material removal occurs
due to electrochemical dissolution at atomic level.

1.2.2 ADVANTAGES:-

1) Less Labour.

2) More Capabilities

3) Uniform product.

4) Low maintenance.

5) Improves accuracy.

1.2.3 DISADVANTAGES:-

1) Wear rate is more as there is a direct contact between tool and workpiece

2) Capital cost is more.

3) Hard and brittle materials are difficult to machine

4) Holes of small diameter and intricated shapes are difficult to cut.

1.3 NON- CONVENTIONAL MACHINING:-

Non-traditional machining process) is a special type of machining process in which

there is no direct contact between the tool and the work-piece. In unconventional
machining, a form of energy is used to remove unwanted material from a given work-
piece.

1.3.1 WHY UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES ARE USED?

The answer is very simple. In several industries, hard and brittle materials like
tungsten carbide, high speed steels, stainless steels, ceramics etc., find a variety of

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applications.
For example, tungsten carbide is used for making cutting tools while high speed steel
is used for making gear cutters, drills, taps, milling cutters etc.

If such materials are machined with the help of conventional machining processes,
either the tool undergoes extreme wear or the work-piece material is damaged (while
machining brittle work-piece).

This is because, in conventional machining, there is a direct contact between the tool
and the work-piece. Large cutting forces are involved and material is removed in the
form of chips. Huge amount of heat is produced in the work-piece. This induces
residual stresses, which degrades the life and quality of the work-piece material.
Hence, conventional machining produces poor quality work-piece with poor surface
finish (if the work-piece is made of hard and brittle material).To overcome all these
drawbacks, we use unconventional machining processes to machine hard and brittle
materials. We also use unconventional machining processes to machine soft materials,
in order to get better dimensional accuracy.

Fig 1.3 Non-Conventional Machining

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1.3.2 NEED FOR UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES:-
• Extremely hard & brittle materials are difficult to machine material by traditional
machining processes.
• When the work piece is too flexible or slender to support the cutting or grinding
Forces when the shape of the part is too complex.
1.3.3 ADVANTAGE OF NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING:-
1) High accuracy and surface finish.
2) No direct contact between tool and work-piece.
3) Less or no wear.
4) Quieter operation.
1.3.4 DISADVANTAGE OF NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING:-
1) High cost.
2) Complex set up.
3) Skilled operator required.

Fig 1.4 Difference b/w Conventional and Non-Conventional Machining

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 CHAPTER 2
ABRASIVE JET MACHINING
2. INTRODUCTION
2.1 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING PRINCIPLE:-
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) is the process of removing of material from a work
piece by the application of a high speed stream of abrasive particles, carried in gas
medium from a nozzle. The abrasive jet machining process is different from
conventional& blasting by the way that the abrasive is much finer & the process
parameters & cutting action are both carefully regulated. The process is used chiefly
to cut intricate shapes in hard & brittle materials which are sensitive to heat & have a
tendency to chip easily. The process is also used for drilling, de-burring & cleaning
operations. AJM is fundamentally free from chatter & vibration problems due to
absence of physical tool. The cutting action is cool because the carrier gas itself
serves as a coolant & takes away the heat.

Fig 2.1 Abrasive Jet Machining

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2.2 EQUIPMENT:-
A figure of Abrasive jet machining is shown in Figure. The main components being
the compressor, air filter regulator, mixing chamber, nozzle & its holder, work
holding devices & X-Y table. Air from the atmosphere is compressed by the
compressor & is delivered to the mixing chamber vie the filter & regulator. The
mixing chamber contains the abrasive powders and is made to vibrate by an electric
motor & cam arrangement. A pressure regulator installed in the system controls the
gas flow & pressure. The nozzle is mounted on a plate which is screwed to the frame.
The work piece is moved by moving the x-y table to control the size & shape of the
cut.
2.3 VARIABLES AFFECTING PERFORMANCE:-
The major variables affecting the performance parameters like material removal rate,
machining accuracy are as follows:-

Fig2.2 Effect of Process Parameters

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The major variables that influence the rate of metal removal & accuracy of machining
in this process are as follows:-
1. Composition & density of carrier gas
2. Types of abrasive
3. Size of abrasive grain
4. Velocity of abrasive jet
5. Flow rate of abrasive jet
6. Work piece material
7. Geometry, composition & material of nozzle
8. Nozzle tip distance (stand-off distance)
9. Shape of cut & operation type
10. Mixing ratio
11. Impingement angle

As seen in the graph MRR increases with increase in abrasive flow rate due to greater
no of particles striking per unit time. Also metal removal rate increases with increase
in mixing ratio which is the ratio of weight of particles to that of the weight of air. But
further increase in mixing ratio decreases MRR due to the fact that the volume of
carrier gas which is responsible for the high velocity is reduced. Metal removal rate
increases with increase in abrasive flow rate when mixing ratio is constant. The Metal
removal rate increases with increase in gas pressure as the particles will strike with
greater velocity with higher pressure. Another important parameter is the stand-off
distance which is the distance between the nozzle tip & work piece. As seen in the
graph MRR first increase with increase in SOD then remains constant for a period of
time & then decrease.

2.4 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS:-

The operating characteristics of Abrasive jet machining are as follows:-
1. The material removal rate in gm/mm3,
2. Accuracy and surface finish of the machined surface.
3. The nozzle wear rate.
4. The flow rate of nozzle.

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2.5 ADVANTAGES:-
The main advantages are listed as follows:-
1. It has the ability to cut intricate holes shape in materials of having any hardness &
brittleness.
2. Also it can cut fragile & heat sensitive material without damage as physical tool is
absent.
3. No heat generation takes place.
4. Capital cost is low.

2.6 DISADVANTAGES:-
The major disadvantages include:-
1. Material removal rate is low & hence its application is limited to small scale
machining.
2. Stray strings can occur & so its application is limited.
3. Embedding of the abrasive particles in the work piece surface may occur while
machining softer material.
4. The abrasive material may accumulate at nozzle & fail the process if moisture is
contained in the air.
5. It is not used to drill blind holes.
6. Tapering occurs due to flaring of the jet
7. Risk to environment is higher

2.7 USES & APPLICATIONS:-

The major area of application of Abrasive jet machining process is in the machining
of brittle materials & heat sensitive materials like quartz glass, sapphire, mica &
ceramics semiconductor materials. It is also used in countering, drilling, cutting slot,
thin sections, de-burring, for producing integrate shapes in hard & brittle materials. It
is often used for cleaning & polishing of plastics like nylon. And also used for
delicate cleaning, such as removal of smudges from antique documents, is also
possible with this method. Micro machining is possible in brittle materials by this
method.

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 CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW& PROBLEM DEFINITION
3.1 LITERATURE REVIEW:-
The literature study of Abrasive Jet Machine (AJM) basically reveals that the
machining process was started a few years ago. Till date there has been a complete &
detailed experiment & theoretical study on this process. Most of the studies argue
over the hydrodynamic characteristics of abrasive jets, hence determining the
influence of all operational variables on the process usefulness including abrasive
size, kinds & concentration, impact speed & angle of strike. Other papers found new
problems concerning carrier gas typologies, nozzle shape, size & wear rate, jet
velocity & pressure, stand‐off distance (SOD). Experimental‐statistical approaches &
artificial neural networks to predict the relationship between the settings of
operational variables & the machining rate & accuracy in surface finishing. Some
researchers have also done the simulation of machining process.
But a particular application of AJM turning has proved its superior technological &
economical competency, i.e. profiling & dressing of grinding wheels. As starting from
the theoretical consideration, the main operating parameters of AJM turning are
identified & included in a method to generate various profiles of grinding wheels by
means of the tangential movement of the jet column& intricate profile (e.g.
succession of tight radii) on a variety of grinding wheels show the capability of AJM
turning to full fill the requirements of this niche application .
The machining process produces no heat & hence changes in microstructure or
strength of the surface is less likely to occur. The air itself acts as a coolant & hence
AJM process is regarded as damage free micromachining method.
The fracture toughness & hardness of the target materials are critical parameters
affecting the material removal rate in AJM.
The burr removal process & the generation of a convex edge vary as a function of the
parameters like jet height & impingement angle, when SOD is fixed. The effect of
other parameters, such as nozzle pressure, mixing ratio & abrasive size are less
significant. The SOD was found to be the critical factor on the size of the radius
generated at the edges. The size of the generated edge radius was found to be
restricted to the burr root thickness.

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In integration manufacturing technology abrasive jet finishing combined with
grinding gives rise to a precision finishing process, in which slurry of abrasive &
liquid solvent is introduced to grinding area between wheel & work surface under no
radial feed . Abrasive jet machines are becoming most widely used in mechanical
machining. These machines spread a great advantage in machining complex
&geometrical parts in almost every material. The unique ability to machine hard
machine materials, along with advancements in both the hardware & software used in
water-jet machining is the reason behind the technology to spread & become more
widely used. Analysis of the economic and technical factors has been done by various
researchers.
Quality of the surface produced during abrasive water jet machining of aluminium has
been investigated in recent years. The abrasive used was garnet of mesh size 80. The
variables were stand‐off distance (SOD) of the nozzle from the work piece surface;
feed rate & jet pressure. The evaluating criteria width of cut, taper of the cut slot &
work surface roughness. It was found that in order to reduce the width of cut; the
nozzle should be placed close to the work piece surface. Increase in jet pressure
effects in widening of the cut both at the top & at exit of the jet from the work piece.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation of the formation & discharge process
of an air‐water flow in an abrasive water-jet (AWJ) head is presented by Umberto
Prisco & Maria Carmina D'Onofrio. Numerical simulations have been made using the
commercial code Fluent by Ansys software. Dynamic flow characteristics inside the
AWJ head & downstream from the nozzle has been simulated under turbulent, steady
state, two‐phase flow conditions. The final aim is to gain fundamental knowledge of
the high velocity flow dynamic features that could affect the quality of the jet, such as
the pressure & velocity distributions in different parts of the jet & at the outlet.

Experiments have been conducted on effect of jet pressure, abrasive flow rate & work
feed rate on smoothness of the surface produced by AWJM of carbide of grade P25.
Carbide of grade P25 is extremely hard & thus cannot be machined by conventional
techniques. It was tried to cut carbide with low & medium level of abrasive flow rate,
but the jet failed to cut carbide as it is too hard & very high energy is required. But the
surface near the jet entrance is smoother & the surface gradually becomes rougher
downstream & is the roughest near the exit of jet. Feed rate didn’t show substantial

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influence on the machined surface, but it was found that the surface roughness
increases hugely near the jet entrance.
The study of the results of machining under various operating conditions approves
that a commercial AJM machine was used, with nozzles hiving diameter ranging, the
nozzle materials being either tungsten carbide or sapphire, which have high tool lives.
SIC & aluminium oxides were the two abrasives used. Other parameters studied were
stand-off distance (5–10 mm), spray angles (60° & 90°) & pressures (5 & 7 bars) for
materials like ceramics, glass. Studies show that AJM is a good micro‐machining
method for ceramics, which is not taken into account in the models, is important in
the micro‐machining process. This is attributed to the fact that radial cracks did not
propagate downwards by impacts during the machining process.
3.2 PROBLEM DEFINITION:-

Many problems are faced during the machining of work-pieces by traditional

machining processes. The tool should be harder than work-piece which may lead to
the wearing of tools. Heat generated between the work-piece & the tool are more.
Conventional machining processes cannot be used to machine glass, plastics & other
materials .Hence unconventional machining processes are suggested to machine
where the tool may not be harder than work-piece. The heat generated is less when
compared to traditional machining process. When we look into the abrasive jet
machining, the main problems faced are the machine size & the usage of vibratory
feeders. The vibratory feeders are used to avoid the settling of abrasive particles
inside the mixing chamber which makes the size of machine to increase.

3.2.1 OBJECTIVES:-

The main objectives of the study are:

1. To understand the problems of traditional machining process.

2. To study the various process parameters influencing the abrasive jet machining.

3. To find out the combination of optimum parameters involved in AJM.

4. To make the machine portable.

5. To use the machine without vibratory feeders.

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3.2.2 MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE

The material removal takes place from the work piece by the application high velocity
abrasive jet particle. Due to the kinetic energy of particle causes erosion of work piece
.The material removal is depend upon the certain parameter such as abrasive flow
rate, mixing ratio, gas pressure, stand-off distance etc. The MRR depends on different
process parameter. The Fig.1. 3 shows that

• Material removal rate (MRR) increases with increase of abrasive flow rate
due to the more number of particle impingement in unit time But after
reaching a optimum value material removal rate decreases with further
increase of abrasive flow rate because of mass flow rate of gas decreases
with increase of abrasive flow rate.

• Similarly Material removal rate (MRR) increases with increase of mixing ratio
(Mabr/Mgas). But after reaching a optimum value material removal rate
decreases with further increase of mixing ratio.

Fig.3.1 Effect on MMR

• Material removal rate (MRR) continuously increases with increase in abrasive
flow rate when mixing ratio is kept constant.

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 • Material removal rate (MRR) increases with increase of gas pressure.

• At first Material removal (MRR) rate increases with increase in stand-off

distance then it is remains constant for a period of time and after that decreases
with increase in stand -off distance. This phenomena occurs due to penetration
rate of abrasive material is optimum at certain level. After that it will
decreases.

3.3 VARIOUS RESEARCH PAPERS

3.3.1Abrasive machining is a machining process where material is removed from a

work piece using a multitude of small abrasive particles. Common examples include
grinding, honing, and polishing. Abrasive processes are usually expensive, but
capable of tighter tolerances and better surface finish than other machining processes
chances, delectability, costs and safety aspect etc.) The literature study of Abrasive Jet
Machining reveals that the Machining process was started a few decades ago. Till date
there has been a through and detailed experiment and theoretical study on the process.
Most of the studies argue over the hydrodynamic characteristics of abrasive jets,
hence ascertaining the influence of all operational variables on the process
effectiveness including abrasive type, size and concentration, impact speed and angle
of impingement. Other papers found new problems concerning carrier gas typologies,
nozzle shape, size and wear, jet velocity and pressure, stand-off distance (SOD) or
nozzle tip distance (NTD). These papers express the overall process performance in
terms of material removal rate, geometrical tolerances and surface finishing of work
pieces, as well as in terms of nozzle wear rate. Finally, there are several significant
and important papers which focus on either leading process mechanisms in machining
of both ductile and brittle materials, or on the development of systematic experimental
statistical approaches and artificial neural networks to predict the relationship between
the settings of operational variables and the machining rate and accuracy in surface
finishing. The abrasive jet machining (AJM) is considered as an attractive and
effective machining method for hard and brittle materials .Machining mechanisms and
characteristics of abrasive jet machining are major topics of many research works in
the recent years. In recent years abrasive jet machining has been gaining increasing
acceptability for de-burring applications. AJM de-burring has the advantage over
manual de-burring method that generates edge radius automatically. This increases the

14
quality of the de-burred components. The process of removal of burr and the
generation of a convex edge were found to vary as a function of the parameters jet
height and impingement angle, with a fixed SOD. The influence of other parameters,
viz. nozzle pressure, mixing ratio and abrasive size are insignificant. The SOD was
found to be the most influential factor on the size of the radius generated at the edges.
As the NTD increases the diameter of hole increases which is shown in Figure 1

Fig.3.2 Effect of nozzle tip distance (NTD) on diameter of hole

The effect of SOD or NTD on material removal rate (MRR) is shown in figure 2[7] as
the NTD increases the diameter of hole increases which is general observation in
abrasive jet machining.

Fig.3.3 Effect of nozzle tip distance (NTD) on material removal rate

The effect of abrasive flow rate on material removal rate (MRR) is shown in Figure
3[7] as the abrasive mass flow rate increases the material removal rate (MRR)
increases which is also general observation in abrasive jet machining.

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 Fig.3.4 Effect of abrasive mass flow rate and mixing ratio on material removal rate
Abrasive jet finishing combined with grinding gives rise to a precision finishing
process called the integration manufacturing technology, in which slurry of abrasive
and liquid solvent is injected to grinding zone between grinding wheel and work
surface under no radial feed condition. The abrasive particles are driven and energized
by the rotating grinding wheel and liquid hydrodynamic pressure and increased slurry
speed between grinding wheel and work surface achieves micro removal finishing
Abrasive water jet machines are becoming more widely used in mechanical
machining. These machines offer great advantages in machining complex geometrical
parts in almost any material. This ability to machine hard to machine materials,
combined with advancements in both the hardware and software used in water jet
machining has caused the technology to spread and become more widely used in
industry. New developments high pressure pumps provide more hydraulic power at
the cutting head, significantly increasing the cutting performance of the machine.
Analysis of the economic and technical has been done by researchers. Those
technology advancements in applying higher power machining and intelligent
software control have proven to significantly improve the overall performance of the
abrasive water jet machining operation, thus widening the scope of possible
applications of this innovative and promising technology. Quality of the surface
produced during abrasive water jet machining of aluminium has been investigated in
recent years. M. Kantha Babu and Krishnaiah reported that recycled abrasives reduces
kerf taper, improving the parallelism of cut surface. These results indicate that the
proper selection of abrasive particle size distribution is necessary for achieving
improved results. Finnie reported that the material removal mechanism of ductile
material is by plastic deformation and fracture; Bitter reported that the deformation
wear causes crack and spalling of the work piece causes the material removal; Tilly

16
reported that material is extruded to form a lip and the lip is detached by fragmented
particles. These investigations indicate that after a threshold pressure, the MRR and
penetration rates increase with nozzle pressure. For brittle materials, normal
impingement results maximum MRR and for ductile materials, an impingement angle
of 15-20 degrees results in maximum MRR. The effects of abrasive grit size and
mixing ratio which is the ratio of the weight of the abrasive powder to the weight of
the abrasive powder and the air have been thoroughly investigated by many
investigators. As the abrasive grit size and mixing ratio increase, the MRR and
penetration rate increase but the surfaces finish value which is measured in Ra
decreases. The effect of various input parameters on the shape of the abrasive jet
machined surface and on abrasive jet de-burred edges are not widely investigated and
published. Venkatesh and Neema and Pandey reported that the abrasive jet machined
surface is reverse bell mouthed in shape and no explanations have been given by
them. Balasubramaniam reported that while deburring the external burrs by abrasive
jet ,different edge conditions viz. concave radius , convex radius and taper edge were
obtained depending on the level of the parameters jet height and impingement angle.
Balasubramaniam reported that as the particle size increases, the MRR at the centre
line of the jet drastically increases; but the increase in the MRR nearer to periphery is
very less. As the stand-off distance increases, the entry side diameter and entry side
edge radius also increase. Increasing stand -off -distance also increases the MRR. F.C.
Tsai reported that for a given abrasive granule diameter , the use of a 1:1 mixture of
pure water and water solvent machining oil reduces the cutting force applied by the
particles to the work piece surface and enables a more refined , mirror like polished
surface to be obtained. Wakuda and Yamauchi [7] reported that the softest abrasive,
aluminium oxide leads to roughing of the alumina surface but causes no engraving,
due to the lack of the abrasive hardness against that of the work piece. AJM with
silicon carbide abrasive produce smooth faced dimples, although it exhibits relatively
low material removal rates. The material response to the abrasive impacts indicates a
ductile behaviour, which may be due to the elevated temperature during machining.
Azmir and Ahsan reported that the type of abrasives is most significant control factor
on surface roughness during AWJM. Meanwhile hydraulic pressure, transverse rate
are equally significant. Standoff distance, abrasive mass flow rate and cutting
orientation are insignificant in influencing Ra since they failed the test of significance.

17
M. Junkar and B. Jurisevic reported that the impact angle emerged as a very suitable
process parameter for experimental verification of FEA simulation. A.Ghobeity and
Getureported that the introduction of a mixing device within the pressure reservoir
ensured that the powder remained loose and able to flow through the orifice to the air
stream. This produced a significant improvement in AJM repeatability. J.M Fan
reported that predictive mathematical models for the erosion rate in hole and channel
machining on glasses by micro abrasive air jets on glasses are in good agreement with
the corresponding experimental data. These models provide an essential basis for the
process optimization of this micromachining technology to achieve efficient and
effective operations in practice. Domiaty and Hafez reported that cutting time
decreases with increase in standoff distance. The increase of the nozzle diameter
increases the MRR due to the increase of the flow rate of the abrasive particles.

In the present study the cutting variables were stand-off distance or nozzle tip distance
of the nozzle from the work surface; work feed rate and jet pressure. The evaluating
criteria of the surface produced were width of cut, taper of the cut slot and work
surface roughness. It was found that in order to minimize the width of cut; the nozzle
should be placed close to the work surface. Increase in jet pressure results in widening
of the cut slot both at the top and at exit of the jet from the work. However, the width
of cut at the bottom (exit) was always found to be larger than that at the top. It was
found that the taper of cut gradually reduces with increase in standoff distance and
was close to zero at the stand-off distance of 4 mm. The jet pressure does not show
significant influence on the taper angle within the range of work feed and the stand-
off distance considered. Both stand-off distance and the work feed rate show strong
influence on the roughness of the machined surface. Increase in jet pressure shows
positive effect in terms of smoothness of the machined surface. With increase in jet
pressure, the surface roughness decreases. This is due to fragmentation of the abrasive
particles into smaller sizes at a higher pressure and due to the fact that smaller
particles produce smoother surface. So within the jet pressure considered, the work
surface is smoother near the top surface and gradually it becomes rougher at higher
depths. Drilling of glass has been carried out by M. Roopa Rani and S.Seshan. The
Roopa Rani and S.Seshan [7] results are used in the present work to compare the
validation of my experimental work on abrasive jet machining.

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 CHAPTER 4
DESCRIPTION OF PARTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION:-

An abrasive machine was fabricated in the institute workshop with required raw
materials & procured components. Before that a detailed design of the functional
subsystems were made using computer aided design tools. For this software was used
which is very good in product design & analysis. The components that were designed
include the machining chamber, work-holding device, nozzle & its holder, abrasive
container & vibrating unit, cam & total piping system. Care was taken so to optimally
use the material & space in the production engineering lab along with ease in using.
Thus the final component of our project were fabricated in the workshop using the
materials like mild steel sheets bars & pipes, Aluminium sheets, rubber sheets, glass
standard nuts & bolts etc. For fabrication purpose the welding machine, grinding
machine, the h&-drill, sheet-bending machine, & shearing machines were used. Some
components are procured from commercial market to improve accuracy.

4.2 AIR & ABRASIVE DELIVERY SYSTEM

4.2.1 ABRASIVE:-

Abrasive size, referred to as grits, affects the amount of work achieved as well as the
finish produced. Coarser grits remove significant material & leave coarser finishes.
The coarser grit sizes are a good choice for large weld removal, de-flashing, & de-
gating castings, & removal of large amounts of stock.

4.2.2 TYPES OF ABRASIVE

4.2.2.1 ALUMINUM OXIDE:-is a man-made heat treated fused alumina bauxite

produced in electric-arc furnaces at temperatures exceeding 4,000 degrees. After
heating & then cooling, the mineral is crushed & sized & is available in grit sizes.
Aluminium oxide (A/O) has a blocky structure that when fractured maintains a sharp
edged blocky shape. Aluminium oxide is one of the widest used abrasive mineral
because of its toughness & durability. It is used to finish metals, composites& wood.

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 Fig 4.1 Aluminium Oxide

4.2.2.2 SILICON CARBIDE (SIC):- is a naturally occurring but mainly man made
abrasive produced by heating or fusing silicon & carbon in vast outdoor facilities.
Silicon carbide (S/C) has a sharp slivery shape & is more friable than aluminium
oxide. Silicon carbide is widely used for finishing hard metal, glass & ceramic
surfaces. We are using the silicon carbide as abrasive in our project.

Fig 4.2 Abrasive

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4.2.2.3 DIAMOND DUST:- are naturally occurring & can be produced synthetically
in a high pressure & high temperature process. Most diamonds that are mined are
used industrially & most diamonds used in industry are synthetic. Diamond abrasives
are used because of their hardness which is a 10 on the Mohs scale & because of their
thermal conductivity. Diamonds have a face cubic structure. The diamond abrasives
are used in hard grinding wheels, powders & coated abrasives & are used on hard
steels, ceramics & interrupted cutting of composites.

4.3 AIR COMPRESSOR:-

Air compressors basically compress the air to high pr. taking input energy from
electric motor or from the internal combustion engine. In abrasive jet machining high
pressure air jet is required so that the suspended particles in it can strike the work
piece at high velocity. Some & school building pneumatic control system valves, to
supply a large amount of moderate pressure air to power pneumatic tools, to fill tires,
to produce large volumes of moderate pressure air for large-scale industrial use such
as oxidation for petroleum coking or cement plant bag house purge systems. We have
used the air compressor of maximum 8bar but in our project we our using the pressure
range of 4 or 5 bar. & has a capacity of 2HP.

Fig 4.3Air Compressor

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4.4 NOZZLE:-

Nozzles are the devices which basically increase the velocity of fluid in exchange of
pressure drop. They are commonly used in internal combustion engines, space
rockets, missiles, fire extinguishers etc. In abrasive jet machining the high velocity jet
is impinges by the help of nozzle action.

So very high wear resistant materials such as tungsten carbide & sapphires are used.
Tungsten carbide nozzles are used for circular cross‐sections but we have used the
casting of brass & aluminium. Nozzles made of tungsten carbide has an average life
of 12 to 30 hrs, whereas nozzles of sapphire last for about 300 hour of operation. The
rate of material removal & the size of machined area are influenced by the distance of
the tip nozzle from the work piece. The abrasive particles from the nozzle follow a
parallel path only for a short distance & then the jet of particles flares resulting in the
over-sizing of the hole. This increase is maximum up to a distance about 8 mm & then
it steadily drops off because of increase in machining area for the same amount of
abrasive and basically their a decrease in velocity of abrasive stream due to drag.
Being their simple design, abrasive jet nozzles can be disadvantage at times. The main
drawbacks are short life of expensive parts, clogging of orifice due to dirt or moisture,
wear, miss alignment & damage.

Fig 4.4 Nozzle

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4.5 PIPING SYSTEM:-
The piping systems are required for carrying the compressed air from the compressor
to the mixing chamber & from the mixing chamber to the nozzle orifice via the filter
regulator. It is required to maintain the pressure in the line without eroding the pipe.
Here nylon braided hoses having 8mm internal dia. is provided. This is used because
of long life, light weight, durability & easy availability. We have used the pipe of
8mm.

Fig 4.5 Pipe of 8mm

This is used because of long life, light weight, durability & easy availability. We have
used the pipe of 16mm.

Fig 4.6 pipe of 16mm

23
4.6 MACHINE FRAME:-
In the fabrication of AJM machine care has been taken to use available materials &
old but functional equipment to reduce cost. Here the frame of the machine is taken
from an old CNC milling machine from where the arbour, tool holder To machine
column is used for holding the nozzle assembly. The whole machine is mounted on a
table. By this way the vibration is reduced & stability is maintained.

Fig 4.7 Machine Frame

4.7 X-Y-Z TRAVEL SYSTEM:-
X‐Y table is the most important part of the AJM over which the machining chamber
has to be kept & machined. Basically the X‐Y table consists of two parts, (a) Upper
table, (b) Lower table. The upper table is for x‐ movement & has a travel of 290 mm.
The lower table has a travel of 170 mm & is responsible for the y‐ motion of the
work.
LM-Guide is used for highly precise linear motion. It can sustain high loads in
multiple directions & hence can be mounted in any direction. Inside the block, ball or
roller are present which drastically diminishes the frictional losses. Hence LM‐Guide
is preferred in both industries & robotics to achieve specific functions.

24
 Fig 4.8 Travel System

4.8 PRESSURE GAUGE:-A pressure gauge is a fluid intensity measurement device.

Pressure gauges are required for the set-up & tuning of fluid power machines, & are
indispensable in troubleshooting them. Without pressure gauges, fluid power systems
would be both unpredictable & unreliable are to be monitored especially if sub-
circuits operate at a pressure rate different from pump pressure, such as after a
reducing valve.

Fig 4.9 Pressure Gauge

25
4.9 PRESSURE REGULATOR:-A pressure regulator is a device which controls the
pressure of liquids or gases (medium) by reducing a high input pressure to a
controlled lower output pressure. They also work to maintain a constant output
pressure even when there are fluctuations in the inlet pressure.

Pressure regulators, in various forms, are used in many domestic and industrial
applications, like regulating propane used in gas grills, to regulate oxygen in
healthcare equipment, to supply compressed air in industrial applications, to regulate
fuel in automotive engines and aerospace applications. The main aspect that is
common across all these applications is pressure control from a higher source pressure
to a lower output pressure.

Fig 4.10 Pressure Regulator

26
 CHAPTER 5
CALCULATION
5.1 DESIGN CALCULATION:-
5.1.1 CALCULATION FOR NOZZLE:-

1
𝑝𝑜 =𝑝𝑠 +2 𝜌𝑣 2

Where po = initial pressure

Ps= Pressure of surrounding

V = Velocity

1
𝑝𝑜 =𝑝𝑠 +2 𝜌𝑣 2

1
2.5× 105 =1× 105 +2 3.21𝑣 2

1
1.5× 105 =2 3.21𝑣 2

𝑣 = 306m/s

5.1.1.2 MACH NUMBER

v
M=
a

Where, V = Velocity of jet

a = sonic Velocity

306
M=
347

M=0.88

5.1.1.3 AREA MACH NUMBER RELATION

For isentropic flow, the effect of area changes as :

𝛾+1
𝐴 2 1 2 𝛾−1
(𝐴∗) =𝑀2 (𝛾+1 (1 + 𝑀2 )) (𝛾−1 )
2

Where the terms as : A = Area at the nozzle.

27
 A = Area at the sonic point.

𝛾+1
𝐴 2 1 2 𝛾−1
(𝐴∗) =𝑀2 (𝛾+1 (1 + 𝑀2 )) (𝛾−1 )
2

1.4+1
1 2 1.4−1
=0.882 (1.4+1 (1 + 0.882 )) (1.4−1 )
2

2.4
1 2 0.4
=0.882 (2.4 (1 + 0.882 )) (0.4 )
2

= 1.2913 (0.833(1+0.15488))6
=1.2913 (0.833×1.15488)6

=1.2913×0.7926

𝐴
(𝐴∗) = 1.023 ≃1

5.1.2 FLOW RATE OF NOZZLE:-

The flow rate of nozzle is calculated by this formula as given below-

Q= 28.9 x D2 × √P

As we take pressure, P = 6 bar = 87.0226 psi

Similarly, Diameter of Nozzle, D = 4 mm = 0.15748 inch

After calculation we get the flow rate

Flow rate = 6.7 gram/min

28
 CHAPTER 6
COMPLETE SETUP
In this chapter we have discussed about the final or complete setup of our project. As
shown in figure the complete design and fabrication of abrasive jet machining which
we have design.
The final setup is shown in the figure with a proper designation of each and every
part.

Fig 6.1 Complete Setup

29
 CHAPTER 7
EFFECT OF PROCESS PARAMETERS
7.1 OBSERVATIONS:-
In this chapter the readings and calculation which we have done in our project is
discussed below;
The observations which we have taken are as follows-
In the first case we have taken the thickness of glass as 2mm which act as a work-
piece as shown in table.
Table 7.1 Observations
S.NO THICKNESS STAND OFF DISTANCE DIAMETER
OF GLASS (mm) OBTAINED
(mm) (mm)

2 4 5
1
2 6 5.4
2
2 12 8
3
2 14 9
4

In the first case we have taken the thickness of glass as 2mm and by the use of this,
what is the effect on material removal rate as the increase in stand-off distance and
also the increase in mixing ratio.

7.2 CALCULATION OF MRR

Metal removal rate is calculated by the formula given below :

MRR = (1.04Mg×U3/2) / ( 𝜌g1/4×H3/4 )

Where Mg = Mass flow rate of grain
U = Velocity of jet
𝜌 = Density of abrasive
H = Hardness of work-piece

30
MRR = ( 1.04Mg×U3/2 ) / ( 𝜌g1/4×H3/4 )
= ( 1.04 × 6.7 × 5.13/2 ) / ( 3.211/4 × 53/4 )
= ( 1.04 × 6.7 × 11.517 ) / ( 1.338 × 3.34 )
= ( 80.250 / 4.47 )
= 17.95 mm3/min
So the material removal rate is 17.95 mm3/min.

31
 CHAPTER 8
COST ESTIMATION
In this chapter the estimation of cost is done which is basically shown in the table. We
have calculated the total project cost by measuring the rate of each and every
component which is used in making this project.
The cost is calculated by taking or considering the each and every component which
is used in our project.
Table 8.1Cost Estimation

S.NO COMPONENTS QUANTITY COST

NOZZLE 1 1200
1
MOTION MODULE 1 1500
2
COMPRESSOR 1 4400
3
PRESSURE GAUGE 2 360
4
PRESSURE REGULATOR 1 350
5
HOPPER 1 50
6
PIPE 2 150
7
SQUARE ANGLE 11 250
8
CONNECTOR 5 100
9
TOTAL COST - 8360
10

32
 CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION

In this project, a complete model of abrasive jet machine is fabricated in the institute
laboratory. Before fabrication a complete CAD model was prepared for optimum use
of material & space. Most of the components are made locally & sophisticated parts
which affect the accuracy greatly are procured from outside. This greatly reduces
human effort & improves accuracy.

In the present work, the process is executed only for surface removal. This work can
be extended for machining materials like glass & plastics. Also in these work
parameters like pressure can be increased & the mixing chamber size can be increased
so that abrasives can be stored in large amount & it can be machined for longer time.

33
 CHAPTER 10

REFRENCES
1. K.B SEHGAL “Study and optimization of process parameters in abrasive jet
machining” ITM University.

2. Modeling & simulation for material removal in abrasive jet precision finishing with
wheel as restraint.

3. Surface Roughness of Carbides Produced by Abrasive Water Jet Machining.

4. NPTEL introduction and abrasive jet machining, IIT Kharagpur.

5. Krushna Prasad Pradhan, Design and fabrication of abrasive jet machining

Department of mechanical engineering national institute of technology.

6. M. Wakuda , Y. Yamauchi , S. Kanzaki (2002), “Effect of work-piece properties on

machinability in abrasive jet machining of ceramic materials”, Journal of the
International Societies for Precision Engineering and Nanotechnology, Vol. 26, pp.
193-198.
7. M. Roopa Rani & S. Seshan “AJM - Process Variables And Current Applications”,
Publication- Journal of Metals Materials& Process,1995 Vol.7 No. 4 PP.279-290

34