ANAPHY REVIEWER

NERVOUS SYSTEM b) Functions

 Master control and communication system of the body  These nerves serve as communication lines among sensory
 Communicates with body cells using electrical impulses which organs, the brain and spinal cord, and glands/muscles
are rapid and specific and cause almost immediate responses  Link all parts of the body by carting impulses from the
sensory receptors to the CNS and from the CNS to the
FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM appropriate glands or muscles
1. Sensory Input
 Gathering information NERVOUS SYSTEM BASED ON FUNCTIONAL
 To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body CLASSIFICATION
 Changes: stimuli 1. Sensory (Afferent) Division
 Sensory organs  Afferent: towards the CNS
 Consists of nerves (composed of many individual nerve fibers)
2. Integration that convey impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors located
 To process and interpret sensory input and decide whether in various parts of the body
action is needed  Keeps the body constantly informed of events going on both
 Occurs in the CNS (brain) inside and outside the body
3. Motor Output  Acts as spy that detects different changes happening in and out
 A response to integrated stimuli the body
 Activates muscles or glands (effectors)
a) Somatic Sensory Fibers
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM  soma = body
 Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the skin,
skeletal muscles, and joints

b) Visceral Sensory Fibers

 Transmitting impulses from the visceral organs

2. Motor (Efferent) Division

 Carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, the muscles
and glands; that is, they effect (bring about or cause) a motor
response
 Output to the integrated NS
 Issue fibers that carry impulses away from the CNS organs
a) Somatic Nervous System
 Allows us to consciously, or voluntarily, control our
skeletal muscles
 Voluntary nervous system
 Not all skeletal muscle activity controlled by this
motor division is voluntary – stretch reflex

b) Autonomic Nervous System

 Regulates events that are automatic, or involuntary,
such as the activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle,
and glands
 Involuntary nervous system which has two parts –
what one stimulates, the other inhibits
NERVOUS SYSTEM BASED ON STRUCTURAL
o Sympathetic
CLASSIFICATION
 vigorous and strenuous acts
1. Central Nervous System
o Parasympathetic
a) Organs
 Inhibit certain stimulus
 Brain and spinal cord

b) Functions
 Integration; command center
NERVE TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
 Interpret incoming sensory information
 Issue instructions based on past experience and current TWO PRINCIPAL TYPES OF CELLS
conditions  Supporting Cells: mainly for support
 Neurons: send electrical impulses
2. Peripheral Nervous System
a) Nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord
SUPPORTING CELLS
 Spinal nerves: carry impulses to and from the spinal cord
 Are lumped or grouped together in the CNS as neuroglia (nerve
 Cranial nerves: carry impulses to and from the brain glue, glial cells / glia)
 General Functions of Neuroglia: support, insulate, and protect
delicate neurons
1. Astrocytes
2. Microglia
3. Ependymal
4. Oligodendrocytes

1. ASTROCYTES
 Abundant star-shaped cells that account nearly half of neural
tissue
 Their numerous projections have swollen ends that cling to The glial cells are said to be mitotic. They divide rapidly, while
neurons, bracing them and anchoring them to their nutrient neurons don’t divide.
supply lines – blood capillaries Consequently, most brain tumors are gliomas – tumors formed by
 Form a living barrier between capillaries and neurons, help neuroglia
determine capillary permeability, and play a role in making
exchanges between the two
 Help protect the neurons from harmful substances that might
be in the blood PNS GLIAL CELLS
 Help control the chemical environment in the brain by “mopping 1. Satellite Cells
up” leaked potassium ions, which are involved in generating a  Protect neuron cell bodies
nerve impulse, and recapturing chemicals released for
communication purposes

2. Schwann Cells
 Form myelin sheaths in the PNS

NERVOUS TISSUE: NEURONS

 Nerve cells
2. MICROGLIA  Highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses) from
 Spiderlike phagocytes that monitor the health of nearby neurons one part of the body to another
and dispose debris, such as dead brain cells and bacteria  Neurons differ structurally from one another, but they have
 Immunity and self-defense many common features
 Have a cell body that contains the nucleus and one or more
slender processes extending from the cell body

MAJOR REGIONS OF NEURONS

1. Cell Body
 Is the metabolic center of the neuron
 Its transparent nucleus contains a large nucleolus
 The cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus contains the usual
organelles, except that it lacks centrioles – amitotic
3. EPENDYMAL  Contains Rough ER or Nissl Bodies and neurofibrils
 Line the central cavities of the brain and the spinal cord  Neurofibirils: intermediate filaments that are important in
 The beating of their cilia helps to circulate the cerebrospinal maintaining cell shape and are abundant in the cell body
fluid that fills those cavities and forms a protective watery
cushion around the CNS 2. Processes
 Armlike processes or fibers, vary in length from microscopic to
about 7ft in the tallest humans
 The longest ones reach from the lumbar region of the spine to
the great toe
a) Dendrites
 Neuron processes that convey incoming messages (electrical
signals) toward the cell body
 Neurons may have hundreds of branching dendrites (dendr
4. OLIGODENDROCYTES = tree), depending on the neuron type
 Wrap their flat extensions (processes) tightly around the nerve
fibers, producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin b) Axons
sheaths  Generate nerve impulses and typically conduct them away
from the cell body
 Exclusive to CNS only
 Each neuron has only one axon, which arises from a
conelike region of the cell body called the axon hillock
  An occasional axon gives off a collateral branch along its 3. Brain Stem
length, but all axons branch profusely at their terminal end, 4. Cerebellum
forming hundreds to thousands of axon terminals
 Axon terminals: contain hundreds of tiny vesicles, or I. CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES (PAIRED)
membranous sacs, that contain chemicals called  Collectively called the cerebrum
neurotransmitters  Most superior part of the brain
 When impulses reach the axon terminals, they stimulate the  Larger than the other three brain regions combined
release of neurotransmitters into the extracellular space  As they develop and grow, they enclose and obscure most of
between neurons, or between a neuron and its target cell. the brain stem (so many brain stem structures cannot be
 Synaptic Cleft: a tiny gap that separates each axon terminal normally seen unless a sagittal region is made)
to the next neuron .  The right and left hemisphere performs higher functions
 Synapse: junction between nerves (interpret, touch, hear, speak) – sense organs for cognitive
 Synapse: where an impulse is transmitted from one neuron to reasoning
another (syn = to clasp or join)  Have three basic regions:
 a superficial cortex of gray matter
3. Myelin sheaths  an internal are of white matter
 Whitish, fatty material covering axons  basal nuclei – islands of matter situated deep within the
 Has waxy appearance white matter (innermost)
 Protects and insulates the fibers and increases the transmission
rate of nerve impulses.  GYRI
a) Axons outside the CNS are myelinated by Schwann  Elevated ridges of tissue exhibited by the entire surface of the
Cells which wrap themselves around axons in a jelly- cerebral hemispheres
roll fashion (nodes of Ranvier: gaps or indentations at  Singular; twisters
regular intervals)
 Neurilemma: outermost part of plasma membrane  SULCI
external to the myelin sheath  Shallow grooves separating gyri
 Neurilemma: important role in fiber regeneration
where peripheral nerve is damaged  LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM
 Other fissures or sulci divide each cerebral hemisphere into
b) Oligodendrocytes
these
 Produce myelin sheaths around axons of the CNS
 Named for the cranial bones that lie over them
NEURON CELL BODY LOCATIONS
 FISSURES
 Most neuron cell bodies are found in the CNS  Deeper grooves which are less numerous
 Nuclei: cluster of cell bodies within the bony skull or vertebral
 Separates the right and left hemisphere - large regions of
column the brain
 Ganglia: small collections of cell bodies outside the CNS;
 Longitudinal Fissure: single deep fissures that separates the
associated with PNS (can be found in a few sites outside the cerebral hemisphere
CNS in the PNS)
 Ganglion: relay station for the ganglia signals
 Interneurons: connect sensory and motor neurons

1. Tracts
 Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron processes) running through the
CNS
2. Nerves
 Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron processes) running through the
PNS
3. White Matter
 Collections of myelinated fibers (tracts)
4. Gray Matter
 Collections of mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Develops from the embryonic neutral tube

 NEURAL TUBE
 Becomes the brain and the spinal cord
 It extends the dorsal median plane
 Its opening becomes the ventricles
 Four chambers within the brain
 Filled with cerebrospinal fluid which is used for  SURFACE LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM
cushioning and lubrication 1. Frontal Lobe
 Recognizing
FOUR MAJOR REGIONS OF THE BRAIN  Motor skills
1. Cerebral Hemispheres  Higher level of recognition
2. Diencephalon  Expressive language
  Damage results to behavioral changes
2. Parietal Lobe
 Tactile sensory information
 Pressure
 Pain
 Touch
 Process information corresponding to pressure and touch
 Damage results to numbness
3. Occipital Lobe
 Visual stimuli and information
 Damage results to blindness and dyslexia
4. Temporal Lobe
 Interpreting sounds and language that we hear
SPECIALIZED AREAS OF THE CEREBRUM
1. Primary Somatic Area
 Located in the parietal lobe posterior to the central sulcus
 Receives, localizes, and interprets impulses traveling from the
body’s sensory receptors (except for the special senses)
 Allows you to recognize pain, coldness (temperature), or light
touch
 Body regions with the most sensory receptors – the lips and
fingertips – send impulses to neurons that make up a large part
of the sensory area
 Left side of the primary somatic sensory area receives impulses
from the right side (vice versa) – Sensory pathways are
crossed-pathways
 SENSORY HOMUNCULUS
 “little man”
 Is a spatial map that has been used to show how much tissue in
the primary somatic area is developed to sensory functions
various
2. Cerebral Area Involved in Special Areas
 Impulses from the special sense organs are interpreted in other
cortical areas
 Visual area is located in the posterior part of the occipital lobe
bordering the lateral sulcus
 Olfactory area us deep inside the temporal lobe
 PRIMARY MOTOR AREA
 Anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal lobe
 Sends impulses to skeletal muscles
 Allows us to consciously move our skeletal muscles
 The axons of these motor neurons form the pyramidal tract
PYRAMIDAL TRACT / CORTICOSPINAL TRACT
 Major voluntary tract formed by the primary motor
area which descends to the cord
 Most of the neurons located here control body areas having the
finest motor control – face, mouth, and hands
 Motor homunculus is the body map on the motor cortex; spatial
map
3.Broca’s Area
 Motor Speech Area
 Specialized cortical area involved in our ability to speak
 Found at the base of the precentral gyrus (anterior to the central
sulcus)
 Base of the primary motor cortex
 Damage to this area, which is only located in one hemisphere
(usually left), causes the inability to say words properly
 OTHER SPECIALIZED AREAS
 Intellectual reasoning and socially acceptable behavior
 Posterior: recognize patterns and faces and blending of
several inputs to understand the whole situation; abstract
reasoning
 Anterior and posterior association area
 Speech area (Wernicke’s): located at the junction of
frontal, parietal, and occipital lobe
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN: CEREBRUM
1. GRAY MATTER
 Outer layer in the cerebral cortex
 Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies
2. WHITE MATTER
 Fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
 Corpus callosum connect hemisphere
 Most of the remaining cerebral hemisphere tissue
 Composed of fiber tracts carrying impulses to, from, or within the
cortex
 CORPUS CALLOSUM
 Very large fiber tract
 Connects the cerebral hemispheres
 Fiber tracts: commissures
 Arches above the structures of the brain stem and allow the
cerebral hemispheres to communicate with one another
 Important because some of the cortical functional
areas are in only one hemisphere
 Association fiber tracts connect areas within
hemisphere
 Protection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum with
lower CNS centers – brain stem
3.BASAL NUCLEI
 Innermost portion
 Several islands of gray matter
 Buried deep within the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres
 Help regulate voluntary activities (skeletal muscles)
 Modify instruction sent into the skeletal muscle by primary motor
cortex
 A tight band of projection fibers called the internal capsule,
passes between the thalamus and the basal nuclei
 Damage: unable to walk/move properly because it mainly affects
skeletal system
 Parkinson’s Disease
 Hereditary
 All ages
 Males are prone
 New degenerative disorder
 Neurons undergo degeneration
 Tremors, stiffness, and slow movement

 Huntington’s Disease
 Both genders are affected
 Younger are more vulnerable
 Primarily affect our brain with a gradual loss in control of
movement and memory, mental ability
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN: DIENCEPHALON
II. DIENCEPHALON
 Interbrain
 Sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral
hemispheres
 Made of three parts (major strucures):
 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus
 Epithalamus
1. THALAMUS
 Encloses the third ventricle the brain
 Relay station for sensory impulses passing upward sensory
cortex
 Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for
localization and interpretation – primary somatic sensory area
 As impulses surge through it, crude recognition of whether the
sensation is pleasant or unpleasant
 Judgement center of the brain because it interprets
2. HYPOTHALAMUS
 Under the thalamus
 Makes up the floor of the diencephalon
 Regulates temperature, water balance, metabolism
 Center for many drives and emotions
 Ex. Thirst, appetite, sex, pain, and pleasure
 Limbic System “emotional-visceral brain”
 Regulates the pituitary gland (an endocrine organ) and
produces two hormones of its own
 Two hormones:
 Thyrotropin
 Corticotropin
 Pituitary Gland: hangs from the anterior floor of the
hypothalamus by a slender stalk
 Mamillary bodies: reflex centers involved in olfaction (the
sense of smell), bulge from the floor of the hypothalamus
posterior to the pituitary gland
 Important autonomic nervous system – involuntary
3. EPITHALAMUS
 Forms the roof of the third ventricle
 Important parts are the pineal gland (endocrine) and choroid
plexus of the third ventricle
 Choroid plexus: knots of capillaries within each of the four
ventricles, form the cerebrospinal fluid
 Ependymal cells possess tiny hairlike structures called cilia
 The layer of ependymal-derived cells surrounding the blood
vessels of the choroid plexus functions mainly to
produce cerebrospinal fluid
 Cilia regulates CSF
 Involved in melatonin secretion
 Melatonin – sleep hormone and produced by pineal gland
 Which type of functional classes of globular proteins ---- to
diencephalon
 Hormones maintain body homeostasis
III. BRAIN STEM
 Is about the size of a thumb in diameter and approximately 3
inches (7.5 cm) long
 Major structures:
 Midbrain
 Pons
 Medulla Oblongata
 Provides a pathway for ascending and descending tracts
 Has many small gray matter areas
 Produce the rigidly programmed autonomic behaviors necessary
for survival.
 Some are associated with the cranial nerves and control vital
activities such as breathing and blood pressure
1. MIDBRAIN
 A relatively small part of the brain stem
 Extends from thee mammillary bodies to the pons inferiorly
 Cerebral Aqueduct: tiny canal that travels through the
midbrain, connects the third ventricle of the diencephalon
to the fourth ventricle
 Forms a canal between the ventricles located in
third and fourth ventricles where cerebrospinal fluid
will be located
 Cerebral Peduncles: two bulging fiber tracts located in the
midbrain, anteriorly that convey ascending and descending
impulses
 Little feet of the cerebrum
 Cerebral Quadrigemina: four rounded protrusions that are
dorsally located.
 They reminded some anatomist of two pairs of twins
(gemini).
 These bulging nuclei are reflecx centers involves with
vision and hearing.
 Pupillary and auditory reflex
 Smallest muscle that can be found in human body
responsible for auditory reflex – stapes / stapedius muscle
2. PONS
 Is the rounded structure that protrudes just below the
midbrain
 Means “bridge” and this area of the brain stem is mostly
fiber tracts (bundle of nerve fibers in the CNS).
 However, it does have important nuclei involved in the
control of breathing.
3. MEDULLA OBLONGATA
 Most inferior part of the brain stem
 Below the brain
 Merges into the spinal cord below without any obvious
change in structure
 Like the pons, it is an important fiber tract area.
 Area where the pyramidal tracts (motor fibers) cross over to
the opposite side
 Also contains many nuclei that regulate vistal visceral
activities
 Contains centers that control heart rate, blood pressure,
breathing, swallowing, and vomiting, among others.
 Fourth Ventricle lies posterior to the pons and medulla and
anterior to the cerebellum
RETICULAR FORMATION
 Extends to the entire length of the brain stem
 Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem
 Its neurons are involved in motor control of the visceral
organs
 Controlling smooth muscle in the digestive tract
 RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (RAS)
 Plays a role in consciousness and the awake/sleep cycle
 Acts as a filter for the flood of sensory inputs that streams
up the spinal cord and brain stem daily
 Filters weak or repetitive signals, but unusual or strong
impulses do reach consciousness.
 Damage to this area can result in prolonged
unconsciousness or coma
RADIATIONS TO CEREBRAL CORTEX
 Wakes up consciousness
 Will produce motor – efferent output
 Descending motor projections to spinal cord
 Ascending sensory tracts – touch, pain,
temperature
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN: CEREBELLUM
 Large, cauliflower-like
 Projects dorsally from under the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum
 Has two hemispheres and a convoluted surface
 Also has an outer cortex made up of gray matter and an
inner region of white matter
 Difference to cerebrum, it does not have basal nuclei
 Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and
controls our balance
 Because of its activity, body movements are smooth and
coordinated
 It plays its role less well when it is sedated by alcohol
 Fibers reach the cerebellum from the equilibrium apparatus
of the inner ear, the eye, the proprioceptors of the skeletal
muscles and tendons, and many other areas
 Automatic pilot – constantly compares the brain’s
“intentions” with actual body performance by monitoring
body position and the amount of tension in various body
parts
 Sends messages to initiate proper measures
 If damaged, movements become clumsy and disorganized –
ataxia
PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Nervous tissue is soft and delicate
 Irreplaceable neurons are easily subjected to injury
even if subjected to light pressure
 Neuron: amitotic
 Cell structure: lack centrioles
I. MENINGES
 Three connective tissue membranes covering and protecting the
CNS structures
1. DURA MATTER
 Tough or hard mother
 A double layered membrane where it surrounds the brain
 One of its layers is attached to the inner surface of the
skull, forming the periosteum (periosteal layer)
 The other called meningeal layer, forms the outermost
covering layer of the brain and continues as the dura
matter of the spinal cord
 The dural layers are fused together except in three areas
where they separate to enclose dural venous sinuses that
collect venous blood – superior sagittal sinus
 In several places, the inner dural membrane extends inward
to form a fold that attaches the brain to the cranial cavity
 Falx Cerebri
 Tentorium Cerebelli
 Separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum
2. ARACHNOID LAYER
 Middle meningeal layer, weblike
 Arachnida means “spider”, and some think the arachnid
membrane looks like a cobweb
 Its threadlike extensions span the subarachnoid space to attach
it to the innermost membrane – pia matter
 The subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
 The CSF is absorbed into the venous blood in the dural
sinuses through the arachnoid granulations
 Will reabsorb cerebrospinal fluid
 Defect absorption of cerebrospinal fluid will possibly
accumulate and exert pressure to the brain which can lead to
hydrocephalus
 ARACHNOID GRANULATIONS
 Specialized projections of the arachnoid membrane
 Protrude through the dura matter
3. PIA MATTER
 “gentle mother”
 Innermost membrane
 Clings tightly to the surface of the brain and spinal cord
 MENINGITIS
 An inflammation of the meninges
 Serious threat to the brain because bacterial or viral meningitis
may spread into the nervous tissue of the CNS
 Encephalitis: brain inflammation
 Usually diagnosed by taking a sample of CSF from the
subarachnoid space surrounding the spinal cord
II. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
 A watery “broth” with components similar to blood plasma,
from which it forms
 It contains less protein and more Vitamin C, and its ion
composition is different
 Formed by the choroid plexuses
 Choroid Plexuses: clusters of capillaries hanging from
the “roof” in each of the brain’s ventricles, or enlarged
chambers
 Forms a water cushion that protects the fragile nervous tissue
from blows and other trauma
 Helps the brain “float” so it is not damaged by the pressure of
its own weight
 It is continually moving inside the brain
 Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of
the spinal cord
 It circulates from the two lateral ventricles (in the cerebral
hemispheres) into the third ventricle (in the diencephalon) and
then through the cerebral aqueduct of the midbrain into the
fourth ventricle dorsal to the pons and medulla oblongata
 Some of the fluid reaching the fourth ventricle simply continues
down into the spinal cord, but most of it circulates into the
subarachnoid space through three openings, the paired lateral
apertures and the median aperture (aper = open), in the walls of
the fourth ventricle
 The CSF returns to the blood in the dural venous sinuses
through the arachnoid granulations – CSF is continually
replaced
 HYDROCEPHALUS
 CSF begins to accumulate and exert pressure on the brain
 “water on the brain”
 Possible in an infant because the skull bones have not yet fused
 Causes the head to enlarge as the brain increases in size
  In adults, this situation results to brain damage
 Because the skull is hard, and the accumulating fluid
creates pressure that crushes soft nervous tissue and could
restrict blood flow into the brain
 Infants’ bones aren’t fully developed so they have the greater
tendency to survive than adults
 Today, it is treated surgically by inserting a shunt (a plastic
tube) to drain the excess fluid into a vein in the neck or
abdomen
III. BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
 Separates neurons from bloodborne substances
 Composed of the least permeable capillaries in the whole body
 These capillaries are almost seamlessly bound together by
tight junctions all around
 Of water-soluble substances, only water, glucose, and
essential amino acids pass easily through the walls of these
capillaries
 Metabolic wastes, such as urea, toxins, proteins, and most
drugs, are prevented from entering the brain tissue because
they normalizes the voltage of cells
 Excludes many potentially harmful substances
 Useless as a barrier against some substances that diffuse
easily through plasma membrane
 Fats and fat-soluble molecules
 Respiratory gases
… that explains why these can affect the brain:
 Alcohol
 Nicotine
 Anesthesia
 Na ions can’t enter
 Alters the permeability of neurons
 No influx of ions, no action potential
 Non-essential amino acids and potassium ions not only ae
prevented from entering the brain, but also are actively pumped
from the brain into the blood across the capillary walls.
 Although the bulbous “feet” of the astrocytes that cling to the
capillaries may contribute to the barrier, the relative
impermeability of the brain capillaries is most responsible for
providing this protection
 Composed of tight junctions to prevent leakage
 Cerebral edema
CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENTS
 Strokes
 Fifth leading cause of death in the US
 Occur when blood circulation to a brain area is blocked, as by a
blood clot or a ruptured blood vessel, and vital brain tissue dies
 After a CVA, it is often possible to determine the area of brain
damage by observing the patient’s symptoms
 If the patient has left-sided paralysis (hemiplegia = one-
sided paralysis), the right motor cortex of the frontal lobe
is most likely involved
 Aphasias are a common result of damage to the left
cerebral hemisphere, where the language areas are located
 Motor Aphasia is the most common, which involves
damage to Broca’s area abd a iss if ability to speak
 Sensory Aphasia, in which a person loses the ability
to understand written or spoken language
 Brain lesions can also cause marked changes in a person’s
disposition
 A change from a sunny to foul personality
 TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK (TIA)
 Temporary brain ischemia
 Restricted blood flow
 Last from 5 to 15 minutes and are characterized by
Numbness
Temporary paralysis
Impaired speech
 Although these defects are not permanent, they do constitute
“red flags” that warn of impending, more serious CVAs
CEREBRAL CORTEX
 Functions: Speech, memory, logical and emotional responses,
consciousness, the interpretation of sensation, and voluntary
movements

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES

1. CONCUSSION
 Occurs when the brain injury is slight
 The victim may be dizzy, “see stars,” or lose consciousness
briefly, but typically little permanent brain damage occurs
 No permanent brain damage

2. CONTUSION
 Result of marked tissue destruction
 If the cerebral cortex is injured, the individual may remain
conscious, but severe brain stem contusions always result in a
coma lasting from hours to a lifetime due to injury to the reticular
activating system
 Nervous tissue destruction occurs
 Nervous tissue does not regenerate

3. CEREBRAL EDEMA
 Swelling of the brain due to inflammatory response to injury
 May compress and kill brain tissue
 Individuals who are initially alert and lucid following head
trauma and then begin to deteriorate neurologically are most
likely hemorrhaging or suffering the delayed consequences of
edema, both of which compress vital brain tissue
 After head blow, death may result from:
 Intracranial hemorrhage (bleeding from ruptured vessels)