COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VIGNA RADIATA INSIDE

SIMPLE POLYETHYLENE GREENHOUSE

VERSUS OPEN FIELD SCHOOL

YEAR 2017-2018

A Research Presented to the

Senior High School Faculty of Don Bosco College

Canlubang, Calamba City

In Partial Fulfilment

of the Requirements for

English

By:

TUSI, JOSEPH EMMANUEL B.

2018
 ABSTRACT

The main problem of the study is to determine the more effective way on growing mung beans,
planting in open field and in simple polyethylene greenhouse through a comparative
investigation. The researcher’s main objective is to provide perceptions into the profitability and
the feasibility on the said study, specifically, it sought to answer the following major questions:
1.) What are the comparison in mung beans clad with greenhouse and mung beans without
greenhouse in terms of quality and yield? 2.) What are the impacts or effects of greenhouse to the
factors which are affecting the growth of the mung beans? 3.) What could be the difference/s of
the mung beans inside greenhouse and mung beans outside greenhouse in late planting?

A number of samples that will be used are 15 mung beans each, 15 on the open field and
15 on the simple greenhouse. The statistical treatments that will be used are: Frequency
Distribution, Percentages, and Mean. Findings of the study will indicate that the simple
greenhouse have produce more yielded and more quality mung beans compare to the mung beans
planted in open field despite of the late planting and factors affecting the growth of the said
sample. The researchers output is a recommendation which will be subdivided into two:
omparison of the mung beans in open field and in simple greenhouse, and also, meet the most
objective of the study, and that is to enlighten and persuade the farmers about the benefits of
using greenhouses.
 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Mung bean also known as Vigna radiata is an annual legume that when matures, could
grow up to 1 meter of height. (Anderson, M., Cameron, D.G., Peters, M., Petit, S,. & Real, D.,
n.d.). It is a straight plant and deep rooted and has a trifoliate leaves and vine types same with the
other legumes (Oplinger, et al, 1997). It is a warm season crop that needs temperature ranging
from 28-30 degrees centigrade to germinate and for high growth rate (The Asian Vegetable
Research and Development Centre (AVRDC), nd). Maturity days would count within 75 to 90
(Dept. of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2010), but according to Oplinger, et al, (1997), it
depends on the variety of the mung bean, some require 90–120 days of frost free conditions from
planting to maturity. Mung beans are indigenous in India and broadly grown in Southeast Asia,
Africa, South America and Australia. Mung bean sprouts productions are widely known in USA.
Production of it in Australia is exported mostly in Taiwan, Philippines, United States of America
and United Kingdom.

Mung beans are basically played up in cuisines in Southeast Asia such as China,
Thailand, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and India. (Dept. of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2010).
While mung beans are grown for its high protein content with 22 to 24 percent and lysine
(Morton, Smith, Poehlman 1982) used as human food that is favorable for the children and adults
due to its digestibility and flatulence production is low, it may also use as feed for domestic
animals (Oplinger, et al, 1990; Morton, et al, 1982). It is prepared for cooking, milling, sprouting
and fermenting, and used for making pastries, noodles, soups and other culinary products. It is
incorporated also for soil improvement (Morton, et al, 1982).

Open field planting is usually applied in mung beans done for broadcast method where it
is grown after rice, seeding in rows, and in hills (Morton, et al, 1982). It allows the crop to be
vulnerable to such climate conditions and would lead to the development of the diseases
 (Mwangi, 2012). Late plantings of the mung beans would lessen its yield due to the cold
climate conditions which some diseases that affecting mung beans are spreading. Some diseases
are derived from affected seeds caused by bacterial infections and viruses, which some of these
spread because of insect pollination. (Oplinger, et al, 1997; Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and
Fisheries, 2012). Open field planting may expose also the mung bean to the weeds, which
competition of it to the mung bean may degrade and lessen mung beans’ yield, and on pests
especially on pod sucking bugs that could reduce mung bean’s quality, furthermore, tolerable
percent of mung beans to the damage is only 2% (Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries
2012).

Significant usage of greenhouses could protect the mung beans from pests and some
diseases, and could give the mung beans the needed temperature to germinate because of its
manipulated environment and humidity by reason of trapping the heat inside that could help for
the continuous photosynthesis of the plant. (New World Encyclopedia, 2017; Hershey, 2001). On
that case, requirement regarding on the season for the mung beans to germinate may not be a
problem and could significantly saves time and effort waiting for the next required season
(Travis, 2017). According to Duarte-Galvan, Torres-Pacheco, Guevara-Gonzalez, Romero-
Troncoso, Contreras-Medina, Rios-Alcaraz, and Millan-Almaraz (2012), it could help to gain
high quality crops, developed consistent and higher yields and more sophisticated compare to the
open field planting (Rada , n.d.). Greenhouses could be expensive because of the structure, the
technology applied inside and the covering materials used (Lecture No.2, nd), but according to
the Visit to an Ocean Planet, (n.d.), greenhouse could be done by using plastic bottles because
trapping of heat inside also known as greenhouse effect occur and, is because of the plastic
bottles are made up of polyethylene which is used for greenhouse covering material (Different
Types of Plastics and their Classification, n.d.; Lecture No.2, n.d.). According to New World
Encyclopedia (2017), greenhouses could increase food supply and feed starving nations.
Therefore, in a long run, providing greenhouses would turn to the escalation of mung beans
production here in the Philippines where mung beans are deficient to meet domestic needs
(Morton, et al, 1982).

2
 Mung beans have significant uses and benefits. It could be used as food not just for
human but also feeds for livestock. It is known for providing nutrients such as proteins and
lysine and may also help for the improvement of soil. Production of mung beans in the
Philippines is under open field planting system, whereas used for the alternation after rice. On
1975 according to Morton, et al, (1982), mung beans produced in the Philippines would count
over 21 thousand metric tons and it remain constant in the recent years where the production is
inadequate to supply the domestic needs.

The greenhouse planting system has been proven for the quality and increase of
production it gives to the crop, and benefits it could give to the farmers compare to the open field
system. In the Philippines, greenhouses are not used because of its tropical condition, thus,
greenhouses could help the crop grow even if it is not its season. And also, it could not just offer
heating but also cooling system for the plants, lastly protection from the factors affecting the
crop such as weeds, diseases and pests for it is easy to manage inside greenhouse and the use of
herbicides and pesticides and other chemicals would be lessen.

The researcher’s main objective on this study is to provide perceptions into the
profitability and feasibility of mung bean planting through a comparative investigation. These
are some questions that serve as basis of the study of the researcher: 1.) What are the comparison
in mung beans clad with greenhouse and mung beans without greenhouse in terms of quality and
yield? 2.) What are the impacts or effects of greenhouse to the factors which are affecting the
growth of the mung beans? 3.) What could be the difference/s of the mung beans inside
greenhouse and mung beans outside greenhouse in late planting?

Significance of the Study

Mung bean is one of the essential beans that one could get multiple benefits of. Hence the
production of it in the Philippines could not yet sustain its domestic needs. So proven and tested
methods and technologies like greenhouse should be applied, for it offers higher yield and higher
quality of crops. Implementing greenhouses could enhance living standards and could create jobs
(NSW Government Department of Primary Industries, n.d.). This should not only be seen on its
3
expensive side but it should be seen as profitable system (Mwangi, 2012). Open field system
needs to provide more water and land for the higher production due to the climate changing
conditions and increasing population that would result to land fragmentation. But by providing
greenhouses it could just not give the quality for the crop but also, land spaces needed would be
minimized and the temperature needed would be offered, thus, this study aimed to cater
information and persuade the future development of the mung beans enterprise.

The findings of the study may positively enlightened and persuade the farmers who grow
mung beans for the adaptation of technology called greenhouse, which may lead to the increase
of farm employment, crop enhancement in terms of production and quality, and may also
enhance to the nutrients, increased farm incomes, and improves living standard. It would also
benefit other stakeholders sub sector extension (Mwangi, 2012) and for the future researchers
who could do research related to mung beans or in greenhouses, findings of this study could help
them to support the gap of their research.

Scope and Delimitations

The study consists of the comparison of the mung beans in terms of quality and yield, in
the presence of greenhouse, and the effect of it to the pests, weeds and diseases. Study about the
comparison of the greenhouse and pesticides, herbicides or other chemicals and other types of
greenhouses would not be observed in the study. Another, the water application would be
measured and systematic, variables including the usage of different types of soils where it would
be planted and the usage of different kinds of mung beans are not observed in the study .The
observation would only take until 90 days (the maturity stage of mung bean). The study was
limited or would be done in the backyard of the researcher and the greenhouse that would be use
is a simple greenhouse that would be covered by plastic, greenhouse with the technology inside
would not be possible due to the need of broad farm and to the financial constraints of the
researcher.

4
 SYNTHESIS

The review of the related literature and studies intended to give the researcher an addition
of information in regards to the said topic. In addition, it deliberated the topic that brings a
clearer view about the concept of the comparison of open field versus simple greenhouse for
growing mung beans, on which way is more effective on growing, comparison on the two ways
respond to the environmental factors on growing this particular plant, and the benefits that will
possibly get onto it. This also helps to support the variables of the said study to define the
researcher an intellect to the said topic of the study in order to classify which is more effective
way, identify and compare the 2 mung bean groups through an experimental observation. And
lastly to prove that the result will help the farmers to think for the benefits they will on the said
way of raising plants, which is important in analyzing the basis of the study.

5
 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Open Field Simple Greenhouse

Effects Effects
 Moderate quality and yield  High quality and yield

 Prone to environmental factors  Protected from environmental

factors
 Can be affected by diseases due to
late planting  Cannot be affected by diseases due
to late planting

The figure shows the differences on the effects of the plants between planting traditional

open field planting and the simple greenhouse as being explained by the New World

Encyclopedia and Mwangi and on the use of simple polyethylene plastic cover explained by

Lecture No.2. They have pointed out the effectiveness of the greenhouse compare to the open

field even if it is simple. Using this theoretical framework, the students, researchers and farmers

will now define the difference of the two.

6
 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

1. Comparison of The study is
Open field versus recommended for the
Quantitative Method
simple greenhouse farmers to change their
of Research
1.1 Comparison on way of raising plant
the effects to the especially mung beans
which are deficient to
samples Comparative meet the domestic
investigation needs here in the
1.2 Comparison on
dealing with the Philippines. And for
environmental the future researchers
factors Statistical Analysis who could do research
related to mung beans
1.3 Comparison on or in greenhouses,
dealing with the late Evaluation of the findings of this study
planting stage results could help them to
support the gap of
2. The benefits that their research.
will get on the study

Feedback

7
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Mung Bean: Vigna Radiata

Characteristics

The Vigna Radiata (L.) Wilczek, also known as the mung bean, is an upright annual
legume ranging in height from 15 cm to 1 m; average height of mature plant, 0.9 m. Branches
freely, but not heavily foliaged. Leaves, stems and pods are slightly hairy. Junctions of branches
and stems are stipule (Anderson, et al, nd). This crop is cultivated mostly in rotation with
cereals. It is a straight plant which is highly branched, its roots are deep rooted same on the roots
of black eye, it is both upright and vine types of growth habit with leaves which are trifoliolate
like the other legumes (Oplinger, et al, 1997). The dull yellow flowers are “borne in clusters of
12-15 near the top of the plant, mature pods are variable in color (yellowish-brown to black),
about five inches long, and contain 10 to 15 seeds”. According to Anderson, et al, (n.d.), the first
flowers appear on seven to eight weeks after planting and when crop reaches maturity in 12 to 14
weeks. Pods clothed in long, spreading, deciduous silky hairs. Self-pollination is available so the
presence of the factors of pollination is not required. (Oplinger, et al, 1997). Flowers would
eventually developed into small, thin cylindrical pods and, often, cylindrical seeds covered with
a white rough layer. Pod color varies from black and brown to pale grey when it became mature,
several pods grouped at a leaf axil, with typically 30 to 40 pods per plant. The pods turn darker
in color as they mature. The seeds are free from Glycosides, its color exhibits a wide range of
variations at maturity from yellow, greenish-yellow, light-green and shiny green to dark-green,
dull green, black, brown and green mottled with black (Dept. of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries, 2010). These seeds vary in size from 6,000 to over 12,000 per pound, depending upon
type. “Germination is epigeal with the cotyledons and stem emerging from the seedbed”
(Oplinger, et al, 1997).

8
 The Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre (AVRDC) (n.d.), stated that
Mung bean is a warm season crop, with the optimum temperature of 28-30 degrees Centigrade
for germination and growth, temperatures lower than 25 Degrees Centigrade would cause poor
germination rates. Mung bean has a short life cycle, it matures within 75 to 90 days (Dept. of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2010), but it depends on the variety of the Mung bean, some
requires 90–120 days of frost free conditions from planting to maturity. Sufficient rainfall is
required “from flowering to late pod fill in order to ensure good yield”, late plantings which
result in flowering during the high temperature-low moisture period in July and August would
lessen yield. High humidity and excess rainfall late in the season could result in disease problems
and harvesting losses due to delayed maturity (Oplinger, et al, 1997). This statement was
supported by Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries (2012), it said that late planting
regularly results in lower yields, as the crop often flowers around 35 days after planting, and the
small plants fail to achieve canopy closure. If planting on narrower rows, increase the seeding
rate by 5 kg/ha for plantings made after mid-January. This helps compensate for smaller plant
size.

Mung beans are modified to the similar climatic areas as soybean, drybean and cowpea if
proper varieties are used. It is responsive to length of daylight so short days hasten flowering and
long days delay it. Varieties differ in their “photoperiod response” (Oplinger, et al, 1990). Mung
bean according to The Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre (AVRDC), (n.d.),
could tolerate drought and poor soil: it could adapt different kinds of soil conditions, but
sensitive in cold temperature and could not tolerate wet conditions. Mung beans fertile in best
condition on sandy, loam soils with good internal drainage, they do poorly on heavy clay soils
with bad drainage (Dept. of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2010). According to Oplinger
(1990) soils used for growing mung beans or any other plants with a pH between 6.2 and 7.2
could show best result or performance but plants could show severe iron chlorosis symptoms and
certain micronutrient deficiencies on alkaline soils.

Mung bean requires phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulfur similar to
other legumes and if the soil is deficient in these elements, it must needed to add fertilizers
(Oplinger, 1997). Myers (2000) stated that the alkaline- and acid-fed plants did grow pretty well
but took a while for them to germinate. The acidic and alkaline water would not kill the bean,

9
“it did slow down its germination process.” This statement was approved by Sade (2012) through
his experiment. He observed on his experiment that Mung beans survive or still could grow in
neither acidic nor basic kind of water but not as fastest and best compare to the neutral water.

History of Mung Beans

Mung beans are native in India since early times ( Oplinger, et al, 1990). According to
Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries (2010), in the pulse industry, the term 'Mung
bean' refers primarily to “green-seeded types with pods borne toward the top of the plant.” It
is still widely grown in Southeast Asia, Africa, South America and Australia. It was apparently
grown in the United States as early as 1835 as the Chickasaw pea, also denoted to as green gram,
golden gram and chop suey bean. Mung beans are grown widely for human food (as dry beans or
fresh sprouts), but can be used as a green manure crop and as feed for domestic animals. Almost
all the domestic production of mungbean is in Oklahoma, Fifteen to twenty million pounds of
Mung bean are consumed annually in the United States and nearly 75 percent of this is imported
(Oplinger, et al, 1990). The main production areas in South Africa are Limpopo and
Mpumalanga, where it is manufactured mostly for consumption and are not produced on a
commercial scale. Several attempts at research prior to the Mung bean have been made in South
Africa, but all have failed. This is largely because of late erratic pod maturing, which it makes
hard to know the harvesting period, also it is low yielding and prone to disease (Dept. of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2010). Production of bean sprouts is best known in the
USA. Mung bean also is one of the mandated crops of the Asian Vegetable Research and
Development Centre (AVRDC), Shantua Tainan, Taiwan. It is also cultivated in Australia, from
the Northern Territory to southern New South Wales (NSW), with the majority of production in
Central and Southern Queensland and northern NSW. Most are exported into Taiwan,
Philippines, United States of America and United Kingdom. Mung beans in Southeast Asia such
as China, Thailand, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and India, are mainly featured in cuisine (Dept. of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2010).

10
 Different Varieties of Mung Beans

Australian industry developed varieties and established practices that could produce high-
quality mung beans under “mechanized production systems due to the competition in the
international market that uses traditional farming methods and hand harvesting that results to “a
grain product with exceptional seed quality” (Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries,
2012).

The following varieties are stated by Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries,
(2012). Berken that has a medium-large, evenly sized, bright green seeded mung bean is an easy
to market bean because it produced large sprouts that are preferred by buyers. Its premium
achievability, availability, and the ease of its market made its popularity large. This variety is
very prone to the diseases powdery mildew and tan spot. It is also vulnerable to weather damage
and cracking and also weak to resist lodging. Achieving a premium quality for sprouting grade
beans would be difficult if implementations of management practices are not present
(Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). CrystalA “was released by the National
Improvent Program, under PBR, to the Australian Mungbean Association in 2008, and is a cross
between White Gold, Emerald and CPI109897.”It is a large seed and bright green mung bean, it
is also tall, have lodging resistance similar to Emerald, resistant also in diseases Tan spot, Halo
Blight and Powdery Mildew. It is “a very consistent performer in all regions. Across five years
of regional testing, it achieved an average of 20 per cent higher yields than Emerald and 4 per
cent higher yield than White Gold. It offers significant advances in grain quality” and has a low
level of hard seed that could attract on cooking and processing markets. It could also adjust on
different seasons such as spring and summer due to its weather adaptation ability (Queensland
Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). Reselected EmeraldA has almost same appearance
with the Berken. It has quite hard seed (50%) that enables to limit its acceptance in sprouting
markets. “This variety was released by CSIRO through the Australian Mungbean Association in
1993 and is subject to PBR. This variety was reselected and increased from original breeders´
seed to minimise problems with seed quality variability in lines of Emerald that had been in
circulation for up to 10 years. In comparative trials, Reselected Emerald established higher plant

11
populations than regular Emerald seed.” The used is also for cooking and processing markets in
Asia. Tough conditions in yields on this variety is also similar to Berken, but 20% higher if
under favourable growing conditions or infested by powdery mildew that is due to late plantings.
Cercospora leaf spot could be resisted by this variety and if soil moisture levels remain high
during the grain filling period, maturity could be delayed and uneven (Queensland Dept. of
Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012).

Green DiamondA “was released by the CSIRO through the Australian Mungbean
Association in 1997 and is subject to PBR.” Compare to other varieties, this kind has small seed
and have same quality to Celera and hard seed level could be 70%. It grows erectly carrying
pods high in the canopy. It performs in drier conditions and performed well in spring-plant
conditions better than the other varieties, “and may be more suited to double-crop situations and
the drier western areas” (Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). Satin IIA has
superior seed quality with bigger seed size, improved seed color evenness, shape and also has
potential to overlap the yield of Satin by 20% and also resist both powdery mildew and tan spot,
has also improved resistance in lodging and equal maturity of plant compared in Satin
(Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). Black gram (Vigna mungo) is closely
related to mung beans however it differ in the color of seeds which is dull grey or black and pods
are on the bush which harden the harvesting and maturity are even often (Queensland Dept. of
Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). Regur contains dark grey seed and is resistant in cracking and
weather damage at maturity. It could tolerate water logging compare to other varieties, could
“make excessive vegetative growth under favourable growing conditions and is prone to
lodging.” However it is hard to harvest, grow shorter compare to others in terms of height, pods
are also located beneath the bush. Also it aborts flowers over a prolonged period and ripe
unevenly. Growers choose to grow Regur in back to back rotation to overcome nodulation which
is an often problem as the crop could be responsive to nitrogen fertilizer. High quality Regur
beans have higher demands for exporting in Japan that is for the market of dhal and flour
(Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012).

12
 Weeds, Diseases and Pests that affect Mung beans

Weeds

Compared to Soya Beans, Mung beans are not competitive with weeds, furthermore, only
“few herbicides have been registered.” Hence, weed control is important to mung beans, since
competition between mung bean and weed is reduced, thus ensuring higher yields. The presence
of weed will result to seed being downgraded to a lower quality, Grain sorghum and thorn apple
are hard to remove from a mung bean seed lot, and their “occurrence is not tolerated in premium
grade seed.” According to Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries (2012) contamination
of the crop is merely a particular concern, as they are extremely difficult to remove by grading.
Other major weeds that can create harvest and quality problems in mung beans are Black
nightshade, hairy nightshade, yellow nutsedge and summer annual grasses, and therefore it is
important to have special attention to them. To promote good cultivation practice, “inter-tillage
by hand should be performed once or twice”, hand weeding at about 40 days after planting is
helpful in either way (Dept. of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2010). According to
Oplinger, et al, (1997) in mechanical control of weeds, rotary hoeing and/ or field cultivation
should be performed to remove weed competition until flowering begins. Later developing
weeds are not as damaging to yield as the early ones. Cultivation in the field when the plants are
still moist could spread bacterial and fungal disease. Wider row spacing should be planned when
growing mung beans so that cultivation could be done if weeds become a problem (Oplinger, et
al, 1990). In chemical control, “Dual (metolachlor) is approved for preemerge or preplant
incorporate use and Treflan (trifluralin) is available for preplant incorporate use.” These
herbicides could give excellent grass control and fair to good suppression of annual broadleaves
(Oplinger, et al, 1997). According to Oplinger, et al, (1990) broadleaf weed control is hard
because the chemical contents could damage the mung bean. It is hard to get label clearance for a
minor crop like mung bean, but it may fit under the dry pod crop grouping of certain labels
already cleared. Broadleaf weed control options are very limited in mungbeans, growers should
plan a weed strategy with agronomist prior to planting. Herbicide such as Pendimethalin can
sometimes reduce seedling vigour and affect establishment in mungbeans. Trifluralin should be

13
applied 2-3 weeks prior to planting to minimize the crop damage. It also requires incorporation
and is not suitable for zero or reduced-till situations. Spinnaker is a residual herbicide “with
extended plant back periods” consulting in an agronomist before using is advised (Queensland
Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). Because it is eaten directly by human and other
animals, the restrictions of labels are quite strict as to use and timing of all chemicals applied to
crop (Oplinger, et al, 1990).

Diseases

Mung bean, just like any other legumes, is vulnerable to the usual array of pathogens
such as white mold, Phytophthora, mildew, bacterial rots, Rhizoctonia, etc (Oplinger, et al,
1997). There are many other diseases According to the Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and
Fisheries (2012) that attack mung beans. Fungus Podosphaera fusca, also known as Powdery
Mildew is favored by cooler growing conditions and is often widespread in late crops. Infection
becomes apparent during February, and usually increases in severity during the March-April
period. It can be particularly severe during the autumn period if crops are also under moisture
stress. Macrophomina phaseolina, also known as Charcoal rot could cause infected plants to die
prematurely and might reduce yield, its biggest impact is upon the marketability of sprouting
grade beans. Seed borne infection creates a soft, wet rot of the sprouts during the germination
process. In the disease called Legume little leaf, plants that is affected often fail to produce pods,
and if they do, they are generally distorted with the beans either failing to develop inside the pod
or turning brown in color. This could be a major cause for downgrading of the sample and
discounted returns to growers. The disease is spread by leafhoppers, which have a wide host
range on other crops and weeds and undergo mass migration depending on seasonal conditions
and the availability of alternative feed sources. Halo blight is a seed-borne bacterial disease
caused by Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. Phaseolicola, and first recorded in Queensland in the
mid-1980s. It caused significant losses on the Darling Downs in recent seasons and has also been
identified in Central Queensland. Symptoms typically develop under cool, humid conditions
following rain, most notably in spring mungbean crops. Significant yield losses can result if the
disease appears before flowering or during pod development. Tobacco streak virus (TSV) was

14
spotted in 2007 in mung bean crops in the Central Highlands region of Central Queensland,
which caused a minor to severe impact on yields. Thrips are the only known vector of TSV, that
is, they could transfer virus-infected pollen. Several common broadleaf weed species are hosts of
TSV with parthenium weed being a widespread and key host of the virus in central Queensland.
The physical damage caused by thrips feeding on the plant allow infected pollen to enter the
mungbean plant where the virus multiplies. Mung bean Yellow Mosaic Virus (MYMV) according
to the Dept. of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2010) is the “most serious disease of mung
bean on the Indian subcontinent.” Planting of MYMV resistant mung bean varieties is the best
control measure. Gummy Pod is a bacterial infection (Gluconobacter spp.) that happens
“following the overproduction of sugar by the floral nectaries on the mungbean plant”. The
condition is caused by a combination of heat and moisture stress, and cause extensive gumming
and foaming of pods during the early stages of their development and can be followed by
collapse of the stalks supporting the pods, and then pod drop. Tan Spot is caused
by Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens and is often present at low level in most crops. it is a seed
borne disease, and while it may occur as early as the seedling cotyledonary stage, “it is more
commonly seen from the second trifoliate leaf stage onwards”. Affected plants can remain small,
show severe “yellowing” and may not set seed. Symptoms may consist of large, irregular, dry,
papery scratches on leaves that coalesce to form “large brown dead areas, commonly with yellow
margins around the dead leaf tissue.” These areas dry out to a tan coloured patch, which may
split and fall out, giving the leaf a ragged look. The disease is then spread from infected
seedlings to the other plants in the factors such as “wind-blown rain (particularly hail) and
mechanical damage (machinery and abrasion from dust storms)”. Once infected, symptoms
develop quickly if the crop is subjected to hostile growing conditions - such as heat or moisture
stress. It can cause widespread and serious losses. Other diseases such as Puffy Pod Disorder,
Sclerotinia white mould, Cercospora leaf spot, and Bacterial blight are also manifested in Mung
beans. The impact of these diseases may be reduced effectively if proper rotation, tillage
practices, and water organization (if under irrigation) are done, contact extension agent or crop
consultant for assistance and advice (Oplinger, et al, 1997).

15
 Pests

Mung beans do not generally need insecticide sprays to control problems in the field.
Seed corn maggot and wireworms could attack seeds in the early germination period and reduced
stand under certain conditions. Infrequent grasshopper or caterpillar infestation could occur and
result in defoliation. Mung beans are not that affected by insect problems than the other legumes
but Weevils can attack the seed in storage (Oplinger, et al, 1997). The Dept. of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries (2010) stated that insect pest control is important to achieve high seed
quality. The sticky secretion of mung bean entices a host of insects. Insect pests could reduce the
“profitability of mung bean” through reduced and seed quality. Hence, insect damage is one of
the main reasons for downgrading mungbeans. The onset of budding marks a critical stage when
the crop becomes more attractive to major pests. Mung beans are at greatest risk from pod-
sucking bugs from early podfill until late pod ripening. Mung beans can compensate for
moderate early damage by preserving undamaged buds and flowers that otherwise might be shed
naturally. Under favourable growing conditions, they could even compensate for severe early
damage by setting new buds and pods. However this may result in uneven and delayed harvest
maturity. In addition, their compensatory ability is reduced if there is ongoing significant pest
pressure (Australian Mung bean Association, n.d.). Seeds damaged from mid pod fill beyond are
little different in weight to undamaged seeds and are not lost at harvest or able to be graded out
without resorting to color sorters. Crops remain susceptible to late bug damage until the pods
harden just prior to harvest. As a result, late bug damage is a major factor affecting seed quality.
“As a rule of thumb,” percentage of tolerable damage for mung beans is only 2% (Queensland
Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries 2012).

The Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries (2012) divide the pests that attack the
Mung beans into two, the major pests that includes: Helicoverpa spp, Pod-sucking bugs, Mirids,
Bean pod-borer, and the Minor pests such as: Caterpillars - loopers, cluster caterpillar, Etiella,
Stem damaging flies - bean fly, Aphids and Thrips.

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 Major Pests

Helicoverpa has two kinds: Helicoverpa armigera, Helicoverpa punctigera, according to

The Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries (2012), it could severely damage all crop
stages and all plant parts of mungbeans. In sub-coastal and inland southern Queensland, summer
legumes are at greatest risk from H. armigera from mid-December onwards. However,
spring H. armigera outbreaks are more likely in coastal regions. Helicoverpa could severely
damage all crop stages and all plant parts of mungbeans but more attractive from budding
onwards (Australian Mung bean Association, n.d.). However, “spring H. armigera outbreaks are
more likely in coastal regions.” Helicoverpa defoliation would be described by rounded chew
marks and holes (loopers make angular holes). High populations of it could severely damage
seeding and young vegetative crops, especially if they are drought stressed. In these situations,
larvae feed more on the plant’s terminals and axillary buds (the precursors to floral buds), and
less on the leaves themselves. Once crops reach flowering, larvae focus on buds, flowers and
pods (Australian Mung bean Association, n.d.). It could control either in chemical or cultural
aspects. According to Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries (2012), prior to flowering,
biopesticides (particularly Helicoverpa nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV)) are recommended in
inclination to chemical insecticides. This helps conserve beneficial insects to protect crops by
buffering against helicoverpa attack during the susceptible reproductive stages, and avoids
flaring of other pests such as mites. In cultural control, Good agronomy and soil moisture are
crucial as large, actively growing plants suffer less defoliation for a given helicoverpa population
and have less risk of terminal damage. Vigorously growing plants with suitable available
moisture are better able to substitute damaged leaves and compensate for flower and pod
damage. For monitoring this pest, beat sheet sampling is the effective sampling method for
medium to large helicoverpa larvae. Small larvae should be scouted for by “inspecting (opening)
vegetative terminals and flowers.” Damage to vegetative terminals and buds are often the first
visual clues that helicoverpa larvae are present. Ideally, mungbeans should also be scouted for
eggs and moths, to figure out the start of infestations and increase the chance of successful
control (Australian Mung bean Association, n.d.).

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 Pod-sucking bugs could move in at budding but significant damage is confined to pods.
They start breeding as soon as they move in to flowering crops and nymphs must feed on pods to
finish their development. Feeding by pod-sucking bugs causes shriveled and distorted seed, and
could severely lessen yield and seed quality. Pod-sucking bugs could even affect seeds in black
pods that are nearing harvest maturity. Late bug damage reduces seed quality but not yield. As
only 2% seed damage is tolerable in mung beans, bug thresholds are based on seed quality, not
yield (Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries 2012). These insects include Green
Vegetable Bug, Redbanded Shield Bug, Large Brown Bean Bug and Small Brown Bean Bug. The
green vegetable bug (GVB) and the brown bean bugs are evenly damaging, while the damage
potentials of the red-banded and brown shield bugs are 0.75 and 0.2 of a GVB respectively.
Nymphs of all species are less harmful than adults. “While first instar nymphs cause no damage,
subsequent instars are progressively more damaging with the fifth and final instar being nearly as
damaging as adults (Australian Mung bean Association, n.d.).

The Nezara viridula also known as the Green Vegetable Bug (GVB) according to the
Australian Mung bean Association (n.d.) is the most harmful pod-sucking bug in mung beans
because of its abundance, widespread distribution, rate of damage as well on its reproduction.
Coastal Queensland is where very high population of it would be encountered. Pods containing
well-developed seeds are most at risk. GVB also damages buds and flowers but mung beans
could reimburse for this early damage. Damage to young pods causes deformed and shriveled
seeds and reduced yield. Seeds damaged in older pods are marked, difficult to grade out and
reduce quality. Bug damaged seeds have increased protein content but a shorter life span (due to
increased rancidity). Bug damaged seeds are frequently discolored, either directly as a result of
tissue breakdown or water could enter where pods are pierced by bugs (Queensland Dept. of
Agriculture and Fisheries 2012). Australian Mung bean Association, (n.d.) concluded that it
invades specifically adults in summer legumes at flowering stage, but GVB is primarily a pod
feeder “with preference for pods with well-developed seeds.” Mung beans remain at risk until
pods are getting too hard to damage (i.e. very close to harvest). Damaging populations are
typically highest in late summer crops during late pod-fill (when nymphs have reached or are
near adulthood). Inspection of GVB would be twice weekly from budding until close to harvest,
and would be observed during early to mid-morning. Beat sheet sampling is also efficient

18
monitoring method similar to Helicoverpa. In chemical control, Pesticides are best applied in the
early to mid-morning to contact bugs lying at the top of the canopy, it should be controlled
during early pod-fill before nymphs get a damaging size. In cultural control, similar to
Helicoverpa, avoid sequential plantings of summer legumes as bug populations are active from
earlier to later plantings, eventually building to very high levels. , another is avoidance in cultivar
and planting time combinations that are more likely to extend the duration of flowering and pod
stage (Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries 2012).

Another type of Pod-sucking Bug is the Piezodorus Oceanicus also known as the
Redbanded Shield Bug (RBSB) was recently modified as Piezodorus Hybneri and as P. Grossi.
Even though it is called the redbanded bug, only females have red bands and males have “pale
cream bands” (Australian Mung bean Association, nd). It is not as abundant as the GVB with the
damage potential of 75% however, the control with current pesticides are harder because adults
are comparable in shape to GVB but smaller and paler version with pink , white or yellow bands.
The effect of this bug is similar to GVB, it reduces yields and quality of harvested seeds
(Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries 2012). In monitoring this pest Beat sheeting also
is the preferred sampling method, observed the distinctive twin-row eggs if these are present
because it would indicate the existence of RBSB but not have total satisfaction as both brown
bean bugs are very inconsistent, particular on during the hot times of the day. Crop scouts should
familiarize themselves with the appearance of flying brown bean bug adults and involved these
in sampling counts (Australian Mung bean Association, n.d.). In chemical control on this pest
there are no insecticides yet that are specifically registered against RBSB in Australia, recent
trials indicate that the pesticides against GVB are not effective to RBSB, but control could be
improved, “Albeit only 50 to 60%, with the addition of a 0.5% salt (NaCl) adjuvant”
(Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012).

Another type of pest attacking mung beans are the Mirids. There are 2 kinds of it, the
Creontiades Dilutus also known as the Green Mirid and Creontiades Pacificus also known as the
Brown Mirids. They attack on budding, flowering and early podding stages of crops so these are
the stages where the mung beans are at risk in this kind of pest. They specifically target buds and
flowers “causing them to abort” and they are considered one of the key pests of mung beans
(Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). So therefore the crops or legumes must

19
be inspected twice a week from the budding stage until flowering stage and note do not miss the
start of budding then. They are “very mobile in crop population and could increase rapidly”,
according to the observation of Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries (2012), less
population of Green Mirids are often exist in vegetative crops and no evidence of they cause
yield loss of crops. In monitoring this pest, beat sheeting same to the previous pests is also
applied and effective for rowed crops. For controlling this pest destruction, in cultural aspect, the
flowering period could be shortened by planting on a full moisture profile and by watering crops
just before budding. Another do planting crops in at least 50 cm rows (as opposed to broadcast
planting) to manage easier pest sampling. One thing, experiments have shown that the addition
of salt (0.5% NaCl) as an adjuvant could enhance chemical control of mirids at lower chemical
rates. Decreasing pesticide rates (typically by 50-60%) greatly reduces their impact on
beneficials and reduces the risk of flaring helicoverpa (Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and
Fisheries, 2012). For chemical control, consult the expert on what is the appropriate pesticide/s
for this.

Maruca Vitrata and previously discovered called Maruca Testulalis is also known as the
Bean Pod-Borer. This pest is found mostly in coastal and tropical regions. The damage of this in
crops is infested from early budding onwards by laying eggs in the flowers, then soon, young
larvae “feed inside the flowers before moving to developing pods when mid-sized” (Australian
Mung bean Association, n.d.). Larvae could eat seeds in damage pods either total or partial, the
damage seeds could cause hole that could let the water enter which “stains the remaining non-
eaten seeds”, and early signs of infestation is the “webbing of flowers” (Queensland Dept. of
Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). The Australian Mung bean Association (n.d.) stated to monitor
this pests “open all flowers from as many racemes as possible to look for larvae (at least 30
racemes randomly sampled across a crop)”. So to control this pest, put pesticides before larvae
enter the pods. Consult the expert for the right pesticide on this.

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 Minor Pests

Spodoptera Litura also known as Cluster caterpillar is as destructive as the Helicoverpa

but less frequent. This could cause serious damage to mung beans in Queensland during
flowering and podding stages. Small larvae make “window leaves” but old larvae “chew holes in
leaves and could also attack flowers and pods” (Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries,
2012). For monitoring this pest, observed and looked for egg masses and cluster of young larvae.
“Cluster caterpillars are not controlled by NPV products and are difficult to control with Bt
(Bacillus thuringiensis ) unless very small.” In pre-flowering crops, control is needed if
defoliation exceeds (or is likely to) exceed 33%, but tolerable defoliation falls to 15-20% once
flowering and podding stages begin (The Australian Mung bean Association, n.d.).

Etiella Behrii also known as Etiella (lucerne seed web moth), could infests crops from
flowering stage but highly active during late podding stage. The damage of this pests is similar to
the cluster caterpillar, it creates holes on the seeds but is hard to find by eating it out and the
effects is the seeds being degraded and could have unattractive appearance. “The pale frass
excreted by these caterpillars inside damaged pods is often mistaken for bruchid eggs”
(Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). To monitor and control this pest, moth
activity monitoring techniques are being developed with light traps or lures, for it is this pest’s
most vulnerable stage, no current pesticides are registered (The Australian Mung bean
Association, n.d.).

Another kind of pest is looper, it comprises green loopers such as soybean looper
(Thysanoplusia orichalcea), tobacco looper (Chrysodeixis argentifera), vegetable looper
(Chrysodeixis eriosoma) and brown loopers such as bean looper (Mocis alterna), sugarcane
looper (Mocis frugalis), mocis trifasciata (no common name), Pantydia spp+ (Queensland Dept.
of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). Summer legumes could be vulnerable in defoliation in
flowering and podding stages therefore these stages that crops are in greater risk in this pest.
Loopers could attack the flowers and young pods of mung beans, the leaf damage of this pest is
different to Helicoverpa, and the holes made by loopers are more angular than Helicoverpa
which is round (Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). According to The
Australian Mung bean Association (nd), for monitoring this pest, same to the other pests, use

21
beat sheeting, inspection for vegetative stage is weekly and twice a week “from very early
budding onwards until crops are no longer susceptible to attack.” “In pre-flowering crops, looper
control is warranted if defoliation exceeds (or is likely to) exceed 33%. Tolerable defoliation
drops to 15-20% once flowering and podding commences.” Bt could control small loopers
containing 12 mm long, but pesticides that could control Helicoverpa NPV have no effect to the
loopers, for the right pesticides, consult experts (Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries,
2012).

Ophiomyia phaseolus also known as the Bean Fly, it could damage crops by tunneling
plant’s vascular tissue that cause seedling death and lessen plant vigor and petiole wilt in older
crops. 3-4 weeks crops from emergence are at risks in this pest, and sometimes older crops were
attacked, crops found in coastal and sub-coastal regions are the most affected (Queensland Dept.
of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). According to The Australian Mung bean Association (nd),
“An increasingly serious pest of seedling crops in coastal and tropical regions such as the
Burdekin.” For monitoring this pest, find the distinctive pale oviposition pinprick windows in the
leaves and for larval tunneling or holes and at the base of petioles and in the stems. Look also for
the pupae and the affected stem tissue in the lower stems, also for adult flies. Do actions if many
holes are observed, monitoring in seedling crops could be done twice a week (Queensland Dept.
of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). For this pest’s control, systemic pesticides is readily
accomplished for young crops, for heavy infestations repetition of spray within one week is
advised, but spray against bean flies in mature crops would not be effective. Another, ensure that
the mung beans are free from “weed hosts such as phasey bean and volunteer crop legumes (The
Australian Mung bean Association, n.d.).

Cowpea Aphids or Aphis Craccivora have a status of “moderate, widespread, and

irregular” (Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012). It could attack cottons, lettuce
and legumes as well, mung beans are at risk from flowering stage onwards severe infestations
could reduce mung beans’ vigor and yield. Aphids could inject toxins to the plant “while
feeding”, its feeding produces honeydew that causes the harvesting difficult, this honeydew
produces sooty mould that could reduce photosynthesis. For monitoring this pest, the presence of
ladybirds, hoverflies and smudge bugs are often indicator if aphids are exist on the said crop/s.
Find on the plant stems the Aphid colonies by “parting the canopy”. When aphids spread to the

22
upper leaves and pods, visibility of heavy infestations would be done (Queensland Dept. of
Agriculture and Fisheries, 2012).

Flower Thrips such as Tomato thrips (Frankliniella schultzei), Western flower thrips
(Frankliniella occidentalis), and Plague thrips (Thrips imagines) are widespread and regular
pests affecting crops during flowering and podset stages (Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and
Fisheries, 2012). They feed inside flowers and “growing point which could cause in flower
abortion and pod distortion.” Pods that were deformed may be difficult to separate, therefore just
like the other pest’s effect, it could lose yield (The Australian Mung bean Association, n.d.).
According to the Queensland Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries (2012), they are the vectors of
the Tobacco Streak Virus (TSV) which mung beans also affected. For monitoring on this type of
pest, examine and open the flowers to look for the thrips. Remove weeds that hosts TSV such as
Parthenium, they could be also a “potential source” of infested pollen that could be “blown into
mung bean crops.” Remove weeds such as parthenium that host TSV. These weeds are also a
potential source of infested pollen that can be blown into mungbean crops. If the flowers could
not be checked daily, “store in 70% alcohol to dislodge thrips and prevent thrips escaping.” For
managing TSV affected crops, consult experts (The Australian Mung bean Association, nd).

Greenhouse

Greenhouse also called as glasshouse, in botany, is a building or an enclosed structure

that is made from glass and other “transparent material” such as plastic or fiberglass that could
give the plants a manipulated environment such as the temperature, the humidity and ventilation
and also serve as protection for growing plants. (Cambridge dictionary, 2017; New World
Encyclopedia, 2017). This is used extensively by botanist, gardeners and commercial plant

23
growers. Greenhouses are useful in cold climates for growing and for propagation of plants
because it could allow sunlight to enter and prevent heat from escaping (Henderson, n.d). It
could help cultivating young, tender and out of season plant by the means of protecting from
excessive cold or heat. According to Henderson (n.d.), “the transparent covering of the
greenhouse allows visible light to enter unhindered, where it warms the interior as it is absorbed
by the material within. The transparent covering also prevents the heat from leaving by reflecting
the energy back into the interior and preventing outside winds from carrying it away.” The
statement is supported by New World Encyclopedia (2017), which it is explained in more
specific manner. It says, “the warm air is retained in the building by the roof and wall and the
radiant energy absorbed by the interior surfaces is re-radiated at a longer wavelength that is now
blocked by the glass, plastic, or fiberglass cover, which is transparent to the shorter wavelength
incoming sunlight. The greenhouse cover can be described as a selective transmission medium
for different spectral frequencies that serves to trap energy within the greenhouse.” Another one
who supported this detail is Wood (n.d.), he said that the greenhouse act as a radiation trap. The
heat waves from the sun that could penetrate to glass or other transparent materials ‘‘fall upon
the walls of the enclosure and raise its temperature’’, the heat energy is then released by the
walls in the appearance of much longer waves, which are unable to penetrate the glass.

Autovent Automatic System principle is the basis on which it said that as the air near the
ground has warmed by solar radiation, it would rise but do not flow away. It is demonstrated by
opening a small window near the roof of the greenhouse that caused of dropping of temperature.
Greenhouse concluded that is truly working by trapping electromagnetic radiation and
constraining convection. “Miniature greenhouses are known as a cold frame” (New World
Encyclopedia, 2017). Greenhouses as said earlier could protect crops from too much heat or
cold, it could also offer protection from dust storms and blizzards, and help to keep out from
pests. It is used to grow plants even late winter and early spring, and then transplanted outside as
the weather gets warm. Greenhouse pollination is done by Bumblebees mostly as they choose the
most greenhouse pollinators although other types of bees may use for artificial pollination. Land
that is non-arable or unable to produce crops could be arable through the light and temperature
that are controlled. “Hydroponics can be used in greenhouses, as well, to make the most use of
the interior space.”It could increase food supply and feed starving nations example is on the

24
countries in high latitude. “Started plants are usually available for gardeners in farmers' markets
at transplanting time.” Varieties such as tomatoes are generally used for commercial production
(New World Encyclopedia, 2017). According Dodson, Bachmann and William (2002), for a
successful organic greenhouse tomato production to obtain, the producers need to do thorough
production and marketing research, create or find a niche market and produced consistently
healthy crops, maintain optimum fertilization and moisture levels, manage pests rigorously, and
maintaining good pollination that could increase crop yields. Rada (n.d.), have added these
details focusing on socio-economic and environmental considerations. He says that greenhouse is
an example of a protected horticulture. Application of greenhouse developed much higher and
more consistent crop yields and quality than open field planting. Growing greenhouse
horticulture sub-sector attracts investments opportunities, promotes environmental conservation,
example is deforestation of the hillside for open field farming would be lessened and marginal
land utilization. The greenhouse is more sophisticated than open field farming so diligence and
precision are drastically needed to attract higher startup and operational costs.

History of Greenhouses

In Roman times is when the idea of growing plants in environmentally controlled areas
started (New World Encyclopedia, 2017). According to Bostock and Riley (1855), Cucumber
was a favorite by Tiberius, a Roman emperor, “who was never without it.” So Roman gardeners
used artificial methods, by planting it in wheeled carts which were exposing to sun daily, then
putting it inside to keep it warm at night under special conditions. Cucumbers were stored in
cucumber houses glazed with either oiled cloth known as “specularia” or with sheets of mica or
stored under frames for the cucumbers were available on the Emperor’s table every day. In the
sixteenth century, the first modern greenhouses were built in Italy to “house the exotic plants that
explorers brought back from the tropics.” They were initially called giardini botanici (botanical
gardens). The idea soon spread to Netherlands and then England. In these early greenhouses,
providing balanced heat was a serious problem. A French botanist, Jules Charles was
acknowledged on building the “first practical modern greenhouse” in Leiden Holland to grow
medicinal tropical plants. British sometimes called their greenhouses conservatories as they

25
conserved plants, the French called it orangeries, since they were used it to protect orange trees
form freezing and popular Pineries or pineapple pits were made (Woods, 1988). Design of
greenhouses experimentation continued until seventeenth century in Europe as the technology
produced better glass and techniques used in construction improved. The greenhouse at
the Palace of Versailles was an example of their size and complexity, it was more than 500 feet
long, 42 feet wide, and 45 feet high. Largest greenhouses were built in the nineteenth century.
Best example of the Victorian greenhouse is the conservatory at Kew Gardens in England,
although it intended for both horticultural and non-horticultural exhibition. These included
“London's Crystal Palace, the New York Crystal Palace, and Munich’s Glaspalast. Joseph
Paxton, who had experimented with glass and iron in the creation of large greenhouses as the
head gardener at Chatsworth in Derbyshire, working for the Duke of Devonshire, designed and
built London's Crystal Palace.” The construction of the royal Greenhouses of Laeken (1874-
1895) for King Leopold II of Belgium is the major architectural achievement in monumental
greenhouse building (Vleeschouwer, 2001). In 1880, the first greenhouse in Japan was built by
Samuel Cocking, a British merchant who exported herbs. Geodesic dome was built in the
twentieth century (New World Encyclopedia, 2017).

Different Types of Greenhouses

Different type of greenhouse could be identified according to its shape, construction,

utility, covering materials, technology and for commercial production used. In its basic shape
according to NSW Government Department of Primary Industries (n.d.), greenhouses is
classified, it includes Gable, Flat arch, Raised dome, Sawtooth, Skillion, Tunnel. Lecture No.2
(n.d.) added the shapes Lean-to, Even span, Uneven span, Ridge and Furrow and Quonset. The
Lean to-type greenhouses design is the structure placed or attached in one structure, on either
building or house. The building or houses’ roof are extended with appropriate greenhouse
covering material and area is closed properly. Limitation is up to single to double row-plant

26
benches with a total width of 7 to 12 feet. It should face the best direction for sufficient sun
exposure. The advantage of this is that it is not expensive, usually close to available electricity,
water and heat and makes the best use of sunlight and the requirement of the roof supports is
minimized. Disadvantages are it has many limitations, in spaces, in light, in ventilation and
temperature control due to the leaned wall may collect the suns’ heat while the translucent cover
of the greenhouse may lose heat rapidly. The potential height size of this type would rely on the
height of the supporting wall (Lecture No.2, n.d.). Even span type is a standard type and full size
structure. Two roof slopes are equal pitch and width. It is a small type greenhouse and
constructed on level ground. Compare to lean to type, it is attached to a house at one gable end,
could accommodate 2-3 rows of plants benches but it cost higher than lean to because of its size
that provides for more plants and have greater flexibility in design. Also, because of its size and
greater amount of exposed glass area, it could accommodate more heat. Air circulation for
maintaining uniform temperatures during winter heating season is better than lean to type
(Lecture No.2, n.d.). Uneven span type is constructed on hilly terrain, its roofs have unequal
width that make the structure adaptable to the side slopes of hill. Nowadays, it is seldom used by
reason of it is not adaptable for automation. Ridge and Furrow is two or more A-frame
greenhouses connected to one another along the length of the eave that serves as furrow or gutter
to carry rain and melted snow away. Interior spaces consolidation reduced labor, lower the cost
of automation, enhance personal management, and lessen fuel consumption as there is less
exposed wall area through which heat escapes (Lecture No.2, n.d.). Saw tooth type is also similar
to ridge and furrow type although it provides natural ventilation for example natural ventilation
flow path (Lecture No.2, n.d.). Quonset greenhouse is where the pipe purling running along the
length in the greenhouse is supporting the pipe arches or trusses. It is less expensive compare to
the gutter connected greenhouses and useful when the requirement is a small isolated cultural
area, it uses polyethylene for the covering material (Lecture No.2, n.d.).

Construction is mostly influenced by the structural material, though the covering

material also influences the type. Based on construction, greenhouses could be widely
categorized as multi-span, which contain smaller surface area that could result to less heat loss
and significant energy savings and have more tough design that it could suffer less damage
during storms and gale force winds (NSW Government Department of Primary Industries, n.d.).

27
Another is wooden framed, it is used when greenhouses span with less than 6 meters, side pots
and columns are constructed of wood without the use of truss. Pine wood is commonly used as it
is less expensive and possesses toughness (Lecture No.2, n.d.). Crop top is a structure with roof
but do not have walls. The roof may be containing different greenhouse covering material. These
structures provide some modification of the growing environment such as protection from rain or
decreasing of light levels (NSW Government Department of Primary Industries, n.d.). Pipe
framed is used when clear span is around 12 meters. Trusses in this type are not used,
constructions of side posts, columns, cross ties and purlins have used pipes (Lecture No.2, n.d.).
Shaded houses are using materials that allow sunlight, moisture and air to pass through gaps.
Another, the materials used provide a particular environmental modification. The height of the
structure would be based on the type of crops being produced and may be as high as 8 meters.
This structure is used in “outdoor hydroponic system”, particularly in warmer region (NSW
Government Department of Primary Industries, nd). Truss framed structures is constructed when
the span is equal or greater than 15 meters. Flat steel, tubular steel, angular iron is welded
together to form a truss encompassing rafters, chords which supports member under tension and
struts which supports members under compression. In very wide truss frame houses, from 21.3
meters above columns are used. Glass houses uses truss frame type, as its best suited for pre-
fabrication (Lecture No.2, n.d.). Screen houses are used for insect protection that uses screening
material instead of plastic or glass. It is used for protection not only exclusion of pests but also
for severe weather conditions. It could get some benefits of greenhouses in hot or tropical
climate (NSW Government Department of Primary Industries, n.d.).

Another classification of greenhouses is based on the utilities. Artificial cooling and

heating of greenhouses is expensive and big. Greenhouses therefore are classified as green
houses because of its active heating and active cooling system. For active heating, some amount
of heat is supplied to avoid cold bite to plants because of freezing during night times when
temperature inside greenhouse decreases. The rate at which the heat is lost to the outside
environment is where the requirements of greenhouse depend. Heating systems are adopted such
as unit heaters, central heat, radiant heat and solar heating system, using double layer
polyethylene, and thermo pane glasses to reduce the heat losses (Lecture No.2, n.d.). In active
cooling it is used during summer season and consists of evaporative cooling pad with fan or fog

28
cooling for effective crop growth. The design of this is permits a roof opening of 40% and nearly
100% in some cases (Lecture No.2, n.d.).

Greenhouses are also classified based on covering materials which are major and
significant component of the greenhouse structure, the materials have direct impact inside of the
structure and vary air temperature inside. Also, the frames and methods would be based on the
provided covering material (Lecture No.2, n.d.). Glass material is used back in 1950 for
greenhouses. The advantages of using glass as a material are, there is a greater interior light
intensity and greenhouses have lower interior humidity better disease prevention due to the
higher air infiltration rate (Lecture No.2, n.d.). Designs such as lean to, even span, furrow type
are used for construction of glass greenhouses. Flexible plastic films used for covering material
include, polyethylene, polyester and polyvinyl chloride. This type of covering materials became
popular because of its cheapness and cost low heat compared to glass greenhouses, but the
disadvantage is that it could not last long. The suitable designs used for this material are Quonset
and Gutter-connected design (Lecture No.2, n.d.). Rigid panel covering materials employed
polyvinyl chloride rigid panels, fiber glass-reinforced plastic, and acrylic and polycarbonate rigid
panels. The advantages of using it are that it has resistance for breakage, uniform light intensity
throughout the greenhouse compared to glass or plastic, and high graded panels could last long
even up to 20 years. Disadvantages are that it collects dusts “as well as to 5 harbor algae” that
darkened panels which results to the reduction of light transmission, another there is danger in
fire hazard (Lecture No.2, n.d.). Shading nets materials is used to manipulate crop conditions and
give appropriate micro-climate conditions similar to the natural ones on the plants which are
transferred from their natural habitat to modern agriculture. It is made to protect pants from UV
radiation and on different temperature variation, intensive rains and winds. The effects of this to
the plants are it could achieve better growth conditions and produce higher crop yields. Also it is
characterized of high tear resistance and has a light weight for easy and quick installation with a
30-90% shade value range. All nettings are UV stabilized to reach the estimated lifetime at the
area of exposure (Lecture No.2, n.d.).

Greenhouses are technology based investments, the potential of achieving tightly

controlled growing conditions in which crop would grow healthy and productive would depend
on the level of technology applied or used (NSW Government Department of Primary Industries,

29
n.d.). Greenhouses that are using low technology have significant production and environmental
limitations. Usually, those greenhouses that have low technology have a little or no automation
used, they uses low class ventilation, no vertical walls because it is less than 3 meters in total
height , the common structure used are tunnel houses or igloo like houses. This is inexpensive
and easy to erect. It provides basic advantages compare to field production but crop potential is
still limited and management of crops is hard, they does little in eliminating pests and diseases,
the program used to minimized it are chemical sprays. Medium technology greenhouses are
usually using either single or double layered plastic film or glass and have automation that use
varying degrees. It has vertical walls with the more than 2 meters but less than 4 meters with a
total height commonly less than 5.5 meters. Roof may be available or side wall ventilation or
both. It offers compromise between cost and productivity, it is efficient compare to field farming,
and Hydroponic system is present that helps increase the efficiency of the use of water. Compare
to greenhouses that are using low technology, there is great opportunity to use non chemical
management for pests and diseases but disadvantage is that, full potential of greenhouse
horticulture is hard to achieve (NSW Government Department of Primary Industries, n.d.). The
greenhouses that are using high technology offer superior crop performance. Structure usually
has wall height of 4 meters, roof with a peak height of 8 meters above ground level. Covering
materials that are used may be single or double layer plastic film, polycarbonate sheeting or
glass. Automation is present for environmental controls. This could offer big opportunities for
economic and environmental sustainability. Usage of pesticides could be reduced. Even though
installation of high technology is expensive, “highly productive, environmentally sustainable
opportunities for an advanced fresh produce industry” (NSW Government Department of
Primary Industries, n.d.).

For commercial production, greenhouses could be classified as free-standing or gutter

connected. Free standing greenhouses could have structures quonset, gothic or gable roof shape.
It could provide separate environments as each house is controlled by its own cooling or heating
system, the other one could run warm for propagation used and another could run cooler for
growing. It is energy saving because it could be shut down when one is not in used. It is good for
non-level sites and best suited for heavy snow areas as multi-span houses that could melt snow
from the gutters. It is easy to build and maintain (Umass Extension, n.d.). Gutter-connected

30
greenhouses are series of trusses connected together in a gutter level. In these, heat could be
centralized, Land needed is less, 30% of the growing space could be placed on the same land
area, and heating capacity could be as much as less 25% due to reduced glazed area. Its design is
open-roof so that fans are not needed and usage of electricity would be reduced (Bartok, 2005).
According to Umass Extension (n.d.), there are different kinds of production system used inside
greenhouse. Spring ornamental plants usually grown in containers on benches, flowers and
vegetables are grown in the ground, tomatoes are grown in containers or bags of growing media
that are placed on the ground. Bartok (2005) added that some greenhouses have soil or gravel
floors, some have concrete floors, and some have a combination. These different types could
contribute to the best management practices in accordance to the greenhouse system used for
production.

Greenhouses Functions

Duarte-Galvan, Torres-Pacheco, Guevara-Gonzalez, Romero-Troncoso, Contreras-

Medina, Rios-Alcaraz, and Millan-Almaraz (2012) stated that agriculture change due to the
response on the requirements of the society, which demand high quality crops, and building of
greenhouses is the solution. Factor like photosynthesis could be easily controlled through
greenhouses compare on the production outside. It uses artificial light, artificial heating and
additional carbon dioxide that allow the photosynthesis to continue in at an increased rate (BBC,
2014). Photosynthesis is a chemical change which happens on plants (BBC, 2014). According to
Ayuste and Olivia (2017), the plants make food through photosynthesis specifically glucose by
interacting with the carbon dioxide and water, by-product is produced which is essential to Earth,
the oxygen (p.152). Glucose is needed for respiration to release energy. Factors limiting the
photosynthesis reaction are light intensity, temperature and carbon dioxide concentration (BBC,
2014). Greenhouses could offer optimize electric lights for continuous photosynthesis. It could
provide protection damaging winds, rain, snow, and hail. “The greenhouse temperature is often
much closer to optimum for plant growth because greenhouses can be heated or cooled”

31
(Hershey, 2001). Controlling of temperature and relative humidity for achieving appropriate
climate conditions are the main objectives of greenhouses to gain high yield and quality crops
(Duarte-Galvan, et al, 2012). Greenhouses could be hot because of small air exchange for it is
enclosed space and “short wavelength visible light easily passes through the greenhouse glass
but then loses some energy and heats the air or items inside the greenhouse and becomes longer
wavelength infrared waves, or heat” also called as “greenhouse effect” (Hershey, 2001).
Research of Mastalerz (1977) pointed out that Greenhouse effect is the cause of 22% increased
temperature inside greenhouse and remaining 78% is due to the structure is enclosed space.

32
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