Silicon Carbide
The hexagonal wurtzite or 2H sequence also
Silicon carbide (SiC) is a generic name for a material
produced by numerous process routes that result in a
host of different external and internal microstructures
and, as a consequence, a broad range of properties.
The thermal, mechanical, chemical, and electronic
properties of SiC make possible a substantial number
and variety of applications. The primary driving forces
for the interest in SiC for electronic applications are
for high-power, high-frequency, and high-temperature
devices resistant to radiation damage and for sub-
strates for Group IIIB nitride thin films and optoelec-
tronic and microelectronic devices. SiC is suitable for
these applications primarily because of its wide band-
gap, excellent thermal conductivity, good electrical
conductivity, and moderately close match in atomic
arrangement and distances among atoms on the basal
planes with those of AlN and selected AlGaN alloys.
Basic device structures including p–n junctions and
Schottky contacts, as well as more complex SiC devices
including metal–semiconductor field effect transis-
tors (MESFETs), junction FETs, metal–oxide–
semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs), and thyristors
have been developed and are being introduced
commercially.
The SiC electronics field is also enhanced and made
more complicated by the existence of a large number
of different periodic stacking arrangements of the
crystallographic planes containing atoms of silicon
and carbon. In certain close-packed structures there
exists a special one-dimensional polymorphism called
polytypism. Polytypes are alike in the two dimensions
of the close-packed planes, but differ in the stacking
sequence along the direction perpendicular to these
planes. The only cubic (C) SiC polytype is referred to
as 3C or β-SiC, where the ‘‘3’’ refers to the number of
silicon\carbon bilayers in the periodic stacking se-
Figure 1
High-resolution TEM image of 3C-SiC deposited on a 6H-
SiC substrate (after Davis et al. 1991).
quence.
occurs in SiC. Both polytypes can also occur in more
complex, intermixed forms yielding a wide range of
ordered, larger period, stacked hexagonal or rhombo-
hedral structures of which 6H and 4H are the most
common. A high-resolution transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) image showing the atomic struc-
ture of a 3C-SiC film deposited on a 6H-SiC substrate
is shown in Fig. 1. Note the periodic, chevron-like
structure of the unit cells of the 6H polytype consisting
of three atomic layers per each half-cell with the half-
cells separated by a rotational twin defect. All non-
cubic structures are known collectively as α-SiC.
From an electronics viewpoint, the polytypes of
SiC possess a range of bandgap energies at 300 K
(e.g., 2.2 eV (3C), 3.0 eV (6H), and 3.3 eV (2H))
as well as high values of saturated electron
drift velocity (2i10( cm sV" for both 6H and 4H),
junction breakdown electric field (2.2i10' V cmV"
(4H), 2.5i10' V cmV" (6H)), and thermal conductivity
(4.9 W cmV" mCV" at 300 K for 4H, 6H, and 3C). The
high thermal conductivity of SiC also indicates the
potential for high-density integration of SiC devices.
This idea received considerable impetus with the
development and scale-up of the seeded-sublimation
growth technique for producing commercially viable
single-crystal α-(6H and 4H) SiC boules from which
wafers are obtained. In addition to its excellent
electrical and thermal properties, SiC has a native
oxide suitable for MOS-based power devices. These
properties of SiC have been reviewed in terms of their
potential enhancement in selected electronic charac-
teristics of SiC devices (Rahman and Furukawa 1992,
Cooper et al. 1998).
As indicated above, the emphasis in SiC electronics
research and development has been and continues to
be driven by the need for devices operative under high-
power, high-frequency, and severe environmental
conditions and for increasingly larger and less ex-
pensive wafers for Group IIIB nitride-based devices.
A substantial portion of this research to 1990 has been
reviewed (Davis et al. 1988, 1991). The reader is also
referred to Pensl et al. (1997) and Park (1998).
1. Bulk Crystal Growth
Prior to the mid-1950s SiC was only available from the
industrial Acheson process for making abrasive ma-
terial. However, in 1955 the development of a sub-
limation process for growing higher purity α-SiC single
crystals was reported (Lely 1955). Unfortunately,
nucleation and growth were uncontrolled, and the
resulting crystals were randomly sized, hexagonally
shaped platelets. Each crystal usually possessed ad-
jacent regions of different α-polytypes. Since the
bandgaps differ in the polytypes, undesirable (or
uncontrollable) electrical junctions occurred
randomly within each crystal. Solution growth
1
Silicon Carbide
Heat shield
(Sigraflex®)
Electrographite
SiC powder
Length
Porous graphite
SiC-crystal
Seed
2200 2300 °C Temperature
Figure 2
Schematic of the system for the bulk growth of SiC via the
modified Lely process (after Schoen 1997).
methods using molten silicon or various transition
metals were also explored in the mid-1960s
(Knippenberg and Verspiu 1966) and are still
occasionally studied. The resulting crystals are very
small, highly twinned β-SiC needles. They usually
exhibit good electrical properties but are unsuitable in
size and quality for devices.
Subsequent research (Tairov and Tsvetkov 1981,
Ziegler et al. 1983, Davis et al. 1995) resulted in the
implementation of a seeded-growth sublimation pro-
cess, also called the physical vapor transport method,
wherein only one large crystal of a single polytype is
grown. (In the Russian literature this technique is
often referred to as the LETI or Tairov–Tsvetkov
method in reference to the Leningrad Electrotechnical
Institute and the researchers who made significant
contributions to the development of this technique via
the growth of boules of several of the common
polytypes.) In this process, nucleation occurs on a SiC
seed crystal located at the top or bottom of a
cylindrical growth cavity, as shown in Fig. 2. As in the
Lely process, SiC is heated in the range 2100–2400 mC
where it sublimes from a polycrystalline source to
form silicon, Si C, and SiC . The growth pressure is
20 torr, and # the temperature
# gradient between
source and seed is in the range 20–35 mC cmV". These
gases diffuse through a porous graphite retainer and
along carefully controlled thermal and pressure
gradients, as shown by the arrows in Fig. 2. The
primary gaseous species of silicon reacts with the
graphite walls of the growth cell to form additional
Si C and SiC . Hence, the silicon acts as a carbon-
#
transporting #
agent and plays an active role in the
formation of the species impinging on the growing
crystal. Boules of 6H are grown at approximately
2000 mC on the silicon-terminated (0001) basal plane of
a 6H seed crystal while boules of 4H are grown at
approximately 1800 mC on the carbon-terminated
2
(0001) basal plane of a 4H seed crystal. Typical growth
rates are in the range 0.5–5.0 mm hV". Boules of the
pure 6H and 4H polytypes having diameters
 100 mm and lengths  125 mm have been grown in
the laboratory. They will be available commercially
very soon. The positive results of this research have
added considerable impetus to the growth of SiC thin
films with low dislocation densities, to the develop-
ment of SiC devices, and to the research associated
with this development, as described below.
2. Thin-film and Epitaxial Growth
The structural, chemical, and microstructural charac-
teristics of SiC wafers derived from the boules de-
scribed above and their uniformity from boule to
boule are not sufficient for the production of large
numbers of electronic devices with the same properties.
As such, the growth of SiC thin films is necessary to
provide this increase in quality and uniformity of
character. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) has been
adopted as the process route of choice. In this
technique, gaseous compounds are transported to the
substrate surface where chemical reactions occur,
resulting in the formation and growth of the desired
material. Water-cooled, cold-wall growth systems
operating from low to atmospheric pressures are the
most commonly used and are commercially available.
Hot-wall systems have been designed and employed
(Kordina et al. 1994) at temperatures in the range
1800–2200 mC to enhance significantly the growth rate
of the films (up to " 500 µm hV").
Prior to the development of boule growth, mono-
crystalline silicon (100) wafers were used as the
substrate of choice for the CVD growth of SiC thin
films. Only the 3C polytype is obtained on this
substrate. The mismatches in the coefficients of ther-
mal expansion (about 8%) and the lattice parameters
(about 20%) are partially accommodated via the initial
reaction of the silicon (100) surface with a carbon-
containing gas. The subsequent epitaxial CVD of
relatively thick (up to 30 µm), crack-free films on this
β-SiC converted layer using individual carbon- and
silicon-containing gases has been achieved (e.g., Davis
et al. 1988, 1991, Larkin 1997). Unfortunately, TEM
of the films has revealed extensive concentrations of
line and planar defects, especially at the silicon\SiC
interface. The principal applications of these films are
for x-ray masks and microelectromechanical systems.
The single-crystal 6H- and 4H-SiC wafers described
above are used in tandem with CVD for essentially all
commercial growth of SiC thin films for electronic
device applications. The surface of a solid normally
consists of flat terraces separated by steps that rise
essentially vertically from the terraces and are one to
several unit cells in height. If the substrate wafer is
oriented a few degrees off the vertical axis, the density
of steps is increased significantly. Growth on SiC

substrates misoriented several degrees off the silicon-
terminated surface planes results in a reduction in
growth temperature as well as improved material
quality. Growth on such misoriented substrates is
referred to as step-controlled growth (Yamamoto et
al. 1998) because films that nucleate and grow from the
steps replicate the polytype of the substrate; films that
nucleate and grow on the terraces are invariably the
3C polytype. High-resolution cross-sectional TEM
has revealed an atomically abrupt and coherent
wafer\film interface. Ranges of reported room tem-
perature values for charge carrier concentration, Hall
mobility, and Hall resistivity in unintentionally doped
6H- and 4H-SiC films are 10"%–10"( cmV$; 300–
700 cm# VV" sV" (electrons), 50–100 cm# VV" sV" (holes);
and 10#–10& Ω cm, respectively. The principal electric-
ally active dopants that provide excess electrons and
holes are nitrogen (donors) and aluminum and boron
(acceptors), respectively.
3. Intentional Doping of Impurities in SiC
Control of the electronic properties of devices is
achieved via the intentional addition of particular
concentrations of electrically active impurities
(dopants) and the device microstructure (see Sect. 4).
Nitrogen is almost universally used as the donor
species (contributes electrons to the conduction band)
and aluminum is commonly the acceptor (accepts
electrons from the valence band) species of choice.
Nitrogen doping during conventional thin-film growth
of 6H-SiC has produced donor concentrations in the
range 10"'–10"* cmV$ (Karmann et al. 1992) with most
of the nitrogen atoms being ionized (ionization energy
of 0.080–0.150 eV at room temperature, depending on
the crystallographic site occupied). By contrast, only
about 1% of the aluminum atoms are ionized, in
keeping with the ionization energy of " 0.250 eV.
Semi-insulating SiC has been produced via the
addition of vanadium.
A greater range of doping control can be achieved
by varying the Si\C ratio within the CVD reactor
during growth via a method known as site competition
epitaxy (Larkin 1994). This method relies on the fact
that nitrogen and aluminum dopants occupy carbon
and silicon sites, respectively. Increasing the Si\C ratio
in the gas phase and, therefore, at the growing surface
of the film, allows more nitrogen to occupy the vacant
carbon sites; decreasing the Si\C ratio allows more
aluminum to occupy the empty silicon sites.
Ion implantation is the only alternative to doping
during thin-film growth and is commonly used in SiC
device fabrication (for a review of this work see
Wongchotigul 1995). Many elements have been im-
planted including aluminum, boron, gallium, indium,
thallium, nitrogen, phosphorus, and antimony.
Dopant ionization is achieved by either post-
implantation thermal annealing or by implantation at
Silicon Carbide
Source Gate Drain
Polysilicon SiO2 Ni
N+ P N+
P well implant
N-5e14 15 lm
Semi-insulating 4H-SiC Substrate
Figure 3
Cross-section of a lateral dual MOS power transistor in
4H-SiC (after Cooper et al. 1998).
sufficiently elevated temperatures to achieve dynamic
annealing. Among the common dopants nitrogen is
easily ionized; however, aluminum is much more
difficult in this regard.
4. Device Fabrication and Characterization
Operable SiC devices have been successfully fabricated
in α-SiC in concentrated efforts to develop this
material as a semiconductor (Campbell and Chang
1978). However, the devices were produced in Lely
crystals, the character of which was not reproducible
from run to run, as indicated above. Significant
progress has been made regarding the development of
these devices, as described below. The reader is
referred to the website www.ecn.purdue.edu\WBG\
maintained by the SiC power-device research group
at Purdue University where one can obtain both
continually updated information regarding SiC
devices and links to other sources of information
regarding SiC-based devices.
The fundamental reasons for the interest in SiC as
a potential material for devices, specifically high-
temperature and high-power devices, stem from its
superior thermal conductivity and thermal stability
relative to other semiconductor materials and from the
fact that the specific on-resistance of a SiC power
device is expected to be 100–200 times lower than a
similarly rated silicon device (Baliga 1989). The
chemistry, microstructure, and electrical properties of
cobalt, titanium, and platinum Schottky contacts on
6H-SiC have been reported (Porter et al. 1995a, 1995b,
1995c). A critical review of the status of contacts to
various polytypes has also been published (Porter and
Davis 1995). Devices using these types of contacts and
known as Schottky diodes are expected to find use as
flyback rectifiers in power systems driving inductive
loads. Nickel and titanium Schottky diodes (rectifiers)
have been fabricated on 4H-SiC (Schoen 1997). The
measured blocking voltage of the nickel diode was
1720 V with a specific on-resistance of 5.6 mΩ cm#.
3
Silicon Carbide
1.0
0.8 VGS = 24 V
Drain current (lA)
20 V
0.6
Channel width =130 lm
Channel length =10 lm
16 V Drift length = 35 lm
0.4
12 V
0.2
8V 0V
0.0
0 1
Drain voltage (kV)
Figure 4
Current–voltage characteristics of the 4H-SiC LDMOS
power transistor of Fig. 3 at room temperature. The
maximum blocking voltage is 2.6 kV (after Cooper et al.
1998).
This former value is approximately 90% of the
theoretical plane-junction value, and the latter value
is only several times more than the theoretical mini-
mum for this device. It should be noted that Schottky
diodes on silicon are limited to applications with a
blocking voltage less than 200 V.
Thyristors, or semiconductor-controlled rectifiers
(SCRs), are used in a.c. switching applications where
they provide both forward and reverse blocking
capacities. The first SiC thyristors were fabricated on
p-type 6H substrates and had blocking voltages of
50 V (Edmond et al. 1992). Subsequently, thyristors
with blocking voltages of 900 V in both directions have
been fabricated on n-type 4H-SiC. The specific on-
resistance in these devices is 1.7 mΩ cm# (Palmour et al.
1996).
Power MOSFETs on SiC have also been the subject
of extensive research. Silicon carbide has a signi-
ficantly higher critical breakdown field than silicon.
This allows a power MOSFET on SiC to achieve the
same blocking voltage as a similar device on silicon in
a much thinner drift region. Unlike thyristors,
MOSFETs exhibit a saturating current–voltage
characteristic, giving a large safe operating area.
Lateral double implanted (D)MOS power transistors
have been fabricated on 4H-SiC with blocking voltages
of 2.6 kV (Spitz et al. 1997). The schematic and the
current ( I )–voltage (V ) characteristics of this device
are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively. The theoretical
breakdown voltage for this device is in excess of 10 kV.
The increase in blocking voltage for SiC power devices
has been dramatic, as shown in Fig. 5. However, they
must be accompanied by reductions in specific on-
4
Blocking voltage (V)
Max. darin
voltage
2 3
Year
Figure 5
Yearly progress in blocking voltage of SiC power
MOSFETs as reported by three groups in the USA (after
Cooper et al. 1998).
resistance and increases in absolute current rating
before these devices will be commercially viable.
5. Summary
The growth, doping, and device science and tech-
nology regarding electronic SiC have achieved dra-
matic progress that has been sufficient to bring this
material to commercial reality. Vapor phase transport
is the technique of choice for the production of SiC
boules. Crystals of 6H and 4H polytypes with
diameters to 100 mm and lengths to 60 mm have been
grown in the laboratory via vapor phase transport.
Wafers, 50 mm in diameter, of the same polytypes are
commercially available. Research on thin-film growth
and doping, primarily via CVD, continues with most
work being done on off-axis substrates and an em-
phasis on very high, very rapid deposition. The
primary areas of progress in SiC device technology
have been in Schottky rectifiers, thyristors, and power
MOSFETs. However, much additional work must be
accomplished in thin-film growth and doping, ion
implantation, and device design and processing to
reduce the specific on-resistance and increase the
absolute current rating to make SiC devices a
commercial product.
Bibliography
Baliga B J 1989 Power semiconductor device figure of merit for
high-frequency applications. IEEE Electron DeŠice Lett. 10,
455–7

Campbell R B, Chang H C 1978 Silicon carbide junction devices.
In: Willardson R K, Beer A C (eds.) Semiconductors and
Semimetals. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, Vol. 7B, pp.
625–83
Cooper Jr. J A, Melloch M R, Woodall J M, Spitz J, Schoen
K J, Henning J P 1998 Recent advances in SiC power devices.
In: Proc. 7th Int. Conf. on Silicon Carbide, III-Nitrides and
Related Materials. Trans Tech, Switzerland, pp. 895–900
Cree Research Inc. 1995 Properties and specifications for 4H-
silicon carbide. Data sheet, Rev. 10.95
Cree Research Inc. 1995 Properties and specifications for 6H-
silicon carbide. Data sheet, Rev. 10.95
Cree Research Inc. 1995 Physical and electronic properties of
silicon carbide. Data sheet, Rev. 10.95
Davis R F, Carter Jr. C H, Hunter C E 1995 US Pat. Re 34 861
Davis R F, Kelner G, Shur M, Palmour J W, Edmond J A 1991
Thin film deposition and microelectronic and optoelectronic
device fabrication and characterization in monocrystalline
alpha and beta silicon carbide. Proc. IEEE 79, 677–701
Davis R F, Sitar Z, Williams B E, Kong H S, Kim H J, Palmour
J W, Edmond J A, Ryu J, Glass J T, Carter C H Jr 1988
Critical evaluation of the status of the areas for future research
regarding the wide band gap semiconductors diamond,
gallium nitride and silicon carbide. Mater. Sci. Eng. B1,
77–104
Edmond J A, Palmour J W, Carter Jr. C H 1992 Junction
devices in 6H-SiC. In: Proc. 1991 Int. Semiconductor DeŠice
Research Symp. Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers, New York, pp. 499–502
Fuyuki T, Nakayama M, Yoshinobu T, Shiomi H, Matsunami
H 1989 Atomic layer epitaxy of cubic SiC by gas source MBE
using surface superstructure. J. Cryst. Growth 95, 461–6
Glasow P A 1989 6H-SiC studies and developments at the
corporate research laboratory of Siemens AG and the Institute
for Applied Physics of the University in Erlangen (FRG).
Springer Proc. Phys. 34, 13–34
Karmann S, Suttrop W, Schoner A, Schadt M, Haberstroh C,
Engeibrecht F, Helbig R, Pensal G, Stein R A, Leibenzeder S
1992 Chemical vapor deposition and characterization of
undoped and nitrogen-doped crystalline 6H-SiC. J. Appl.
Phys. 72, 5437–43
Kern R S, Tanaka S, Davis R F 1994 Growth and charac-
terization of thin epitaxial silicon carbide films by gas-source
molecular beam epitaxy. Trans. 2nd Int. High Temperature
Electronic Conf. 2, 141–6
Knippenberg W F, Verspiu G 1966 The preparation of large
single crystals of SiC polytypes by precipitation from
solutions. Philips Res. Rep. 21, 113–35
Kordina O, Hallin C, Ellison A, Bakin A S, Ivanov I G, Henry
A, Yakimova R, Touminen M, Vehanen A, Janzen E 1994
High temperature chemical vapor deposition of SiC. Appl.
Phys. Lett. 69, 1456–8
Larkin D J 1994 Site competition epitaxy for superior silicon
carbide electronics. Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 1659–61
Larkin D J 1997 An overview of SiC epitaxial growth. Mater.
Res. Soc. Bull. 22, 36–40
Lee K W, Yu K S, Bai J W, Kim Y 1998 Epitaxial growth of 3C-
SiC without carbonization process using 1,3-disilabutane. In:
Silicon Carbide
Proc. 7th Int. Conf. on Silicon Carbide, III-Nitrides and Related
Materials. Trans Tech, Switzerland, pp. 175–8
Lely J A 1955 Darstellung von Einkristallen von Silicium Carbid
und Beherrschung von Art und Menge der eingebautem
Verunreingungen. Ber. Deut. Keram. Ges. 32, 229–36
Nakamatsu H, Kawai S 1987 Epitaxy of SiC films on sapphire
by laser CVD. In: Aselage T, Emin E, Woods C (eds.) NoŠel
Refractory Semiconductors, MRS Symp. Proc. Materials
Research Society, Pittsburgh, PA, Vol. 97, pp. 189–94
Palmour J W, Singh R, Lapkin L A, Waltz D G 1996 4H-silicon
carbide high temperature power devices. Presentation at 3rd
Int. High Temperature Electronic Conf.
Park Y S (ed.) 1998 SiC materials and devices. In: Semi-
conductors and Semimetals. Academic Press, San Diego, CA,
52
Pensl G, Morkoc H, Monemar B, Janzen E (eds.) 1997 Proc. 7th
Int. Conf. on Silicon Carbide, III-Nitrides and Related
Materials. Trans Tech, Switzerland
Porter L M, Davis R F 1995 A critical review of ohmic and
rectifying contacts for silicon carbide. Mater. Sci. Eng. B 34,
83–105
Porter L M, Davis R F, Bow J S, Kim M J, Carpenter R W
1995a Chemistry, microstructure, and electrical properties at
interfaces between thin films of cobalt and alpha (6H) silicon
carbide (0001). J. Mater. Res. 10, 26–33
Porter L M, Davis R F, Bow J S, Kim M J, Carpenter R W
1995b Chemistry, microstructure, and electrical properties at
interfaces between thin films of platinum and alpha (6H)
silicon carbide (0001). J. Mater. Res. 10, 2336–42
Porter L M, Davis R F, Bow J S, Kim M J, Carpenter R W,
Glass R C 1995c Chemistry, microstructure, and electrical
properties at interfaces between thin films of titanium and
alpha (6H) silicon carbide (0001). J. Mater. Res. 10, 668–79
Rahman M M, Furukawa S 1992 Silicon carbide turns on its
power. IEEE Circuits DeŠ. Mag. 8, 22–6
Schoen K J 1997 Power and high temperature Schottky rectifiers.
Ph.D. thesis, Purdue University
Spitz J, Melloch M R, Cooper Jr. J A, Capano M A 1997 2.6 kV
4H-SiC power MOSFET. IEEE Device Research Conference
late newspaper presentation
Tairov Y M, Tsvetkov V G 1981 General principles of growing
large-size single crystals of various silicon carbide polytypes.
J. Cryst. Growth 53, 146–50
Wongchotigul K 1995 Ion implantation and anneal charac-
teristics of SiC. In: Properties of Silicon Carbide. INSPEC,
IEE, London, pp. 157–61
Yamamoto T, Kimoto T, Matsunami H 1998 Impurity in-
corporation mechanism in step-controlled epitaxy growth
temperature and substrate off-angle dependence. In: Proc. 7th
Int. Conf. Silicon Carbide, III-Nitrides and Related Materials.
Trans Tech, Switzerland, pp. 111–14
Ziegler G, Lanig P, Theis D, Weyrich C 1983 Single crystal
growth of SiC substrate material for blue light emitting
diodes. IEEE Trans. Electron. DeŠices ED-30, 277–81
T. P. Smith and R. F. Davis
5
Silicon Carbide

Copyright ' 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means : electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Encyclopedia of Materials : Science and Technology
ISBN: 0-08-0431526
pp. 8497–8502