Food Hydrocolloids 98 (2020) 105315

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Hydrocolloids
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodhyd

Effect of bacterial nanocellulose addition on the rheological properties of T

gluten-free muffin batters
L. Marchettia,∗, S.C. Andrésa, P. Cerrutib, A.N. Califanoa
a
Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Criotecnología de Alimentos (CIDCA), CONICET, CICPBA, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, UNLP, 47 y 116, La Plata, (1900),
Argentina
b
Instituto de Tecnología en Polímeros y Nanotecnología (ITPN-UBA-CONICET), Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA) and Departamento de
Ingeniería Química, Facultad de Ingeniería, UBA, Argentina

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Replacing wheat flour in bakery products is a technological challenge as the absence of gluten affects rheological
Texture characteristics of uncooked batter which are directly related with final product quality. Bacterial nanocellulose
Rheology (BNC) is a novel hydrocolloid which could improve batters rheological behavior. Five levels of BNC (0.06, 0.12,
Bacterial nanocellulose 0.18, 0.24, and 0.30 g BNC/100 g) and a control were employed to study its effect on rheological behavior of
Gluten-free muffin batters
gluten-free muffin batters. Specific gravity, back extrusion, steady flow viscosity, and rheological assays (tem-
perature, frequency and stress sweeps) were performed. Higher BNC levels increased firmness, viscosity, and
consistency indexes. The lowest specific gravity was obtained for 0.12–0.18 g BNC/100 g indicating that more air
was trapped. Flow curves were fitted with a modified Cross model; η0 and the characteristic relaxation time
increased when BNC was added. Batters with BNC showed greater G′ and G″ than control during and after
thermal treatment. Curves were modeled showing that molecular mobility decreased with BNC level, related to a
more structured matrix. Temperature sweeps showed two transition temperatures. T1, dependent on BNC level,
ranged from 81.0 ± 0.8 °C for 0.06 g BNC/100 g to 64 ± 2 °C for 0.24 g BNC/100 g or more, it might be related
with BNC-starch interactions. T2 was unchanged (86.1 ± 0.6 °C) and consistent with starch pasting tempera-
ture. Levels of dry BNC between 0.12 and 0.18 g/100g batter resulted in viscous systems that could entrap more
air and may result into higher volume of the baked products.

1. Introduction
Celiac disease (CD) and others with different degrees of allergic
reactions to gluten consumption have a prevalence of 1:100 to 1:200 in
any population around the world.
(Hamer, 2005). Nevertheless, celiac disease is almost exclusively
seen in European populations. It was found that CD is a worldwide
condition and is probably the most common disorder related to food
intolerance (Salazar, García-Cárdenas, & Paz-y-Miño, 2017). People
with CD are considered genetically susceptible individuals with per-
manent intolerance to a set of proteins contained in the flour of various
cereals, mainly wheat, oats, barley, and rye (Kupper, 2005). This si-
tuation resulted in alteration or reduction of food nutrient absorption
by villous atrophy of intestinal mucosa which normalizes when a
gluten-free (GF) diet starts; therefore celiac persons must avoid wheat
based products. In addition, nowadays there are an increasing number
of people interested in wheat-free foods motivated by the desire to
avoid gluten in the diet (Alvarez, Cuesta, Herranz, & Canet, 2017).
Muffins, cakes, and cupcakes are popular snack foods characterized by
their good taste and soft texture. Their main constituents involve wheat
flour, sugar, vegetal oil, egg, and milk. However, development of
gluten-free alternatives implies a technological challenge due to the
inability of non-wheat flours to form dough with the appropriate vis-
coelastic characteristics. For these reason different biopolymers, such as
xhantan gum, locust bean gum, carrageenans, etc. that can compensate
for the absence of gluten, are included in GF formulations (Gularte, de
la Hera, Gómez, & Rosell, 2012; Gularte, Gómez, & Rosell, 2012;
Herranz, Canet, Jiménez, Fuentes, & Alvarez, 2016; Mariotti, Lucisano,
Pagani, & Ng, 2009; Matos, Sanz, & Rosell, 2014; Ronda, Oliete, Gómez,
Caballero, & Pando, 2011).
Muffin or cake batter could be considered as a complex oil-in-water
emulsion with a continuous aqueous phase containing dissolved or
suspended dry ingredients (Ronda et al., 2011). The correct formation
of the emulsion depends on both the aqueous phase aeration and the

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marchetti.lucas@quimica.unlp.edu.ar (L. Marchetti).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105315
Received 27 March 2019; Received in revised form 15 August 2019; Accepted 17 August 2019
Available online 19 August 2019
0268-005X/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Marchetti, et al.
incorporated air retention. The efficacy of the air retention in the batter
is inversely proportional to its viscosity (Sahagún, Bravo-Núñez,
Báscones, & Gómez, 2018). Moreover it is also well recognized that
rheological properties play a role in process design, evaluation, and
modeling. In fact rheological data are required as an indicator of pro-
duct quality, for calculation in any process involving fluid flow (e.g.
pump sizing, extraction, filtration, extrusion, or purification) and for
the analyses of flow conditions in food processes such as pasteurization,
evaporation, drying, and aseptic processing (Cevoli, Balestra, Ragni, &
Fabbri, 2013).
GF-muffin making process entails structural modifications de-
pending on formulation and process conditions which are of enormous
importance for their quality and could be investigated by rheological
and structural means (Hesso et al., 2015). Matos et al. (2014) studied
the impact of different protein sources in GF batters and muffins finding
that muffins’ height and volume were increased when batters presented
lower specific gravity and higher elastic properties.
In the search for biopolymers as tools to achieve systems with the
appropriate characteristics, alternative underexploited technological
sources emerge, and among them, nanocellulose, which has recently
received greater interest. Not yet commercially available, it isa polymer
of cellulose fibrils of nanometric size (5–50 nm in diameter and up to 2
μm in length) with a high aspect ratio, composed of (1 → 4) β-gluco-
sidic units of glucose. Their more traditional obtained forms involve a
chemical pathway and/or a mechanical treatment of cellulose
(Vazquez, Foresti, Cerrutti, & Galvagno, 2013). In recent years bacterial
nanocellulose (BNC) has been synthetized by specific microorganisms
(Acetobacter) as a primary metabolite, for example, from by-products of
various food industries reducing its production costs (Cerrutti et al.,
2016; Corujo, Cerrutti, Foresti, & Vázquez, 2016; Chen et al., 2017).
These nanocellulose biopolymers had been employed in several
fields of material science to enhance several properties as increasing
viscosity, shear stress, yield point, young's modulus, water-binding and
elastic properties of the systems. Some examples include cement pastes
with better water-matrix interactions (Cao, Zavaterri, Youngblood,
Moon, & Weiss, 2015), bioinks suitable for 3D printing (Markstedt,
Mantas, Tournier, Martínez Ávila, Hä;gg, & Gatenholm, 2015), paper
coatings with superior technological characteristics (Liu et at 2017),
water-based drilling fluids with better rheological properties (Li, Wu,
Song, Qing, & Wu, 2015), acrylic coatings with excellent mechanical
properties and transparency (Tan et al., 2016).
Nevertheless, few studies on this biopolymer as functional in-
gredient in food systems have shown that it can, even at low con-
centrations, avoid aroma interaction, increase food stability over a wide
pH range, temperatures, and under thawing conditions. Its potential
effects are to thicken gel, stabilize and bind water, modifying food
rheology, and, in combination with soy proteins act as fat mimic in ice-
cream systems (Corral, Cerrutti, Vázquez, & Califano, 2017; Marchetti,
Muzzio, Cerrutti, Andrés, & Califano, 2017; Shi, Zhang, Phillips, &
Yang, 2014; Sun, Chen, Liu, Li, and Yu (2015).
In turn, nanocellulose can be used as a lower caloric alternative to
carbohydrates normally used as thickeners, stabilizers and flavor
transporters, in a wide range of products (baked goods, chips, soups,
sauces, etc.).
Thus the objective of this work was to study the effect of BNC in-
corporation on rheological and textural properties of GF-muffin batters,
analyzing and modeling experimental results to understand system
structure.
2. Materials and methods
All GF-muffin batter formulations were made with the same
common components: rice flour, tapioca starch and corn starch (Ying
Yang, Remedios de Escalada, Argentina), white granulated sugar
(Ledesma, Tucumán, Argentina), whole egg powder (Ovobrand,
Brandsen, Argentina), skim milk powder (La Serenísima, General
2
Food Hydrocolloids 98 (2020) 105315
Rodríguez, Argentina), refined sunflower oil (Molino Cañuelas,
Cañuelas, Argentina), vanilla essence (Saporiti, Buenos Aires,
Argentina) and sodium chloride (Anedra, San Fernando Argentina).
2.1. Bacterial nanocellulose
2.1.1. Production
BNC hydrogel enough for all batters and batches was produced by
Komagataeibacter xylinus NRRL B-42 following the protocol described
by Casaburi, Rojo, Cerrutti, Vázquez, and Foresti (2018). Previously,
inoculum was cultured for 48 h in Erlenmeyer flasks containing Hestrin
and Schramm (HS) medium (in g/100 g): glucose, 2.0; peptone, 0.5;
yeast extract, 0.5; anhydrous disodium phosphate, 0.27; citric acid,
0.115 (Hestrin & Schramm, 1954). The pH was adjusted to 6.0 with dil.
HCl or NaOH. Agitation was provided by an orbital shaker. BNC hy-
drogels were rinsed with water to remove culture medium, and then
boiled in 2 g/100 g NaOH solution for 1 h in order to eliminate bacterial
cells from the cellulose matrix. Then, pellicles were washed with dis-
tilled water till neutralization. All reagents used were analytical grade.
2.1.2. Microstructure characterization
2.1.2.1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM). BNC pellicles were cut
into small pieces (0.5 cm width, 0.2–0.3 cm thick) and dehydrated in a
series of graded ethanol/water solutions (30 g/100g, 60 g/100g, 90 g/
100g and twice in absolute ethanol) maintaining a minimum of 2 h in
each condition with slightly agitation. After the final dehydration step
samples were placed in a specimen basket and immediately transferred
to the chamber of a PELCO CPD2 critical point dryer and promptly
flooded with liquid CO2 in order to minimize artifacts which may be
caused by their premature drying. Samples were dried above the critical
point after five soak-drain cycles of 15 min each. Some of them were
freeze-fractured in liquid nitrogen for examination of bulk structure and
then sputter-coated with Au/Pd alloy. Micrographs were obtained with
a microscope FEI-Quanta 200 (Hillsboro, Oregon, USA).
2.1.2.2. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Morphology of natural
BNC fibers was characterized using a JEM 1200 EX II (JEOL Ltd.)
transmission electron microscope equipped with a digital camera
Erlangshen ES1000 W (Gatan Inc.). BNC pellicles were homogenized
with a hand held homogenizer, diluted (1:100) with water and
deposited into an electron microscope grid. A negative staining was
performed by adding 10 μL of 2% phosphotungstic acid solution,
removing excess solution after 2 min, and dried at room temperature
(25 °C). Finally, grids were observed under standard conditions and an
accelerating voltage of 100 kV to obtain and process images of
dispersed nanofibers.
2.2. Gluten-free batters
2.2.1. Manufacture
A reference GF-muffin batter formulation was employed as control
(B0); 100 g of control batter contained the following components: rice
flour (18.79 g), tapioca starch (6.26 g), corn starch (6.26 g), water
(30.45 g), sunflower oil (10.00 g), white sugar (21.15 g), skim milk
powder (2.3568 g), whole egg powder (3.8500 g), sodium chloride
(0.2302 g), and vanilla essence (0.3801 g). BNC hydrogel (water con-
tent previously determined) was included in batters replacing different
proportions of the total amount of water according to Table 1.
The same procedure was followed to obtain all batters: egg and milk
powders were mixed with the proper mixture of tap water, BNC hy-
drogel and vanilla essence previously homogenized with a hand-held
homogenizer (Braun Mq 300, Braun, Buenos Aires, Argentina) ac-
cording to Table 1. Sunflower oil was then incorporated in the previous
homogenized dispersion and emulsified for 1 min at 1100 rpm; the ob-
tained emulsion was let to rest for 5 min. Meanwhile corn and tapioca
starches, rice flour, salts, and white sugar were mixed. Finally, liquid
L. Marchetti, et al.
Table 1
Formulation codes and bacterial nanocellulose concentration.
Batter code B0 B1 B2 B3 B4
Tap water g/100g raw batter 30.45 24.36 18.27 12.18 6.09
BNC hydrogel g/100g raw batter 0 6.09 12.18 18.27 24.36
Dry BNC g/100g raw batter 0.00 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.24
and solid ingredients were gently combined in a commercial food
processor (Universo, Rowenta, Erbach, Germany) for 3 min, at 150 rpm.
Batters were kept refrigerated until analysis (less than 5 h). Two batches
of each formulation were prepared and studied.
2.2.2. Characterization
2.2.2.1. Specific gravity. The specific gravity (SG) was determined as
the ratio of the weighting mean mass of a standard container filled with
batter (Wb) compared with that of the same container filled with water
(Ww).
Wb
SG =
Ww
2.2.2.2. Textural properties. Back extrusion tests were performed as
Cevoli et al. (2013) with minor modifications using a Texture Analyzer
(Stable Microsystems, TAXT-2i Texture Analyzer, UK). A load cell of
25 N was employed. Batter (40 mL) was poured into a cylindrical
container (70 mm height and 50 mm width) and was tested with a
cylindrical probe (10 mm height, 45 mm width) at 25 °C. The test was
conducted at a pretest speed of 2 mm/s, test speed of 0.5 mm/s, post-
test speed of 10 mm/s, distance of 10 mm and trigger force of 0.5 N
using a cylindrical probe with diameter of 40 mm. From the resulting
curves, consistency index was determined using the positive area of the
curve (N∙s), firmness was defined as maximum positive force (N),
viscosity index was determined using the negative area of the curve
(N∙s), and cohesiveness was defined as maximum negative force (N).
2.2.2.3. Rheological characterization
2.2.2.3.1. Steady-state flow measurements. The steady flow behavior
viscosity, η (Pa∙s) versus shear rate, γ̇ (s−1) was studied using a plate-
and-plate geometry (60 mm diameter, 1 mm gap). Flow measurements
were obtained by imposing a ramp of shear rate in a range between 0.1
and 300 s−1 and waiting until the slope of the resulting shear rate
versus time was less than 0.001% at each point, so that it could be
assumed that steady-state was almost attained. The maximum
measuring time per point was set at 300 s, but all measurements were
obtained before the cut off time.
2.2.2.3.2. Linear viscoelastic range determination. The linear
viscoelastic region (LVR) was determined through stress sweep tests
at a fixed frequency (6.28 rad/s – 1 Hz) employing a Haake RS600
rheometer (Thermoelectron, Karlsruhe, Germany). Afterwards,
frequency sweeps (0.01–300 rad/s) were conducted within the LVR.
Dependence of the storage (G′) and loss (G″) moduli with frequency was
obtained in all cases. Three conditions were studied: raw batters at
25 °C, thermally treated batters at 95 °C (heat rate of 3.2 °C/min), and
cooked batters at 25 °C (cooling rate of 3.2 °C/min).
2.2.2.3.3. Temperature sweep experiments. To study the thermal
evolution of the systems temperature sweep experiments were carried
out to mimic the cooking process. A plate-and-plate geometry (60 mm
diameter, 1 mm gap) was employed. Frequency was set within LVR
(6.28 rad/s) and temperature was firstly ramped from 20 to 100 °C at a
constant rate (3.2 °C/min), then an isothermal step (100 °C, 7 min) was
followed and finally a cooling step from 100 °C to 20 °C at a constant
rate (3.2 °C/min) was run. For each formulation two repeated
measurements were done and mean values were reported.
2.2.2.3.4. Frequency sweep tests. Small-amplitude oscillatory shear
Food Hydrocolloids 98 (2020) 105315
(SAOS) tests were carried out using parallel-plate geometry (60 mm
diameter, 1 mm gap). Samples were allowed to rest for 4 min before
B5 analysis to ensure both thermal and mechanical equilibrium and
covered with a thin film of silicone oil to avoid evaporation.
0 Temperature was controlled within 0.1 °C by Peltier elements in the
30.45
lower plate. Frequency sweeps (0.02–100 rad/s) were conducted within
0.30
LVR. Batters were tested at 25 °C, 95 °C (after a heating ramp at 3.2 °C/
min) and 20 °C after a complete cycle of heating and cooling as
described before.
Dependence of storage (G′) and loss (G″) moduli with frequency was
obtained in all cases. Data were processed using IRIS Rheo-hub 2012
software (IRIS Development LLC, MA, USA) to perform spectra calcu-
lations.
2.3. Statistical analysis
Two replicates per batch, 2 batches per formulation were measured
for each variable, except specific gravity and texture for which four
replicates per batch were measured.
Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted separately on de-
(1) pendent variables studied considering each formulation as a level in a
one-way factorial design. For simultaneous pairwise comparisons, least
significance differences (LSD) test was chosen. Differences in means and
F-tests were considered significant when P < 0.05. All statistical pro-
cedures were computed using SYSTAT software (SYSTAT, Inc.,
Evanston, IL). Experimental data were reported as mean values ±
standard error of the mean (SEM).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. BNC microstructure
Bacterial nanocellulose microstructure could be studied by two
different approaches, SEM and TEM techniques. Several micrographs
were taken in each case but only one representative micrograph is
presented (Fig. 1a and b). As Fig. 1a shows, a densely packed network
of cellulose nanofibers with several contact points and no orientation
could be observed. In addition, some branched fibers were detected.
The average filament thick was obtained analyzing 10 SEM images and
33 BNC strains, obtaining a diameter of 49 ± 2 nm in agreement with
Klemm et al. (2011) who reported bacterial nanocellulose fibers dia-
meters within the range of 20–100 nm.
In TEM micrographs several structures of parallel-aggregated na-
nofibers (Fig. 1b) were observed which could be formed after the
homogenizing pre-treatment that could disrupt pellicle microstructure.
Between 5 and 12 nanofibers were observed into each fiber and a mean
diameter of 44.7 ± 5 nm was obtained in concordance with SEM
images.
3.2. Effect of BNC in GF-batters: large deformations tests
Specific gravity (SG) was significantly affected (P < 0.05) by BNC
level (Table 2); the lowest SG values were obtained for B2 and B3
formulations. This indicated that systems with intermediate BNC added
levels (0.12–0.18 g BNC/100 g, B2 and B3, respectively) could trap
more air during the mixing process, a desirable aspect since batters with
great air retention capacity could lead to more aerated products
(Martínez-Cervera, Salvador, Muguerza, Moulay, & Fiszman, 2011).
On the other hand, batters whit higher BNC content or without it
had the highest SG. The first case could be related to a very high system
viscosity that would require more energy input during mixing to in-
clude air. The lowest BNC level (B1) or its absence (B0) led to low
viscosity batters with difficulty to stabilize air bubbles.
Textural batter properties are presented in Table 2. The higher the
BNC batter level, the higher their firmness, consistency index, viscosity
index, and cohesiveness (P < 0.05). These results were consistent with
3
L. Marchetti, et al. Food Hydrocolloids 98 (2020) 105315

Fig. 1. a) Scaning electron micrograph of BNC pellicle, white bar indicates 300 nm. b) Transmission electron micrograph of BNC dispersion, white bar indicates
500 nm.

Majzoobi, Poor, Jamalian, and Farahnaky (2016) who obtained similar

trends when carrot pomace powder was included in GF-sponge cake
batters. These changes could be explained by the high BNC gelling and
water holding capacities and hence the reduction in free water amount
and overall mobility of the system leading to increased firmness, visc-
osity and consistency.
Sufficient batter consistency and viscosity are required to retain
bubbles formed during mixing and baking and to achieve proper cake
volume. If batter viscosity and consistency are too low, air bubbles rise
to the surface and are lost to the atmosphere. On the other hand, a very
high consistency and viscosity may retain bubbles in the batter but it
may also restrict expansion during baking (Gómez, Moraleja, Oliete,
Ruiz, & Caballero, 2010).
Flow behavior of GF-muffin batters showed a clear tendency with
BNC level and a marked power-law decay in the viscosity (Fig. 2).
Flow behaviors of the systems were fitted with the simplified Cross
model without the second Newtonian viscosity, η∞ (Rao, 2010). The
modified Cross model has been previously applied to other food systems
(Genovese & Lozano, 2001; Ranalli, Andrés, & Califano, 2012; Rao,
2010):
η0
η =
(1 + [λγ˙ ]m ) (2) Fig. 2. Steady state flow curves of GF-muffin batters. Codes: B0 ( ); B1 ( ); B2
( ); B3 ( ); B4 ( ); B5 ( ). Solid lines represent the modified Cross model.
where:

η0 is the zero-shear-rate viscosity,
γ̇ is the shear rate,
m is a non-dimensional exponent,
λ is a characteristic relaxation time of the system.
When η < < η0, Eq. (1) predicts a power-law behavior, where (1 –
m) is close to the flow index n. Fig. 2 shows that modified Cross model
satisfactorily fitted experimental data; the corresponding η0, τ and ex-
ponent m fitted parameters are shown in Table 3.
A clear trend of η0 with BNC level was observed, increasing with
hydrocolloid concentration. These results were in agreement with the
observations made in back extrusion tests. The characteristic relaxation
time (λ) of the systems greatly increased when BNC was added
regardless its level indicating that a more complex structure was
formed. Finally flow index was reduced when BNC increased (it can be
observed in Table 1 an increase of m of 34% between B0 and B5).
Though, long-chain polymer interactions would be responsible for the
increasing pseudoplastic behavior. This flow index reduction would
result in higher muffin volume according to Ronda et al. (2011) who
found a significant negative correlation between flow index and cake
volume. They showed that lower flow indexes lead to a rapid decrease
in apparent viscosity with shear rate and could explain a high cake
expansion during baking due to gas expansion.

Table 2
Specific gravity (SG) and texture parameters of GF-muffin batters.
Batter code B0 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5

a b c c a
Specific Gravity (g/g) 0.977 ± 0.008 0.963 ± 0.004 0.950 ± 0.005 0.958 ± 0.015 0.970 ± 0.006 0.969 ± 0.010ab
Firmness (N) 2.0 ± 0.2e 2.8 ± 0.2d 3.1 ± 0.1d 4.2 ± 0.2c 4.8 ± 0.1b 5.4 ± 0.4a
Consistency index (N∙mm) 1.3 ± 0.2e 3.0 ± 0.1d 4.8 ± 0.1c 6.6 ± 0.2b 13.9 ± 0.5a 14.7 ± 0.8a
Viscosity index (N∙mm) 0.10 ± 0.01d 0.11 ± 0.0d 0.17 ± 0.01c 0.20 ± 0.02c 0.46 ± 0.03b 0.55 ± 0.03a
Cohesiveness index (N) 0.11 ± 0.02c 0.18 ± 0.02c 0.24 ± 0.02c 0.39 ± 0.06c 0.59 ± 0.04b 0.62 ± 0.03a

a-b
Different superscripts in the same row indicate significant differences (P < 0.05).

4
L. Marchetti, et al. Food Hydrocolloids 98 (2020) 105315

Table 3
Parameters η0, λ, and m of the modified Cross model for the GF-muffin batters flow curves.
Batter code B0 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5

η0 (Pa∙s) 2.23 ± 0.06 e

15 ± 0.6 d
16.6 ± 0.4 d
23.1 ± 0.3 c
27.9 ± 0.3b
44 ± 1a
λ (s) 0.071 ± 0.04c 1.313 ± 0.005a 1.276 ± 0.009ab 1.224 ± 0.01b 1.160 ± 0.03b 1.335 ± 0.007a
m (ad) 0.429 ± 0.008a 0.458 ± 0.004b 0.504 ± 0.006c 0.533 ± 0.007d 0.542 ± 0.002d 0.575 ± 0.06e

a-b
Different superscripts in the same row indicate significant differences (P < 0.05).

Table 4
Cohesion energy (Ec) and critical stress (τc) of GF-muffin batters in different conditions raw at 25 °C, heated at 95 °C, and thermally treated at 25 °C.
Condition Parameter B0 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5

c c c c b
Raw (25 °C) Ec (J/mol) 0.24 ± 0.02 0.21 ± 0.03 0.23 ± 0.06 0.30 ± 0.05 0.54 ± 0.04 1.30 ± 0.2a
τc (Pa) 0.19 ± 0.02e 0.19 ± 0.03e 0.29 ± 0.01d 0.39 ± 0.07c 0.70 ± 0.2b 1.66 ± 0.4a
Heated (95 °C) Ec (J/mol) 1.50 ± 0.03c 2.27 ± 0.06c 3.05 ± 0.2b 3.56 ± 0.08a 3.68 ± 0.06a 3.83 ± 0.07a
τc (Pa) 4.69 ± 0.06d 5.78 ± 0.04bc 5.47 ± 0.4c 5.82 ± 0.05b 6.12 ± 0.6bc 7.80 ± 0.4a
Cooked (25 °C) Ec (J/mol) 1.13 ± 0.02e 1.61 ± 0.06d 2.10 ± 0.02c 2.91 ± 0.08b 3.67 ± 0.4a 3.19 ± 0.1ab
τc (Pa) 3.10 ± 0.02d 5.30 ± 0.03c 9.84 ± 0.4b 8.98 ± 0.09b 11.92 ± 1.3a 12.31 ± 2.2a

a-b
Different superscripts in the same row indicate significant differences (P < 0.05).

3.3. Effect of BNC in GF-batters: small deformations tests At 95 °C, all batters exhibited a gel-like behavior (Fig. 3b). G′ and G′′
greatly increased and a minimum of G′′ was observed. Starch gelatini-
The linear viscoelastic ranges (LVR) were studied and data are zation had occurred resulting in rheological modifications. A great
presented in Table 4. Critical stress (τc) was determined as the stress significant increment of batter elastic properties was observed when
needed to produce changes of ± 5% of G′ during the stress sweep. BNC was included (G′1Hz = 8884 Pa for B0; G′1Hz = 22300-22430 Pa
Critical strain (γc) is shear strain value at which sample structure starts for B1–B3, and G′1Hz = 28300-29900 Pa for B4–B5) but BNC inclusion
to break down, while the critical elastic modulus is the value of the had more important effect that the added level, where only B4 and B5
modulus corresponding to γc. Both critical elastic modulus (G′c) and γc showed a significant increase (P < 0.05).
values were extracted from stress sweep data sets. Then, cohesive en- When thermally treated batters were analyzed at 25 °C (Fig. 3c) a
ergy (EC) was calculated as: gel-like behavior was observed, similar to those detected at 95 °C he-
ated batters but with more frequency dependence. B0 showed re-
1
EC = G′c × γc2 markably lower moduli and was the only mechanical spectra that did
2 (3)
not exhibited a G′′ minimum in the studied range. Also little variation
Significant differences in critical stress (τc) were observed, LVR was with BNC level was observed (G′1Hz = 47300 Pa for B0;
increased almost a log cycle from B0 to B5, reflecting a more resistant G′1Hz = 69370 Pa for B1; and G′1Hz = 78300-81600 Pa for B2–B5) with
structure when more BNC was included in the batters. Nevertheless Ec no significant differences (P > 0.05).
values showed small changes with only higher levels of BNC increasing In the small deformation range viscoelastic materials can be char-
the cohesive energy in raw batters. According to Tadros (2006), and acterized by a unique relaxation time spectrum, H(λ), from the ob-
Meza et al. (2011) Ec depends on the solid volume/fraction of the servable material functions such as storage and loss moduli (Mours &
suspension as well as the particle size distribution, which determines Winter 2000). The following equations relate dynamic moduli with H
the number of contact points of the system. This tendency in Ec could be (λ):
understood, considering the decrease of batter SG with BNC. Including λmax
ω2λ2 dλ
more air bubbles would imply less number of contact points, which on G′ = Ge + ∫ H(λ )
1 + ω2λ2 λ
the other hand would be stronger because of the hydrocolloids, re- 0 (4)
sulting into a less marked difference in Ec.
λmax
When GF-muffin batters are heated at 95 °C starch gelatinization ωλ dλ
occurs. LVR of all samples were increased due to the newly developed
G′′ = ∫ H(λ )
1 + ω2λ2 λ
0 (5)
gel matrix. The effect of BCN was observed in Ec and τc. Both para-
meters increased with the hydrocolloid addition reflecting that a Where.
stronger network was obtained. When thermally treated samples were
chilled until 25 °C only τc showed a significantly increase while Ec ex- Ge represents the viscoelastic solid state of an additional spring at-
hibited minor variation. BNC could easily interact with water and tached in series to a Maxwell model that is called the equilibrium
starch molecules through H-bonds which are enhanced at lower tem- elasticity modulus
peratures. H is the relaxation spectrum function
Regarding raw GF-muffin batters (Fig. 3a), systems could be de- λ is the relaxation time
scribed as a three-dimensional network of interacting or entangled BNC λ max is the longest relaxation time
and proteins that traps water and starch granules, further enhanced ω is the frequency
when water availability/mobility decreases. Probably starch granules
act as inactive fillers because of their inability to form a cohesive net- Using an appropriate representation of the relaxation time spectrum
work (Ravindra, Genovese, Foegeding, & Rao, 2004; Tolstoguzov, it is possible to model the dynamic moduli.
2003), which it was mainly formed by BNC and egg and milk proteins. Baumgaertel–Schausberger–Winter generalized model (BSW) has been
Fig. 3a shows the transition from viscous liquids such as B0 and B1 successfully employed to represent the linear viscoelastic behavior of
(with G′′ ≥ G′, and high dependency on frequency) to weak gels for- several polymeric and emulsified systems (Bengoechea, Puppo,
mulations B3–B5 (G′ > G′′, with less dependency on frequency) Romero, Cordobes, & Guerrero, 2008; Lorenzo, Zaritzky, & Califano,
(Steffe, 1996). 2011; L; Marchetti, Andrés, & Califano, 2013).

5
L. Marchetti, et al. Food Hydrocolloids 98 (2020) 105315

Fig. 3. Frequency sweep tests (G′, solid symbols;

G′′, empty symbols, vs. frequency ω) for GF batters
a) raw, b) at 95 °C, and c) at 25 °C after thermally
treatment. Codes: B0 ( ); B1 ( ); B2 ( ); B3
( ); B4 ( ); B5 ( ). Solid lines represent
predictions of G′ and G″ obtained from the relaxa-
tion spectra attained by BSW model.

The model was developed by Baumgaertel and Winter (1992) and
resulted into a specific form of the relaxation time spectrum for broadly
distributed linear flexible polymers. Its parameters could also be used to
explain structural characteristics of the systems. The spectrum corre-
sponds to:
−ng −ne β
⎡ λ λ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ λ ⎞ ⎤
H (λ ) = GN0 ⎢A ⎜⎛ ⎟⎞ + ne ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎥ exp ⎢− λ
⎜ ⎟
⎥
λ ⎝ λe ⎠
⎣ ⎝ g⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ max ⎠ ⎦ (6)
where:
GN0 is the plateau modulus
A is the glass-transition front factor
ng and ne are the slopes of the spectrum in the high frequency glass-
transition and entanglement regimes respectively
λg is the crossover time to the glass transition.
λe is the relaxation time corresponding to polymer chains with en-
tanglement molar mass.
β controls the sharpness of the cut-off of the spectrum
λmax is the longest relaxation time
IRIS Rheo-Hub software (IRIS Development LLC, MA, USA) was
employed to obtain the BSW spectrum of the batters and its satisfactory
fitting to oscillatory data is shown in Fig. 2. The predicted parameters of
BSW model are reported in Table 5.
The displacement of λe to longer relaxation times stood for a de-
creasing molecular mobility. In samples at 25 °C (raw and cooked bat-
ters) a clear tendency with BNC level was observed. Polymer chains,
rich in –OH groups interact with water reducing its mobility. In batters
at 95 °C we did not observe a clear trend probably because the H-bonds
(the main inter-molecular interactions) of BNC are weakened.
The spacing between the crossover time to the glass transition (λg)
and the terminal relaxation time (λe) is a measure of the width of the
plateau region. The plateau modulus (G0N ) is a viscoelastic parameter
defined for polymeric systems as the extrapolation of the entanglement
contribution to the viscoelastic functions at high frequencies. It may be
easily estimated from the minimum in the loss tangent (tan δ = G″/G′)
as G0N = [G′]tanδ→minimum (Lorenzo et al., 2011). We found excellent
(R2 > 0.99) correlations with G0N from BSW (Table 5). Also in the 3
studied conditions (raw at 25 °C, 95 °C, at 25 °C after thermal treated),
both the plateau modulus and the width between characteristic times
(log ??max/??e) showed a positive correlation with the increase of BNC
level reflecting molecular mobility decrease and indicating a more
complex/structured matrix (Ferry, 1980; Lorenzo, Zaritzky, & Califano,
2013)
Temperature sweeps, and the subsequent frequency sweeps at 95 °C
reflect realistically batter behavior during baking so that they are
helpful for simulating baking processes in small scale. Further ad-
vantages of rheological analyzes is small sample size and a reproduci-
bility much better than that of cake baking experiments (Chesterton,
Wilson, Sadd, & Moggridge, 2015; Struck, Gundel, Zahn, & Rohm,
2016)
Batters' thermal evolution clearly showed two different behaviors
between low (B0–B2) and high (B3–B5) BNC levels (Fig. 3a) related to
liquid and more solid-like batters, respectively, as were discussed be-
fore. When heated, B0 showed a decrease in its viscoelastic properties
at 73 °C (decrease in G* and increase in tan δ). Afterwards, starch ge-
latinization occurs G* greatly increased and tan δ dropped below 0.20
which is considered characteristic for a gel-like system (Steffe, 1996).
As BNC level increased elastic character did so. In G* vs T plots
(Fig. 4a) the minimum disappeared and a continuous increment until
gelatinization was observed. In tan δ vs. T plots (Fig. 4b) a second drop
could be observed. Two transition temperatures were observed and
calculated from the derivate of tan δ vs T plots (graphs not shown,
Table 6).
The first transition (T1), which depends on BNC level, could not be
detected for B0 and might be related with BNC-starch interaction, as
BNC could interact with leached amylose from fragmented starch
granules and solubilized short chains of amylopectin. Thus, BNC addi-
tion may alter starch gelatinization process. As starch granule swelling
occurs, hydrocolloid concentration takes place due to starch water ab-
sorption. Thus more interactions between starch, sugar, and gums are
formed as explained by Bet et al. (2018). When more BNC was included,
less temperature was needed to establish this structure and T1

6
L. Marchetti, et al. Food Hydrocolloids 98 (2020) 105315

Table 5
Parameters of Baumgaertel–Schausberger–Winter model (BSW) for GF-muffin batters in different conditions: raw at 25 °C, heated at 95 °C, and at 25 °C after
thermally treated.
Condition Parameter B0 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5

Raw at 25 °C G0N (Pa) 27 ± 4e 22 ± 3e 59 ± 4d 305 ± 25c 396 ± 45b 451 ± 29a

λe (s) 0.006 ± 0.002d 0.009 ± 0.002d 0.032 ± 0.006c 0.043 ± 0.008b 0.07 ± 0.01a 0.090 ± 0.02a
λg (s) 41 ± 3a 11.9 ± 0.0b 2.6 ± 0.0c 0.95 ± 0.0d 0.51 ± 0.0e 0.51 ± 0.0e
λmax (s) 0.32 ± 0.03f 0.72 ± 0.05e 5.5 ± 0.1d 40 ± 3c 97 ± 5b 177 ± 10a
ng 1.21 ± 0.04a 0.89 ± 0.06b 0.64 ± 0.04c 0.45 ± 0.05d 0.65 ± 0.06c 0.52 ± 0.04cd
ne 0.23 ± 0.02a 0.19 ± 0.03a 0.08 ± 0.01c 0.13 ± 0.04b 0.21 ± 0.03a 0.09 ± 0.04c
A 0.920 ± 0.008a 0.610 ± 0.004b 0.105 ± 0.004e 0.199 ± 0.003c 0.190 ± 0.06c 0.141 ± 0.004d
β 0.28 ± 0.03ab 0.28 ± 0.02ab 0.27 ± 0.04ab 0.23 ± 0.03b 0.31 ± 0.04a 0.25 ± 0.03b

Heated at 95 °C G0N (Pa) 20250 ± 250d 21820 ± 400c 21733 ± 440c 23600 ± 520b 26916 ± 620a 25006 ± 440a
λe (s) 0.125 ± 0.005 c
0.170 ± 0.008 a
0.145 ± 0.03b
0.136 ± 0.004 b
0.062 ± 0.004 d
0.007 ± 0.003e
λg (s) 2.78 ± 0.08a 2.15 ± 0.04b 1.49 ± 0.03c 1.34 ± 0.06c 1.49 ± 0.04c 0.02 ± 0.01d
λmax (s) 1.95 ± 0.08a 1.72 ± 0.04b 1.51 ± 0.09c 1.89 ± 0.06a 1.97 ± 0.07a 1.74 ± 0.04b
ng 0.37 ± 0.04d 0.41 ± 0.05cd 0.50 ± 0.04b 0.47 ± 0.06bc 0.59 ± 0.05a 0.63 ± 0.04a
ne 0.40 ± 0.03c 0.36 ± 0.04c 0.49 ± 0.02b 0.50 ± 0.03b 0.62 ± 0.04a 0.62 ± 0.07a
A 0.352 ± 0.008c 0.318 ± 0.004d 0.318 ± 0.06d 0.587 ± 0.002a 0.418 ± 0.007b 0.380 ± 0.01c
β 0.15 ± 0.01a 0.15 ± 0.02a 0.15 ± 0.02a 0.15 ± 0.01a 0.15 ± 0.02a 0.15 ± 0.01a

At 25 °C after Cooked G0N (Pa) 27560 ± 400d 63380 ± 1250c 74358 ± 2200b 79470 ± 3300ab 79150 ± 3150ab 81324 ± 2100a
λe (s) 0.058 ± 0.004f 0.147 ± 0.05d 0.129 ± 0.04e 0.704 ± 0.006c 1.60 ± 0.04b 300 ± 8a
λg (s) 241 ± 8a 29.4 ± 0.7b 11.4 ± 0.04d 17.3 ± 0.4c 9.8 ± 0.3d 0.305 ± 0.007e
λmax (s) 372 ± 9a 222 ± 6b 1.8 ± 0.4e 2.2 ± 0.6e 18.6 ± 0.0d 68 ± 3c
ng 0.42 ± 0.04a 0.26 ± 0.03b 0.22 ± 0.04b 0.39 ± 0.05a 0.33 ± 0.05a 0.38 ± 0.03a
ne 0.022 ± 0.004f 0.56 ± 0.03e 1.71 ± 0.04a 0.80 ± 0.05d 1.50 ± 0.03b 1.16 ± 0.04c
A 0.043 ± 0.003f 1.53 ± 0.05c 0.476 ± 0.002d 0.339 ± 0.009e 2.29 ± 0.09b 4.15 ± 0.06a
β 0.052 ± 0.004f 0.344 ± 0.0c 0.222 ± 0.006d 0.118 ± 0.005e 0.597 ± 0.006b 0.732 ± 0.007a

a-b
Different superscripts in the same row indicate significant differences (P < 0.05).

decreased from 81.0 ± 0.8 °C for B1 to 64 ± 2 °C for B4–B5. 4. Conclusions

The second transition temperature was unchanged for all the sam-
ples resulting into an average of 86.1 ± 0.6 °C. The values obtained for
T2 were consistent with the expected starch pasting temperature and
was not affected by the amount of BNC included (Shi & BeMiller, 2002).
When BNC was added, the final G* (at 95 °C) was much higher than
B0 but with minor significant differences between BNC levels (Table 6).
Thus viscoelastic properties were governed by BNC until starch gelati-
nization occurs. When samples were cooled from 95 to 20 °C this effect
was increased. Two different materials were obtained after cooking
process, one with added BNC resulting into a more strong bonded/
viscoelastic material and other without BNC addition, a weaker struc-
ture. The hydrocolloid inclusion increased the elastic characteristic of
the systems (Table 6) increasing G* and lowering tan δ, this aspect
could be useful to improve air retention of the matrix.
Also, it could be expanded the potential applications of batters as
food-inks, where the ink must be easily extrudable but also possess
enough mechanical strength to minimize deformation once being
printed to be successfully employed (Vancauwenberghe et al., 2017).
Bacterial nanocelullose was obtained and its microstructure was
observed by SEM and TEM microscopy. A densely packed network of
nanofibers with several contact points and no orientation was observed
with filaments of 44–49 nm in diameter. It was successfully employed
to obtain gluten free batters for muffins. This hydrocolloid had great
impact on different rheological and physical properties of the systems.
It must be pointed out that the appropriate BNC level to obtain GF
batters with high elastic characteristics, low specific gravity and low
flow indexes was very low indicating a great effect of the hydrocolloid.
Levels of dry BNC between 0.12 and 0.18 g/100g raw batter resulted in
viscous systems that could entrap more air and may result into higher
volume of the baked products. Also batter rheological behavior mod-
eling provided information on how BNC interacts with other compo-
nents. We observed a great rheological variation within a short BNC
range which could be useful to adapt formulations for different baking
process.
More work must be performed in order to fully understand the

Fig. 4. Rheological evolution of GF-muffin batters during heating. a) complex modulus (G*) b) tan δ. Codes: B0 ( ); B1 ( ); B2 ( ); B3 ( ); B4 ( ); B5 ( ).

7
L. Marchetti, et al.
Table 6
Complex modulus and phase angle tangent values at the 3 studied conditions: raw at 25 °C, heated at 95 °C, and cooked at 25 °C.
Condition Parameter B0 B1
f e
Raw (25 °C) G* (Pa) 5.3 ± 0.2 12.2 ± 0.3
Tan δ (Pa/Pa) 2.8 ± 0.6a 1.87 ± 0.08b
Heated (95 °C) G* (Pa) 11760 ± 0.0d 28064 ± 250c
Tan δ (Pa/Pa) 0.11 ± 0.03a 0.12 ± 0.03a
Cooked (25 °C) G* (Pa) 61070 ± 850c 89170 ± 990a
Tan δ (Pa/Pa) 0.22 ± 0.02a 0.12 ± 0.04c
a-b
Different superscripts in the same row indicate significant differences (P < 0.05).
impact of BNC in these food systems. Microscopy, textural properties of
the baked products, sensorial, and shelf life assays could broaden the
knowledge of bacterial nanocellulose as food additive.
Acknowledgements
The financial support of the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones
Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Agencia Nacional de Promoción
Científica y Tecnológica, and Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP).
In memory of Dr. Alicia Califano (1951–2019), Lead Scientist
(CIDCA-CONICET, Argentina) and highly respected colleague who will
be greatly missed.
References
Alvarez, M. D., Cuesta, F. J., Herranz, B., & Canet, W. (2017). Rheometric non-isothermal
gelatinization kinetics of chickpea flour-based gluten-free muffin batters with added
biopolymers. Foods, 6(1), 3.
Baumgaertel, M., & Winter, H. (1992). Interrelation between continuous and discrete
relaxation time spectra. Journal of Non-newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 44, 15–36.
Bengoechea, C., Puppo, M., Romero, A., Cordobes, F., & Guerrero, A. (2008). Linear and
non-linear viscoelasticity of emulsions containing carob protein as emulsifier. Journal
of Food Engineering, 87(1), 124–135.
Bet, C. D., de Oliveira, C. S., Beninca, C., Colman, T. A. D., Lacerda, L. G., & Schnitzler, E.
(2018). Influence of the addition of hydrocolloids on the thermal, pasting and
structural properties of starch from common vetch seeds (Vicia sativa sp). Journal of
Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 1–9.
Cao, Y., Zavaterri, P., Youngblood, J., Moon, R., & Weiss, J. (2015). The influence of
cellulose nanocrystal additions on the performance of cement paste. Cement and
Concrete Composites, 56, 73–83.
Casaburi, A., Rojo, Ú. M., Cerrutti, P., Vázquez, A., & Foresti, M. L. (2018).
Carboxymethyl cellulose with tailored degree of substitution obtained from bacterial
cellulose. Food Hydrocolloids, 75, 147–156.
Cerrutti, P., Roldán, P., García, R. M., Galvagno, M. A., Vázquez, A., & Foresti, M. L.
(2016). Production of bacterial nanocellulose from wine industry residues: I mpor-
tance of fermentation time on pellicle characteristics. Journal of Applied Polymer
Science, 133(14).
Cevoli, C., Balestra, F., Ragni, L., & Fabbri, A. (2013). Rheological characterisation of
selected food hydrocolloids by traditional and simplified techniques. Food
Hydrocolloids, 33(1), 142–150.
Chen, G., Wu, G., Alriksson, B., Wang, W., Hong, F., & Jönsson, L. (2017). Bioconversion
of waste fiber sludge to bacterial nanocellulose and use for reinforcement of CTMP
paper sheets. Polymers, 9(9), 458.
Chesterton, A., Wilson, D. I., Sadd, P., & Moggridge, G. D. (2015). A novel laboratory scale
method for studying heat treatment of cake flour. Journal of Food Engineering, 144,
36–44.
Corral, M. L., Cerrutti, P., Vázquez, A., & Califano, A. (2017). Bacterial nanocellulose as a
potential additive for wheat bread. Food Hydrocolloids, 67, 189–196.
Corujo, V., Cerrutti, P., Foresti, M., & Vázquez, A. (2016). Production of bacterial na-
nocellulose from non-conventional fermentation media. Multifunctional polymeric
nanocomposites based on cellulosic reinforcements (pp. 39–59). Elsevier.
Ferry, J. D. (1980). Viscoelastic properties of polymers. John Wiley & Sons.
Genovese, D. B., & Lozano, J. E. (2001). The effect of hydrocolloids on the stability and
viscosity of cloudy apple juices. Food Hydrocolloids, 15(1), 1–7.
Gómez, M., Moraleja, A., Oliete, B., Ruiz, E., & Caballero, P. A. (2010). Effect of fibre size
on the quality of fibre-enriched layer cakes. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 43(1),
33–38.
Gularte, M. A., de la Hera, E., Gómez, M., & Rosell, C. M. (2012a). Effect of different fibers
on batter and gluten-free layer cake properties. LWT-Food Science and Technology,
48(2), 209–214.
Gularte, M. A., Gómez, M., & Rosell, C. M. (2012b). Impact of legume flours on quality
and in vitro digestibility of starch and protein from gluten-free cakes. Food and
Bioprocess Technology, 5(8), 3142–3150.
Hamer, R. J. (2005). Coeliac disease: Background and biochemical aspects. Biotechnology
Advances, 23(6), 401–408.
Herranz, B., Canet, W., Jiménez, M. J., Fuentes, R., & Alvarez, M. D. (2016).
Food Hydrocolloids 98 (2020) 105315
B2 B3 B4 B5
d c b
24.2 ± 0.4 108 ± 1 195 ± 3 290 ± 4a
1.37 ± 0.03c 0.76 ± 0.07d 0.63 ± 0.09de 0.52 ± 0.07e
36949 ± 610b 35292 ± 720b 39818 ± 1230a 39173 ± 980a
0.13 ± 0.04a 0.13 ± 0.03a 0.10 ± 0.05a 0.13 ± 0.03a
86850 ± 1320ab 84500 ± 1340b 89390 ± 780a 83510 ± 2210b
0.18 ± 0.03b 0.15 ± 0.04bc 0.14 ± 0.03c 0.15 ± 0.04bc
Characterisation of chickpea flour‐based gluten‐free batters and muffins with added
biopolymers: Rheological, physical and sensory properties. International Journal of
Food Science and Technology, 51(5), 1087–1098.
Hesso, N., Garnier, C., Loisel, C., Chevallier, S., Bouchet, B., & Le-Bail, A. (2015).
Formulation effect study on batter and cake microstructure: Correlation with
rheology and texture. Food Structure, 5, 31–41.
Hestrin, S., & Schramm, M. (1954). Synthesis of cellulose by Acetobacter xylinum. 2.
Preparation of freeze-dried cells capable of polymerizing glucose to cellulose.
Biochemical Journal, 58(2), 345.
Klemm, D., Kramer, F., Moritz, S., Lindström, T., Ankerfors, M., Gray, D., et al. (2011).
Nanocelluloses: A new family of nature-based materials. Angewandte Chemie
International Edition, 50(24), 5438–5466.
Kupper, C. (2005). Dietary guidelines and implementation for celiac disease.
Gastroenterology, 128(4), S121–S127.
Liu, C., Du, H., Dong, L., Wang, X., Zhang, Y., Yu, G., et al. (2017). Properties of nano-
celluloses and their application as rheology modifier in paper coating. Industrial &
Engineering Chemistry Research, 56(29), 8264–8273.
Li, M. C., Wu, Q., Song, K., Qing, Y., & Wu, Y. (2015). Cellulose nanoparticles as modifiers
for rheology and fluid loss in bentonite water-based fluids. ACS Applied Materials &
Interfaces, 7(8), 5006–5016.
Lorenzo, G., Zaritzky, N. E., & Califano, A. N. (2011). Viscoelastic characterization of fluid
and gel like food emulsions stabilized with hydrocolloids. Procedia Food Science, 1,
281–286.
Lorenzo, G., Zaritzky, N., & Califano, A. (2013). Rheological analysis of emulsion-filled
gels based on high acyl gellan gum. Food Hydrocolloids, 30(2), 672–680.
Majzoobi, M., Poor, Z. V., Jamalian, J., & Farahnaky, A. (2016). Improvement of the
quality of gluten‐free sponge cake using different levels and particle sizes of carrot
pomace powder. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 51(6),
1369–1377.
Marchetti, L., Andrés, S., & Califano, A. (2013). Textural and thermal properties of low-
lipid meat emulsions formulated with fish oil and different binders. LWT-Food Science
and Technology, 51(2), 514–523.
Marchetti, L., Muzzio, B., Cerrutti, P., Andrés, S. C., & Califano, A. N. (2017). Bacterial
nanocellulose as novel additive in low-lipid low-sodium meat sausages. Effect on
quality and stability. Food Structure, 14, 52–59.
Mariotti, M., Lucisano, M., Pagani, M. A., & Ng, P. K. (2009). The role of corn starch,
amaranth flour, pea isolate, and Psyllium flour on the rheological properties and the
ultrastructure of gluten-free doughs. Food Research International, 42(8), 963–975.
Markstedt, K., Mantas, A., Tournier, I., Martínez Ávila, H., Hägg, D., & Gatenholm, P.
(2015). 3D bioprinting human chondrocytes with nanocellulose–alginate bioink for
cartilage tissue engineering applications. Biomacromolecules, 16(5), 1489–1496.
Martínez-Cervera, S., Salvador, A., Muguerza, B., Moulay, L., & Fiszman, S. (2011). Cocoa
fibre and its application as a fat replacer in chocolate muffins. LWT-Food Science and
Technology, 44(3), 729–736.
Matos, M. E., Sanz, T., & Rosell, C. M. (2014). Establishing the function of proteins on the
rheological and quality properties of rice based gluten free muffins. Food
Hydrocolloids, 35, 150–158.
Meza, B. E., Chesterton, A. K., Verdini, R. A., Rubiolo, A. C., Sadd, P. A., Moggridge, G. D.,
et al. (2011). Rheological characterisation of cake batters generated by planetary
mixing: Comparison between untreated and heat-treated wheat flours. Journal of
Food Engineering, 104(4), 592–602.
Mours, M., & Winter, H. H. (2000). Mechanical spectroscopy of polymers. Experimental
methods in polymer science (pp. 495–546). Elsevier.
Ranalli, N., Andrés, S., & Califano, A. (2012). Physicochemical and rheological char-
acterization of “dulce de leche”. Journal of Texture Studies, 43(2), 115–123.
Rao, M. A. (2010). Rheology of fluid and semisolid foods: Principles and applications.
Springer Science & Business Media.
Ravindra, P., Genovese, D., Foegeding, E., & Rao, M. (2004). Rheology of heated mixed
whey protein isolate/cross-linked waxy maize starch dispersions. Food Hydrocolloids,
18(5), 775–781.
Ronda, F., Oliete, B., Gómez, M., Caballero, P. A., & Pando, V. (2011). Rheological study
of layer cake batters made with soybean protein isolate and different starch sources.
Journal of Food Engineering, 102(3), 272–277.
Sahagún, M., Bravo-Núñez, Á., Báscones, G., & Gómez, M. (2018). Influence of protein
source on the characteristics of gluten-free layer cakes. LWT-Food Science and
Technology, 94, 50–56.
Salazar, C., García-Cárdenas, J. M., & Paz-y-Miño, C. (2017). Understanding celiac disease
from genetics to the future diagnostic strategies. Clinical Medicine Insights:
Gastroenterology, 10 1179552217712249.
Shi, X., & BeMiller, J. N. (2002). Effects of food gums on viscosities of starch suspensions
during pasting. Carbohydrate Polymers, 50(1), 7–18.
8
L. Marchetti, et al.
Shi, Z., Zhang, Y., Phillips, G. O., & Yang, G. (2014). Utilization of bacterial cellulose in
food. Food Hydrocolloids, 35, 539–545.
Steffe, J. F. (1996). Rheological methods in food process engineering. Freeman press.
Struck, S., Gundel, L., Zahn, S., & Rohm, H. (2016). Fiber enriched reduced sugar muffins
made from iso-viscous batters. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 65, 32–38.
Sun, L., Chen, W., Liu, Y., Li, J., & Yu, H. (2015). Soy protein isolate/cellulose nanofiber
complex gels as fat substitutes: Rheological and textural properties and extent of
cream imitation. Cellulose, 22(4), 2619–2627.
Tadros, T. F. (2006). Applied surfactants: Principles and applications. John Wiley & Sons.
Tan, Y., Liu, Y., Chen, W., Liu, Y., Wang, Q., Li, J., et al. (2016). Homogeneous dispersion
Food Hydrocolloids 98 (2020) 105315
of cellulose nanofibers in waterborne acrylic coatings with improved properties and
unreduced transparency. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 4(7), 3766–3772.
Tolstoguzov, V. (2003). Thermodynamic considerations of starch functionality in foods.
Carbohydrate Polymers, 51(1), 99–111.
Vancauwenberghe, V., Katalagarianakis, L., Wang, Z., Meerts, M., Hertog, M., Verboven,
P., et al. (2017). Pectin based food-ink formulations for 3-D printing of customizable
porous food simulants. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 42, 138–150.
Vazquez, A., Foresti, M. L., Cerrutti, P., & Galvagno, M. (2013). Bacterial cellulose from
simple and low cost production media by Gluconacetobacter xylinus. Journal of
Polymers and the Environment, 21(2), 545–554.